Early childhood education programs play a critical role in developing children's language and literacy skills. The document outlines several policy recommendations to strengthen early literacy, including enrolling all children in early childhood education programs with strong literacy components, using evidence-based curricula integrated across domains, involving families, and assessing children's progress in multiple ways. It emphasizes the importance of oral language development, enriching children's background knowledge through exposure, aligning programs with standards, using appropriate curricula focusing on oral language, alphabetic codes, and comprehension, and applying evidence-based practices. It stresses the roles of accountability, assessment, and well-trained teachers in promoting children's holistic development.

1. 21 Pros and Cons of Zoos
June 4, 2017 by
Louise Gaille
Zoos go by several different official names. They can be called
“animal parks,” “menageries,” or “zoological gardens.” Despite
the different names, each offers visitors the chance to view
animals that are confined in an enclosure. Many zoos have
breeding programs in place to help eliminate genetic
bottlenecks, especially when dealing with an endangered
species.
Zoos have been part of our human history from the very
beginning when early humans began documenting what
happened to them. One of the oldest known zoos was discovered
in Egypt in 2009 and was believed to have existed in 3,500 BC.
Evidence of elephants, wildcats, baboons, and hippopotami were
discovered at the location.
The benefit of having a local zoo is that it gives people an
opportunity to learn more about the animals and nature. It is a
way to engage children in science, bring families together, and
help save certain animal species that are close to extinction.
As for the disadvantages of a zoo, the facilities that are offered
can be abused for personal or political gain. One of the earliest
zoos in the Western Hemisphere didn’t feature animals. It
featured people that had different physical traits, such as having
dwarfism or albinism. Even the Catholic Church has a zoo
which feature a collection of people from different races and
tribes as late as the 16th century.
Ota Benga was part of a human exhibit at zoos in the United
States as late as 1906, in St. Louis and the Bronx Zoo.
The pros and cons of zoos are important to consider from a
modern standpoint. Our views about zoos may have changed,
but is it still ethical to support animal captivity?
What Are the Pros of Having Zoos?
1. Zoos provide an educational resource.The modern zoo plays a

2. critical role in education children and families about the
different animals with whom we share this planet. Staff from a
zoo will travel to local schools to make presentations, offer
special programs on the zoo grounds, and partner with
community providers to extend educational opportunities to
everyone. No matter what a person’s socioeconomic status may
be, there is a chance to learn something new because of the
work of a zoo.
2. A zoo provides a protected environment for endangered
animals.There are several animals which are poached frequently
because of certain items. Having a zoo provides these animals
with a safer place to live because they are behind multiple
levels of protection. Although poachers have been able to break
into zoos to take animals in the past, this is not a frequent
occurrence and is normally not successful when it does occur.
3. Zoos can provide a place for the humane treatment of rare
animals.One of the best examples of this is the Przewalski
horse. In 1945, there were 13 horses that were captured from the
wild and placed into a zoo. The last Przewalski horse was seen
in the wild in 1966. Because of extensive breeding programs
and an effort to reintroduce these horses into protected habitats
in the wild, this unique species can continue to survive. It is a
unique breed in the equine world because it has 66
chromosomes instead of 64. More than 1,500 of these horses
exist today and all can trace their lineage back to the 13 that
were captured at the end of World War II.
4. Zoos can also be an economic resource for a community.Zoos
do more than just provide a place for animals to reside. They
are a place that provides jobs, creates tourism opportunities, and
can even be an economic nexus for a community. The Woodland
Park Zoo in Seattle has an annual budget that exceeds $36
million and they pay $17 million in wages annually. Another
$5.2 million is paid in outside vendor contracts. The zoo was
established in 1898 and 70% of its revenues come from zoo
visits and private contributions.
5. Zookeepers are trained with specialized knowledge about

3. their animals.In the past, zoos were a place where animals were
kept behind steel bars. Those who oversaw these animals had a
general knowledge of upkeep, but not much more. Today’s
zookeepers are highly trained and educated people who have
specialized knowledge of the animals that are under their
charge. This has reduced accidents and attacks, especially when
handlers follow established policies and procedures to maintain
safety.
6. Zoos offer animal activities to maintain natural instincts and
movements.Animals that were kept in zoos in previous
generations were given an enclosure, maybe a toy or two, and
that was considered “cutting edge.” The modern zoo is hyper-
aware of the dietary and physical requirements that animals
need to maintain proper health. Activities are arranged for the
animals to help keep them mentally alert. This doesn’t fully
replace hunting or migration, but it does eliminate the boredom,
deterioration, and eventual degradation of the animal at the zoo.
7. Most zoos are required to go through an accreditation process
of some sort.One of the most common arguments against the
existence of zoos is that they are not carefully supervised. In
the past, this was a valid observation. Zoos in the developed
world must go through an accreditation process to maintain
operations. Inspections that include habitat cleanliness, humane
practices, and proper care occur regularly. If a zoo is unable to
meet those standards, they can potentially lose their
accreditation and their animals will be transferred to a zoo that
does meet them.
8. Preservation efforts at zoos can stop extinction events.Zoos
around the world work together to preserve rare and extremely
endangered species. These connections make it possible to bring
a pair of these animals together to begin the mating process so
that the species can continue living. If these rare animals were
forced to find each other in the wild, the result could be very
different. Animals that have been saved from likely extinction
by zoos include the Arabian Oryx, Golden Lion Tamarin, Puerto
Rican Parrot, and Freshwater mussels.

