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Chapter 003
- 1. 1Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Chapter 3
Introduction to Quantitative Research
- 2. 2Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Concepts Relevant To
Quantitative Research
Basic research
Applied research
Rigor
Control
- 3. 3Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Basic Research
The pursuit of “knowledge for knowledge’s
sake”
Purpose is to generate and refine theory and
build constructs
Findings are frequently not directly useful in
practice
Findings can be generalized to various
settings
- 4. 4Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Basic Research - Case Study
Examine the causes of body fat loss early in
the development of cancer cachexia in male
rats
The study demonstrates the importance of
genetic research in understanding disease
pathology and provides basis for further
research in animals and in humans with
cancer cachexia
- 5. 5Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Applied (Practical) Research
Scientific investigation conducted to generate
knowledge that will directly influence or
improve clinical practice
Purpose is to solve problems, to make
decisions, or to predict or control outcomes in
real-life practice situations
The findings are less generalizable than
those from basic research
Complementary to basic research
- 6. 6Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Applied Research Case Study
Determine the effectiveness of a nurse- managed
telemonitoring (TM) program on the blood pressure
(BP) of urban African Americans
Findings showed that this nurse-managed
TM intervention significantly affected BP in a
population with a high incidence of hypertension
Based on these findings, home monitoring
became part of a patient’s prescribed treatment
- 7. 7Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Rigor
The striving for excellence in research
Discipline
Scrupulous adherence to detail
Strict accuracy
Precision
Measurement involving objectively
experiencing the real world
- 8. 8Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Control
Imposing “rules” to decrease the possibility
of error
Increases the probability that the study’s
findings are an accurate reflection of reality
Through control, the researcher can reduce
the influence or confounding effect of
extraneous variables on the study variables
- 9. 9Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Control (Cont’d)
Experimental
Quasi-experimental
Correlational
Descriptive
More Control
Less Control
- 10. 10Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Common Areas in Which Control
Might be Enhanced
Selection of subjects (sampling)
Reduction of subject or participant attrition
Selection of the research setting
Development and implementation of the
intervention
Measurement of study variables
Subjects’ knowledge of the study
- 11. 11Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Sampling and Attrition
Sampling: process of selecting subjects,
events, behaviors, or elements for
participation in a study
Random sampling: usually provides a sample
that is representative of a population
Attrition: loss of study subjects (researchers
limit this to increase the rigor of their studies)
- 12. 12Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Research Settings
Natural: uncontrolled, real-life settings
(descriptive and correlational)
Partially controlled: environment that the
researcher manipulates/modifies in some way
(quasi-experimental)
Highly controlled: artificially constructed
environments that are developed for the sole
purpose of conducting research
- 13. 13Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Development and Implementation of
Study Interventions or Treatments
Intervention fidelity
A study intervention needs to be:
Clearly and precisely developed
Consistently implemented
Examined for effectiveness through quality
measurement of the dependent variables
- 14. 14Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Measurement of Study Variables
Attempt to use the most precise instruments
available to measure the study variables
Rigorously control the process for measuring
study variables to improve the design validity
and quality of the study findings
- 15. 15Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Subjects’ Knowledge of a Study
Hawthorne effect: individuals may change
their behavior due to the attention they are
receiving from researchers rather than
because of any manipulation of independent
variables.
Kind of messes with the validity of your
study…don’t you think?
- 16. 16Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Steps of the Quantitative
Research Process
- 17. 17Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Steps of the Quantitative
Research Process (Cont’d)
Conceptualizing
Planning
Implementing
Communicating findings
- 18. 18Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Formulating a Research Problem
and Purpose
Research problem: area of concern or
phenomenon of interest where there is a gap
in the knowledge base needed for nursing
practice
Research purposed: generated from the
problem and identifies the specific focus or
aim of the study (often indicates the type of
study to be conducted)
- 19. 19Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Major Sources for Nursing
Research Problems
Nursing practice
Literature review
Research priorities for funding agencies and
professional organizations
Researcher and peer interactions
Theory testing
- 20. 20Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Review of Relevant Literature
What is relevant literature?