4. 9. Veterinary care is readily available at most zoos.Many zoos
have what is referred to as a “treatment room.” This is a place
where any animal can be brought in for an examination so that
its good health can be maintained. Veterinarians are no longer
working on their own in these facilities either. Treatment teams
include pathologists, technicians, zookeepers, and other
specialists who can create and maintain virtually any care plan.
Screenings, quarantine procedures, parasite removal, and other
common treatments are part of the standard care process now as
well.
10. Zoos are working with universities to develop in-depth
degree programs.The Smithsonian National Zoo is one of many
that have worked with local colleges and universities to create
thorough degree programs at graduate and doctorate levels. The
National Zoo has a training program for fourth-year veterinary
students and offers a 3-year residency program for another
school so that veterinarians can train to become zoological
medicine specialists.
What Are the Cons of Having Zoos?
1. Holding any animal in captivity has questionable ethics.There
may be educational value in a zoo, but keeping animals in
captivity offers an ethical dilemma. Some animals, like the
average house cat, will thrive in a captive environment. Others,
like orcas, do very poorly when living in captivity. An orca in
the wild may live up to 100 years in the wild, but the average
age at a captive orca is less than 30 years – and it’s 17 years for
a male orca.
2. Breeding programs create dependencies.Wild animals
struggle to adapt to a confined environment, but many can make
the transition – even if it is forced upon them. The same cannot
always be said for the newborns that become part of local zoo
breeding programs. If the animal is part of a predator species,
most newborns that are born in captivity will die if they are
released because of the dependencies they have on the captivity.

5. 3. Most zoos are treated as a recreational facility.Since the 19th
century, in both good and bad ways, most zoos were established
to further a scientific understanding about the nature which
surrounds us. That has changed over the years to the point
where many see a zoo as nothing more than a recreational
facility. Established zoos cater to this attitude and justify it
because they need to have funds to further the research or
preservation efforts that are taking place.
4. The lives of animals are secondary to the lives of
people.Because zoos are treated more as a recreational facility,
visitors do not always have respect for the boundaries and
borders that keep them safe from potentially dangerous animals.
If visitors intrude into the animal enclosure, it is usually the life
of the animal that is put at risk. An example of this occurred in
2016 when a 3-year old boy was left unsupervised long enough
to crawl into a gorilla enclosure. To save the boy, the zoo killed
the male gorilla named Harambe.
5. Even if captivity extends a lifetime, it can change animal
behavior.Elephants are often the focus of this key point because
of their size compared to their enclosure. Elephants are also
migratory animals, so restricting this instinct can cause them to
become more aggressive. More than 75 elephants have been
euthanized at zoos before reaching the age of 40 when their
lifespan is estimated to be 70 years in the wild. Predatory
animals become more aggressive as well when restricted, which
puts zookeepers and visitors at an increased risk.
6. Many zoos are struggling financially and can no longer care
for their animals properly.The Woodland Park Zoo in Seattle is
thought to be one of the best in the US. In 2015, their expenses
were $2 million more than their incoming revenues. Their status
as a 501c3 organization, however, can help to provide a buffer
on years where losses like that occur. Other zoos do not have
that luxury. Many zoos euthanize healthy animals because of
their cost or to “preserve” genetic health. In Agate, CO a
wildlife sanctuary euthanized all 11 of their animals because of
a denial to relocate their facilities due to “ongoing flooding.”

6. 7. Conservation is a goal that isn’t always sought.Most zoos
have a goal of conservation when it comes to animal species.
There are certainly success stories, such as the Przewalski
horse. Unfortunately, this goal tends to be more of a marketing
technique than an actual mission statement. It is quite common
to have offspring created at a zoo to be moved to another zoo,
sold to raise money, or in the case of the Giant Panda, used as a
financial resource for an entire country.
8. Even natural habitat enclosures do not fully serve the needs
of all animals.The goal of many modern zoos is to replicate the
natural environments of the animal for their enclosure. For
some animals, such as the elephant, this is virtually impossible
within the confines of a zoo. A herd (or memory) of elephants is
known to travel between 30-50 kilometers every day. In the
wild, you’ll find them grouping into herds of 40+ individuals.
That is a habitat which a small zoo cannot replicate.
9. Zoos can set an improper standard for future
generations.Children learn from the adults in their lives. When
they go to a zoo, what they are seeing is that it is okay for
people to put animals into enclosures for entertainment
purposes. For a zoo experience to be beneficial, there must be
an effort to take all visitors through the scientific and
preservation components of a zoological program.
Unfortunately, most zoo visitors go to look at the animals and
nothing more, which shows imprisonment can be entertainment
– and that may transfer to their views about humanity.
10. Breeding programs are not a guarantee for species
survival.The Giant Panda is an example of how difficult
breeding programs in captivity can be. Up through the 1990s,
just 30% of the Giant Pandas in captivity could successfully
reproduce. When the cubs were born, more than 60% of them
would die while still in infancy. Survival percentages have risen
to over 70% since then, but this is because of artificial
insemination and husbandry efforts that essentially force the
newborn cub to be reliant on humans for potentially its entire
life.

7. 11. Animals in captivity can develop severe health problems,
even with a high-quality treatment plan.The Alaska Zoo was
struggling to care for Maggie the Elephant. Because of the local
weather conditions, she would often be forced to stay inside a
very small enclosure. Her treatment team brought in a treadmill
that could help her get the exercise she needed, but she refused.
Without the proper amount of activity, her feet began to degrade
to the point where it became difficult for her to walk.
A zoo can be an integral part of our community and world with
the right approach. Each key point deserves consideration so
that a personal decision regarding zoos can be reached. That
way they can be more than entertainment.
The pros and cons of zoos often come from two very different
points of view. From a legal standard, animals are often treated
as property. That means they have little in the way of rights, so
a zoo seems like a positive place to maintain a high quality of
life. For others, the forced enclosure of any animal feels like an
unethical decision. Wild animals, it is said, are meant to be
wild.
image.png
Advocacy
Action Plan
“Exploring Language and Literacy
Development in Early Childhood
Education “
Angel Winslow
EDSD 7085: Inspired Leadership, Informed
Advocacy, and Improved Policy

8. Module 4 Assignment 1
Date Due: November 4, 2022
Introduction
are cardinal areas in early childhood
development
children with communication skills
its account
shapes children with reading and
comprehension skills
the importance of language and
literacy development in shaping up
the child
development is multifaceted and
encompasses several areas
Policy Recommendations
All children should be enrolled in ECE programs with
strong literacy programsCurricula used in ECE should be

9. evidence-based and
integrated with other learning domains
Assessment and evaluation of early literacy should be
administered in multiple forms
Early childhood programs should involve parents and
families in their programs
Students should be offered adequate support to grasp
new skills and schemas
Strong
Oral
Support
Oral language is
an important step
in language
development, and
children need to
be supported to
acquire strong oral
development
It assists children
with the
understanding of
the concept of

10. communication
Parents need to
offer children rich
literary and
language support
to equip them with
reading skills
Children should be
guided and
exposed to new
vocabularies as
this plays a
significant role in
their language and
vocabulary
mastery and
acquisition
Exposure
ith the world has a
great impact on children’s
learning ability
background knowledge of the
real world allows them to

11. understand their surrounding
their surrounding with what they
read in the books.it is for this
matter that exposure makes
learning practical
of their surroundings are likely to
have poor comprehension skills
Aligning
Development
Plans with
Standards
velopment
programs should be aligned with early
childhood education programs
credibility and effectiveness of the
quality of developmental support
offered to students
NAEYC helps in ensuring that the
program are accredited and
authorized to conduct early education
program

12. designed in a way that promote and
support effective learner development
Focusing on Appropriate
Curriculum
Curriculum is the blueprint in the educational dispensation
of information to learners
Establishing a strong start for early literacy has been
identified as a critical element in enhancing effective
language and literacy development
To achieve this objective, the curriculum must support
and address the growth of a child in totality
Caution must be taken on curriculum that is focusing on a
narrow aspect of literacy or language development as it
may fail to fully equip the learner
Components of An
Appropriate Curriculum
Literacy appropriate curriculum has
the following components:
• Oral language: should be developed
simultaneously with literacy skills
• Alphabetic Code: adequate mastery of
phonology and pronunciation of the
alphabets

13. • Point Knowledge and Use: creating
awareness of the environment and the
information to help learners make sense of
what information they learn
Evidence-Based Practice
and Early Literacy
researches
based on the pieces of evidence researched on
by previous scholars
followed should align with the world education
system
acy
development should not therefore be
implemented haphazardly without following a
well laid down an approved point of reference
Accountability &
Assessment
academic development in a
child

14. important
component of any educational
program including early
childhood education programs
encompass a diverse area of
developmental areas in
learning
should incorporate both
summative and formative
assessment approaches
Teachers
Development
Teachers are the primary leaders in the
educational dispensation of children
The quality of development in children I
determined by the quality of knowledge
administered to them by teachers.
High-quality learning environment
therefore require proficient teachers with
adequate knowledge and
understanding
Teacher education and development
support is critical in ensuring steady
development in learners.

15. Engaging Families
ive learner development is three-
thronged and involves the learner, the
teachers and parents
early literacy in children is directly
correlated to supportive parental
involvement
eracy
development in early education sector
relies on parents a great deal
relationship with parents to support
learners even outside the classroom
setup
parents on daily learner development
and make regular home visits
Conclusion/Summary
start quite early and relates to school
achievement of the learners
development requires a sound policy, supportive

16. curriculum, and well-prepared teachers
be strengthened to support children in their
language and literacy development
also help in identifying gaps that need to be filled
References
involvement through
culturally relevant pedagogy. SRATE Journal, Vol. 25(2), 33-38
debate. U.S.
News
https://www.usnews.com/opinion/knowledge-
bank/articles/2018-01-12/make-hi
gher-
education-more-accessible-to-early-childhood-teachers
accreditation on quality and
excellence of higher education institutions. Revista
Investigacion Operacional,
41(2), 151-167.
(NAEYC). (n.d.). Early
childhood curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation:
Building an
effective, accountable system in programs for children birth
through age 8. 1-30,