Sources that are pertinent or highly important
in providing the in-depth knowledge needed
to study a selected problem and purpose
Why do it?
To find out what is already known and
identifies the knowledge gaps that exist
- 21. 21Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Developing a Framework
Framework: the abstract, logical structure of
meaning that will guide the development of a
study and enable the researcher to link the
findings to the body of nursing knowledge
Assumptions are inherent in the framework
but may not be explicitly stated
- 22. 22Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Formulating Research Objectives,
Questions, or Hypotheses
Narrow the focus of the research purpose
Often specify only one or two research
variables
Identify the relationship between the
variables
Indicate the population to be studied
- 23. 23Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Defining Research Variables
Identified by the objectives, questions, or hypotheses
Variables: concepts that are measured, manipulated,
or controlled in a study
More abstract concepts (e.g., creativity, empathy,
social support) are sometimes referred to as
“research concepts”
Conceptual definition: theoretical meaning
variable/concept
Operational definition: how a variable will be
measured/manipulated in a study
- 24. 24Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Selecting a Research Design
A blueprint for maximizing control over factors
that could interfere with a study’s desired
outcome
The type of design directs the selection of:
Population
Sampling process
Methods of measurement
A plan for data collection and analysis
- 25. 25Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Defining the Population and
Sample
Population: all the elements (individuals,
objects, or substances) that meet criteria for
inclusion in a universe and which are
accessible and can be best represented by
the study sample
Sample: subset of the population that is
selected for a particular study
- 26. 26Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Selecting Methods of
Measurement
Measurement: assigning numbers to objects in
accord with some rule
Instrumentation: the application of specific rules to
the development of a measurement
device/instrument
Data generated with an instrument are at the
nominal (lowest), ordinal, interval, or ratio (highest)
level of measurement
The level of measurement, determines the type of
statistical analyses that you can perform on the data
- 27. 27Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Instrument Selection
Requires extensive examination of its
reliability and validity
Reliability: how consistently the measurement
technique measures a concept
Validity: the extent that instrument actually
reflects the abstract concept being examined
- 28. 28Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Developing a Plan for Data
Collection and Analysis
Data collection: precise, systematic gathering
of information relevant to the research
purpose, objectives, questions, or hypotheses
Detailed procedures are developed, with a
schedule identifying initiation and termination
of the process
Analysis plan is based on the research
objectives/questions/hypotheses; the data to
be collected; research design; researchers’
expertise; availability of computer resources
- 29. 29Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Implementing the Research Plan
Intervention implementation
Data collection
Data analysis
Interpretation of research finding
Pilot study
- 30. 30Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Pilot Study
A smaller version of a proposed study
conducted to refine the methodology
Many reasons for conducting, but a pilot
study has the potential to improve the
development, funding, and implementation of
future studies
- 31. 31Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Data Collection
Obtaining numerical data
Consent forms
Techniques
Observation
Interview
Questionnaires
Scales
Physiological measurement
- 32. 32Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Data Analysis
Reduces, organizes, and gives meaning to
the data
Analysis techniques
Descriptive
Statistical
Make predictions
Examine group differences
- 33. 33Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Interpreting Research Outcomes
Examining the results from data analysis
Exploring the significance of the findings
Identifying study limitations
Forming conclusions
Generalizing the findings
Considering the implications for nursing
Suggesting further studies
- 34. 34Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Communicating Research
Findings
Developing and disseminating a research
report to appropriate audiences
- 35. 35Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Types of Quantitative Research
Descriptive
Correlational
Quasi-experimental
Experimental
- 36. 36Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Descriptive Research
Purpose is to explore and describe
phenomena in real-life situations
- 37. 37Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Correlational Research
Examines linear relationships between two
or more variables and determines the type
(positive or negative) and degree (strength) of
the relationship
-1 is a perfect negative correlation
+1 is a perfect positive correlation
0 indicates no relationship
- 38. 38Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Quasi-experimental Research
Examines the cause-and-effect relationships
among selected independent and dependent
variables
- 39. 39Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Experimental Research
Examines cause and effect relationships
between independent and dependent
variables under highly controlled conditions