17. Retrieved from
https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/family-
engagement/principles
is rooted in culture. In
Revisiting and updating the multicultural principles for head
start programs for
head start programs serving children ages birth to five (pp. 11–
19). Washington,
DC: Author. Retrieved from
https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/principle-01-
english.pdf
https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/principle-01-
english.pdf
https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/family-
engagement/principles
https://www.usnews.com/opinion/knowledge-
bank/articles/2018-01-12/make-higher-
https://www.usnews.com/opinion/knowledge-
bank/articles/2018-01-12/make-higher-Advocacy Action
PlanIntroductionPolicy RecommendationsStrong Oral
SupportExposureAligning Development Plans with
StandardsFocusing on Appropriate CurriculumComponents of
An Appropriate CurriculumEvidence-Based Practice and Early
LiteracyAccountability & AssessmentTeachers
DevelopmentEngaging FamiliesConclusion/SummaryReferences
8085 Assignment 2: Advocacy Action Plan/LOP
In Week 3 of this course, you submitted to your Instructor your
advocacy action plan topic and your rationale for your
selection. You will now develop your approved topic into an
Advocacy Action Plan.

18. Your Learning Outcomes Project: Advocacy Action Plan is
due Day 1 of Week 11. During Weeks 7–10, you will develop
different parts of your plan and gather feedback from your
colleagues via Discussion.
Advocacy Topic :
“Exploring Language and Literacy Development in Early
Childhood Education”
Advocacy Topic Overview and Rationale: Create a
PowerPoint/Paper)
Effective advocacy requires communicating your advocacy topic
and providing a compelling rationale, based on current data and
research, for why the topic you have selected is an important
topic within the field of early childhood education. To develop
your plan, be sure to include responses to each of the following:
· What is the issue/problem/topic? Include a description as well
as how organizations currently advocate for this topic.
(Advocacy Topic : “Exploring Language and Literacy
Development in Early Childhood Education”)
· What regulations and policies are associated with the selected
topic?
· What ethical factors shape your understanding of this
advocacy topic?
· What policies exist that inform your advocacy topic? How are
they written? What are the processes for changing policy?
· What stakeholders influenced and are influenced by your
selected topic?
· What organizations are connected to advocacy efforts
supporting your topic? For these organizations, describe the
following:
· What are the current funding sources and what are potential
funding sources?

19. · How does data inform current actions?
· Who are the target audiences?
· What advocacy messages are being delivered, and to whom?
· What kinds of resources, including money, are necessary to
put something into place?
· In terms of advocacy goals, what overall goals would be
reasonable in 6 months, 2 years, and 5 years (across range goals
and interim steps)?
· How will success of the advocacy efforts in terms of equity,
ethics, and social justice be monitored and evaluated?
Jada Soto
202310-SPC-1608-11117
10/31/2022
Research Assignment
Carpenter,Betsy., et al. “Upsetting the arc” U.S. News & World
Report, Vol. 113, issue 8, July.1992, pp. 57. EBSCOhost.
This article discusses the pressure facing zoos today. It includes
the pros and cons of zoos currently from both sides, while
adding information on certain zoo’s standards.
Laule,Gail., et al. “Positive reinforcement training and
environmental enrichment: enhancing animal well-being”
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol.
223, issue 7, October.2003, pp.969-973. EBSCOhost,
doi:10.2460/javma.2003.223.969
This article discusses the positive reinforcement training of
animals in zoos, but also adds counter information on the cons
of keeping animals in captive. The article is unbiased by going
back in forth from pros to cons.
Learmonth,Mark James. et al. “Dilemmas for Natural Living
Concepts of Zoo Animal Welfare” Vol. 9, issue 6, June.2019,

20. pp.318. EBSCOhost, doi:10.3390/ani9060318
This article discusses the issues with animal welfare currently
in zoos, but also discusses the pros in the ethical behaviors
found in zoos. It will benefit my presentation by giving me
further information on how zoos have both benefits to animals
and non benefits that I can present to my fellow classmates. For
example the discussion of the benefit of animals having human
contact.
Gaille, Louise. “21 Pros and Cons of Zoos.” Vittana.org, 16
Dec. 2019, https://vittana.org/21-pros-and-cons-of-zoos.
This article discusses the pros and cons of zoos, while also
providing a background of what zoos are in history including
names of some zoos and exhibits. This will help my
presentation by giving direct information using numerical bullet
points in subtitles of the exact reasons why zooms are both good
and bad.
Upsetting the Ark
Zoos are under increasing pressure today to justify their
existence
Pawtucket, R.I., is in a jam. Until recently, the blue-collar
town's main claim to fame was a feisty, minor-league ball club.
But now it is becoming notorious as the home of a zoo that has
been widely assailed as obsolete and inhumane. At first glance,
Slater Park Zoo looks well kept, the animals healthy. But a look
behind the scenes reveals that none of the 53-year-old zoo's 70
animals is part of a carefully managed breeding program to
conserve the species. Moreover, there are almost no educational
materials -- not even cursory tags identifying the animals -- to
teach visitors about the fragile condition of the world's wildlife.
But turning Slater Park into a modern zoo -- a conservatory and
classroom -- will require money the town doesn't have. ``We are
at a crossroads; either we improve or shut down,'' says Director
William Mulholland.

21. Slater Park Zoo's troubles reflect a widening controversy over
the role of modern zoos. While at one time a zoo's mission was
pure entertainment, in the past two decades many zoo keepers
have argued that zoos have a new role to play as conservation
centers. More people visit America's zoos each year than attend
professional football, basketball and baseball games combined
and, by all accounts, many of these zoos have the potential to
both preserve endangered species and educate people about the
effort.
Hard times. But charting a new course, especially during
recessionary times, has proved difficult. Even some of the big
zoos have fallen on hard times. The august London Zoo, for
instance, is on the verge of closing, plagued by a $3.9 million
deficit, plummeting attendance and critics who argue that the
money could be better used protecting animals in their natural
habitat. Says one zoo educator, ``We all have doubts as to
whether zoos should exist.''
Early zoo keepers experienced no such existential crisis. The
zoos of the 19th century were often created and maintained to
flaunt an imperialist nation's dominion over remote, exotic
lands, and zoos competed among themselves, often at the
expense of beleaguered animal populations. In her book, ``The
Animal Estate,'' Harriet Ritvo describes how the London Zoo
hurriedly acquired giant pandas in the 1890s simply because
European zoos were displaying the unfamiliar beasts. Moreover,
zoo animals were mistreated by modern standards and died like
flies, so their ranks had to be replenished constantly with
animals from the wild. In the 1920s, for instance, William
Mann, superintendent of the National Zoo in Washington, D.C.,
spent six months in East Africa, returning with more than 1,000
animals, including elephant shrews, giraffes and a leopard.
But as animal life has become increasingly threatened in the
wild and the animal-rights movement has grown in numbers and
clout, zoos have deliberately lessened their pressure on wild
populations. Fully four fifths of the mammals currently residing

22. in zoos were born in captivity, according to Nate Flesness,
executive director of the International Species Information
System (ISIS), a Minnesota-based register of captive animals.
Moreover, the zoos' record is getting better all the time. Over
90 percent of the mammals added last year were bred in
captivity.
Old habits. But zoos haven't shed their old consumptive habits
entirely. Their record on reptiles, for instance, is still pretty
shoddy. More than half of the reptiles living in zoos were
snatched from the wild, and fully one third of those put behind
glass for the first time last year were trapped rather than bred.
Some dubious practices result from putting profit before
preservation, critics maintain. The Columbus Zoo in Columbus,
Ohio, for example, is renting giant pandas from China this
summer, as part of the city's celebration of Columbus's voyage
of discovery. But according to the World Wildlife Fund's Rich
Block, these endangered animals ought to be left in the wild, or
at the least placed in breeding programs in China, rather than
being shipped to an American zoo. Columbus Zoo officials
maintain that their purpose is to educate people about
conservation. But critics suggest that the real motive is to draw
tourist dollars to the city, since pandas attract zoo visitors in
droves. The American Association of Zoological Parks and
Aquariums has suspended the Columbus Zoo for violating its
standards on importing endangered animals.
Many zoos have eased into their new role as conservator with
captive breeding programs. Indeed, some species owe their
existence in large part to zoos. The Siberian tiger, Eld's deer
and several lemur species, for instance, have been bred so
successfully in zoos that these species now have a reasonable
chance of survival. Zoos have also played a vital role in the
reintroduction of several species to the wild. Three decades ago,
for instance, the Arabian oryx, a creamy-white, pony-size
creature with sweeping horns, teetered on the brink of oblivion.
A small herd was brought from the Middle East to the Phoenix

23. and San Diego zoos, among others. Today a wild population of
more than 100 is flourishing in the Oman desert. Zoo-reared
California condors, Bali mynahs and golden lion tamarins are
also being introduced to protected reserves.
But though the successes of captive breeding in zoos are real,
they are oversold, says David Hancocks of the Arizona-Sonora
Desert Museum near Tucson. He argues that though the AAZPA
includes 159 member institutions with annual operating
expenses of more than $1 billion and a work force of some
16,000, the organization has established tightly managed
``species survival plans'' for only 64 species. Although there are
loosely managed programs for dozens more species, all told,
American zoos house some 4,000 species. The conservation
record is worse in the 200 or so smaller zoos that, like the
Slater Park facility, don't meet AAZPA standards. ``[People]
think that they don't have to worry about animal extinctions
because zoos are saving them,'' says Hancocks. ``But that's
hogwash.''
Furthermore, not all captive breeding aids conservation. Many
births at zoos are not planned but are simply the result of
animals' being housed together. Under such circumstances, new
arrivals often are genetically weakened and inbred. Also, zoos
frequently can't accommodate burgeoning family groups, so
some animals have to be discarded. The lucky or well-born find
homes at accredited zoos, but many are put to death or sold to
game ranches, roadside menageries, amusement parks or
circuses.
Desperately seeking. Though the AAZPA will not release
information on the number of surplus animals, U.S. News has
obtained a recent issue of the organization's guarded listing of
zoos' excess stock. In June 1992 alone, the ``Animal Exchange''
advertised 1,973 animals. Granted, not all surplus animals stem
from indiscriminate matings; occasionally animals are cast off
when a zoo changes its mission, and even legitimate breeding
programs sometimes produce a ``surplus'' animal -- a male when
a female is needed, for example. Still, the AAZPA listing

24. represents just the tip of the iceberg, contends John Grandy of
the Humane Society of the United States. Better zoos often
trade animals without advertising them, he says, and the list
doesn't include surplus stock of non-AAZPA-accredited zoos.
But even if zoos dedicate themselves to wildlife conservation,
there is a widening debate about whether they can truly be arks.
According to biologists, the planet hosts about 10 million
species, one third of which face extinction in the next several
decades. Michael Robinson, director of the National Zoo, argues
that while zoos have an important role to play in preserving
biodiversity, that role is public education, not captive breeding.
``There's absolutely no way we can be arks to the millions of
species at risk,'' he says. Robinson contends that the only way
to halt the destruction is to change people's attitudes and that
zoos must evolve into institutions that teach people to treasure
the natural world.
Although zoos clearly cannot save all the species at risk, some
zoo defenders argue that the institutions have a crucial role to
play in sheltering larger species that can no longer be saved
through habitat protection alone. The Sumatran tiger, for
instance, could be conserved in situ, writes Colin Tudge in his
recent book, ``Last Animals at the Zoo'' -- but only if
population growth on Sumatra were curbed and huge tracts of
forest replanted. That is about as likely as Floridians
abandoning their cities for the sake of the threatened Florida
panther.
How many of these bigger animals are likely to need help in
coming decades? A lot, but not so many that zoos can't shelter a
significant proportion of them, argues Bronx Zoo Director
William Conway. Experts estimate that about 2,000 species of
land vertebrates will face extinction over the next two centuries.
Conway calculates that if all the world's zoos devoted half their
facilities to breeding endangered animals, they could support
some 800 species. (To keep species from becoming inbred, each
population would need a couple of hundred animals.) In

25. addition, Conway says, some species would require shelter only
until they could be successfully reintroduced into the wild.
``The doomsayers are overdoing it; if we could save 25 percent,
that would be great,'' he says.
Even zoos' staunchest supporters concede that transforming a
municipal zoo into an institution devoted to global conservation
is an uphill battle. Many have crusty bureaucracies, and even
when the zoo director supports a fundamental change in
mission, he often has to fight city hall and the public to bring it
about. The citizens of more than one city have strenuously
battled their zoos when officials tried to get rid of lions or bears
to make room for less romantic, but more endangered, species.
But the zoo community is changing, however glacially. Last
month, the AAZPA hired a new executive director, Sydney
Butler, formerly of the Wilderness Society, who vows to
increase the number of species survival plans from 64 to 200 by
the year 2000. More zoos are registering their animals with the
ISIS network and engaging in conservation research. More are
also taking education seriously, replacing tired signs on
``migration'' or ``the water cycle'' with displays that have a
strong conservation message.
As biologists often comment, when species are faced with a
change in environment, they can adapt or die. And so it will be
with zoos. Over the next couple of decades, many will meet the
conservation challenge and emerge stronger. But others, like the
teetering Slater Park Zoo, may well become extinct.
Picture: Eye contact. One of the reasons 115 million Americans
visit zoos every year is for a sense of connectedness with other
animals. (Nicholas Conte -- Bruce Coleman)
Picture: Zoo as classroom. Biodiversity lessons (James Balog --
Bruce Coleman)
Pictures: Unnatural. Some zoo keepers argue that zoos cannot
meet the needs of elephants and bears and oppose keeping them
in captivity. In the wild, bears are continually exploring their
surroundings, while elephants are intelligent and require large
social groups to thrive. (James Balog -- Bruce Coleman; Jean

26. Pierre Pieuchot -- Image Bank)
Picture: Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. Focus on local species
(Craig Aurness -- Westlight)
Picture: Simulated tropics. The Bronx Zoo's Jungle World
houses larger populations of fewer species to encourage
breeding. (Michael Dick -- Animals Animals)
~~~~~~~~
By Betsy Carpenter
Two by twoPRESERVING THE GENETIC LEGACIES
After weeks of anxious waiting, Betsy Dresser finally got the
call that Desi the cat was going into labor. The director of
research at the Cincinnati Zoo Center for Reproduction of
Endangered Wildlife felt her heart sink when she saw the first
kitten -- a stillborn. But the second trembled with life, and soon
the tiny spotted Noah was greedily nursing. It was a timeless
scene, yet a rarity. Noah was the first Indian desert cat born to
its domesticated cousin, the result of an interspecies embryo
transfer.
Zoos are increasingly adapting the latest in human and
agricultural reproductive technologies to aid beleaguered
species by boosting their numbers, increasing gene variety in
small populations and controlling inbreeding. Although still in
the early stages, embryo transfers, artificial insemination and
even test-tube fertilization are seen by zoologists as having real
or potential applications in conserving endangered wildlife.
Says Dresser, ``The technology is there, but there are still so
many subtle details to work out for each animal species.''
Not until 20 years ago did zoos even start to experiment with
reproductive technologies -- beginning with contraceptives to
prevent inbreeding and overbreeding. Today, many female apes
take daily birth-control pills -- the same ones designed for
women -- and large cats and other mammals are frequently
implanted with a Norplant-like device.
Selecting mates. About the same time, zoos began developing
artificial-insemination techniques to expand possible mating
pairs and help them produce the most genetically valuable

27. animals. Adapting this technology has proved more difficult
than expected, however. After 18 years of intimate tinkering,
scientists still haven't successfully adapted livestock techniques
for use in elephants. Coaxing a 13,000-pound aggressive male
to donate semen is no easy task, explains Anne Schmidt of the
Portland Zoo. In addition, it's very tricky to measure the
female's blood hormone levels to pinpoint the one day in 16
weeks that she's fertile.
A few zoos are now experimenting with even-more-
sophisticated technologies borrowed from human fertility
clinics -- test-tube fertilization and surrogate motherhood, for
example. David Wildt of Washington, D.C.'s National Zoo
recently took his mobile lab team to a zoo in Omaha, where they
collected eggs from a valuable Bengal tiger and mixed them in a
vial with semen from a selected male. After ensuring that the
eggs were fertilized and dividing, they injected the resulting
eight embryos into the uterus of a surrogate mother -- a Siberian
tiger -- who bore two live Bengal tiger cubs.
Such surrogates could rapidly boost populations of dwindling
species. For instance, inbred females -- considered ``genetic
junk'' -- could carry and deliver more-valuable offspring of
other animals. Holstein cows and domestic cats like Desi could
also mass-produce genetically related but threatened species.
But so far, says Dresser, successful births are still rare events.
Zoos have tested surrogates for just 20 species and have
produced offspring in 10.
Because it takes years of research to develop these
technologies, a few zoos are beginning to freeze and bank for
future use the genetic raw materials of endangered animals. For
example, Dresser froze eggs from a rare female Sumatran rhino
that died, hoping one day to obtain some sperm and learn how
to make test-tube rhino embryos. The eggs, she says, should
keep for generations, as should the sperm from 500 species and
the embryos of eight species housed in Cincinnati's ``frozen
zoo.''

28. As an additional safety net, San Diego Zoo's Center for
Reproduction of Endangered Species is keeping frozen skin
cells -- a source of DNA -- for 230 mammal species, ranging
from aardvarks to zebras. Oliver Ryder, a geneticist at the
center, compares the information in this DNA with the rich
records that burned with ancient Egypt's great Alexandrian
library: ``Future generations won't be happy about what has
been lost,'' he notes, ``but they'll be thankful for what we save.''
Picture: San Diego's ``frozen zoo.'' Genes for future breeding
(Karen Kasmauski -- Woodfin Camp)
~~~~~~~~
By Karen F. Schmidt
Positive reinforcement training and environmental enrichment:
enhancing animal well-being
It has been 18 years since the Animal Welfare Act
mandated that facilities housing nonhuman primates
provide for their psychologic well-being, triggering a
concerted effort by scientists and professionals to
enhance the welfare of all captive animals. Today, it is
difficult to assess the progress made or whether, over-
all, captive animals are substantially better off. In gen-
eral, zoos are good at providing animals with the
basics: quality food and medical care, a safe and secure
place to live, a naturalistic environment, and appropri-
ate social contacts. Increasing longevity and reproduc-
tion of many species are indicators of the success of
this pursuit. Despite these efforts, some observations
about a wild animal’s life in captivity can be made.
These animals are spatially limited in an environ-
ment that is sterile and unchanging, in comparison to
the wild. There are no predators or prey. Social group
size and configuration are limited and, in most cases,
there is no diversity of species present. They must eat a

29. fixed diet when and where it is offered, even if the feed-
ing method is unnatural. And most zoo animals still
spend most of their time in holding areas that are small-
er and more barren than the exhibit spaces zoo visitors
see. The net result is that captive animals have little
control over their lives. Negative consequences ranging
from boredom to stereotypic behavior often result.
Given these realities of zoo life, addressing animal
welfare is a daunting task. Most will agree that welfare
is not something that an animal either has or does not
have. Rather, it lies on a continuum from poor to good.
Petto et al1 suggest that psychologic well-being be gen-
erally defined as “the ability to adapt—to respond and
adjust to changing situations.” To assess well-being,
they recommend using a combination of variables,
including behavior, health, reproduction, and longevi-
ty. Desmond 2 suggests that in pursuing enhanced ani-
mal welfare, the behavior of the animal “should be the
lens through which we focus our efforts.”
Shepherdson 3 provides a detailed framework using
observable behavior as an indicator of well-being. He
notes that most animal welfare researchers would agree
that enhanced well-being requires that animals have a
reasonable measure of choice and control in their lives
and that they are “behaviorally competent and empow-
ered to act on their own behalf.” He suggests that ani-
mals experiencing enhanced welfare should be free of
behaviors that are abnormal or indicative of fear and
frustration. They should actively explore and interact
with their environment and demonstrate a diversity of
behavior similar to that typically observed in the wild.
Finally, they should demonstrate behavioral flexibility
and appropriate responses to changing circumstances.
With these behavioral objectives in mind, this
paper will explore how positive reinforcement training
and environmental enrichment can address 2 broad

30. aspects of captive animal welfare: helping animals to
cope and prosper in an “artificial” zoological system
and maintaining as much “naturalness” in this new
context as possible.
Positive reinforcement training and environmental
enrichment: enhancing animal well-being
Gail Ellen Laule, MA
From Active Environments Incorporated, 7651 Santos Rd,
Lompoc,
CA 93436.
awf03.qxd 9/10/2003 1:49 PM Page 969
Define Your Training System
In assessing the benefits of training to animals, par-
ticularly in regard to welfare, it is important to distin-
guish the type of training being used and specific tech-
niques employed. The training recommended in this
paper is based on the use of positive reinforcement; ani-
mals are rewarded with something they like for the
desired behavioral response. Operationally, it means
that the positive alternatives are exhausted before any
kind of negative reinforcement is used. On the rare
occasions when an escape-avoidance technique is nec-
essary, it is kept to a minimum and balanced by positive
reinforcement the vast majority of the time. Physical
punishment is not appropriate as a training technique,
and no food deprivation is required. Animals are fed
their daily diet, and rewards for training include por-
tions of that diet or extra treats. Finally, this training
relies on the voluntary cooperation of the animal.
Unfortunately, captive animal management prac-
tices have traditionally included a large measure of
negative reinforcement. Although this training works,
there is an inherent cost to the animal’s welfare when it
is forced to cooperate through the threat of a negative
event that elicits fear or anxiety.4 Consider a primate
that must receive an injection for its health. If negative

31. reinforcement is used, training the animal to present a
leg for the injection requires the threat of an even more
negative stimulus, thus exposing the animal to stress
from both stimuli. Using positive reinforcement, the
animal is trained through shaping and rewards to vol-
untarily present the leg and is concurrently desensi-
tized to the procedure to reduce the associated fear or
anxiety. It seems reasonable to say that positive rein-
forcement training is consistent with efforts to con-
tribute to that animal’s welfare.
Basics of Environmental Enrichment
There have been different names used to refer to
the process we call environmental enrichment. In this
paper, I am using the term and definition developed by
the Behavior Husbandry Advisory Group for the
American Zoological and Aquarium Association:
“Environmental enrichment is a process for improving
or enhancing zoo animal environments and care with-
in the context of their inhabitant’s behavioral biology
and natural history. It is a dynamic process in which
changes to structures and husbandry practices are
made with the goal of increasing behavioral choices
available to animals and drawing out their species-
appropriate behaviors and abilities, thus enhancing
animal welfare.”
Research has shown that the key to successful
enrichment is in its complexity and variability.5-7 These
features keep enrichment interesting and novel and
encourage animals to interact with their environment.
Enrichment is divided into the following categories:
• Physical enrichment, including natural features (eg,
logs, rocks, water, and substrate) and artificial items
(eg, culverts, ropes, cargo nets, and platforms) used
to create useful elements (eg, perches, dens, climb-
ing structures, and lookouts). It also includes tem-
perature, light, sound, and space use, as well as arti-

32. ficial and natural manipulable objects and toys.
• Feeding enrichment, including the type of foods
provided and the frequency and method of deliv-
ery, with emphasis on novelty and variety.
Examples include feeding whole, frozen, chopped,
and live food items that are dispersed, hidden,
buried, or hung in the environment.
• Sensory enrichment, entailing stimulating the sens-
es by introducing music or nature sounds; perfumes,
spices, and urine or fecal scents of other species; edi-
ble plantings; varied bedding materials, such as
straw and shavings; varied light and dark spaces; and
temperature variations created by hot rocks, misters,
ice shavings, and heated or cooled spaces.
• Social enrichment, referring to group size, compo-
sition, and changes within groups caused by births
and the introduction of new animals, as well as
compatible mixed-species situations.
• Occupational enrichment, including introducing
items that encourage problem solving and physical
manipulation by the animal and activities like pos-
itive reinforcement training.
• Human-animal interactions, including play,
grooming, brushing, and training for husbandry
purposes and other behaviors like painting,
retrieval, and A to B’s to encourage exercise.
Living in the Zoo—Helping Animals to Cope
To help animals cope and prosper in an “artificial”
zoologic system, we must consider the routine events
animals are exposed to that may be in conflict with nat-
ural behavior, and a source of short-term stress and, in
some cases, long-term distress. Among these events are:
• Daily routine husbandry activities, including shift-
ing animals between enclosures; brief physical
examinations; short-term separations from con-
specifics; noninvasive procedures, such as skin

33. care, hoof or claw trims, urine collection, and
minor wound treatment; and short-term restraint.
• Veterinary procedures that are uncomfortable, inva-
sive, require special equipment or greater restraint,
including blood draws, injections, more thorough
physical examinations, TB testing, serious wound
treatment, radiography, and ultrasonography.
• Social housing and resultant behavioral problems,
including aggression and excessive dominance,
which threaten the safety and welfare of individual
animals because of a lack of sufficient physical
space and alternative social grouping options.
Although husbandry routines, veterinary proce-
dures, and social living are all important components
of captive animal care and welfare, each comes with a
substantial cost to the animal. Positive reinforcement
training is an effective technique to minimize these
costs and maximize benefits. The training process
rewards animals with something they like for voluntar-
ily cooperating in necessary behaviors, from shifting
on and off exhibit to having a blood sample taken. This
voluntary cooperation provides animals the opportuni-
ty to work for food, 8,9 achieve greater choice and con-
trol over daily events,10 and experience greater mental
stimulation.11
A more tangible benefit of voluntary cooperation
is reduced use of physical restraint and anesthesia