briefly about research question and answer. its for Social Work students who are preparing for UGC-NET/JRF exam.

1. TODAY’S LEARNING
Prepared by:
P.Raghu M.S.W, M.Phil, Ph.D Scholar, NIMHANS, Bangalore.
Mobile: 80981 92628
1) Science offers an approach to both agreement reality and experiential reality. That
approach is called the scientific method.
Key Features of Scientific Methods:
A) Tentative: Everything we think we know today is open to question and subject to
reassessment, modification, or refutation.
B) Replication: Even the best studies are open to question and need to be replicated.
C) Observation: Knowledge is grounded in orderly and comprehensive observations.
D) Unbiased: Observations should be unbiased.
E) Transparency: All procedural details are openly specified for review and evaluation and to
show the basis of conclusions that were reached.
3) Theory is a systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain something.The
statements that attempt to explain things are called hypotheses.
4) A hypothesis predicts something that ought to be observed in the real world if a theory is
correct. It is a tentative and testable statement about how changes in one thing are expected
to explain changes in something else. For example, a hypothesis in learning theory might be,
“The more children are praised, the more self-esteem they will have.”
5) A variable that explains or causes something is called the Independent Variable.
6) The variable that is the effect is called the dependent variable. In the foregoing hypothesis,
for example, amount of praise is the independent variable, and level of self-esteem is the
dependent variable.
7) A variable - regardless of whether it is independent or dependent -- is a concept. A concept
is a mental image that symbolises an idea, an object,an event, or a person. Because variables
vary, they are concepts that are themselves composed of other concepts.
8) When researchers are wedded to a particular system of beliefs and values, those beliefs and
values can strongly influence the research process. A closed system of beliefs and values that
shapes the understanding and behaviour of those who believe in it is called an ideology.

2. 9) Paradigm is a fundamental model or scheme that organises our observations and makes
sense of them. Although it doesn’t necessarily answer important questions, it can tell us where
to look for the answers.
10) Quantitative research methods emphasise the production of precise and generalizable
statistical findings. When we want to verify whether a cause produces an effect in general, we
are likely to use quantitative methods.
11) Qualitative research methods are more likely to tap the deeper meanings of particular
human experiences and generate theoretically richer observations that are not easily
reduced to numbers. Qualitative research studies typically begin with a more flexible plan,
one that allows the research procedures to evolve as more observations are gathered.
12) Whether we should emphasise qualitative or quantitative research methods in a particular
study—or use both—will depend on the conditions and purposes of our inquiry. Qualitative
methods may be more suitable when flexibility is required to study a new phenomenon about
which we know very little or when we seek to gain insight into the subjective meanings of
complex phenomena to advance our conceptualization of them and build a theory that can be
tested in future studies. Qualitative research thus can sometimes pave the way for
quantitative studies of the same subject.
13) Mixed-methods research studies collect both qualitative and quantitative data and integrate
both sources of data at one or more stages of the research process so as to improve the
understanding of the phenomenon being investigated.
14) Three basic mixed-methods designs are the convergent parallel mixed-methods design,
the exploratory sequential mixed-methods design and explanatory sequential mixed-
methods design.
15) Reasons for choosing to combine qualitative and quantitative methods include
(a) to use one set of methods to illustrate cases or provide numbers for the findings of the
other set,
(b) to use one set to initiate ideas or techniques that subsequently can be pursued by the
other set,
(c) to see if the two sets of findings corroborate each other.
16) Institutional Review Board (IRB), a panel of faculty and non faculty who review all
research proposals involving human subjects and rule on their ethics. Their aim is to protect
the subjects rights and interests.
17) The chief responsibility of an IRB is to protect the rights and interests of human
participants in research and ensure that the risks they face by participating are minimal
and justified by the expected benefits of the research.

3. 18) A major tenet of research ethics is that participation must be voluntary. No one should
be forced to participate. All participants must be aware that they are participating in a study, be
informed of all the consequences of the study, and consent to participate in it.
19) Research should never injure the people being studied, regardless of whether they volunteer
for the study, and your IRB will need to be persuaded that you have minimised the risk that harm
will come to participants from your study. Research participants can be harmed
psychologically in the course of a study, and the researcher must be aware of the often-subtle
dangers and guard against them.
20) Anonymity A respondent has anonymity when the researcher cannot identify a given
response with a given respondent. Confidentiality In a survey that provides confidentiality, the
researcher is able to identify a given person’s responses but essentially promises not to do so
publicly.
21) Acculturation is the process in which a group or individual changes after coming into
contact with a majority culture, taking on the language,values, attitudes, and lifestyle
preferences of the majority culture.
22) A measurement procedure has a cultural bias when it is administered to a minority culture
without adjusting for the ways in which the minority culture’s unique values, attitudes,
lifestyles, or limited opportunities alter the accuracy or meaning of what is really being
measured.
23) The term measurement equivalence means that a measurement procedure developed in
one culture will have the same value and meaning when administered to people in another
culture.
24) Three types of measurement equivalence that tend to be of greatest concern are Linguistic
equivalence, conceptual equivalence, and metric equivalence
25) Ethnocentrism means evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions
originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture
26) Purpose of Social Work Research:
1) Exploration
Much of social work research is conducted to explore a topic to provide a beginning
familiarity with it. This purpose is typical when a researcher is examining a new interest,
when the subject of study is relatively new and unstudied, or when a researcher seeks to test
the feasibility of undertaking a more careful study or wants to develop the methods to be used
in a more careful study.

4. 2) Description
Many social work studies aim at a second purpose: to describe phenomena. For example, a
descriptive study might assess the extent of homelessness in a community and the proportion
of homeless people with various characteristics (such as age, gender, substance abuse, a
history of psychiatric hospitalization, and so on).
a) Quantitative Description
All of the preceding examples of descriptive studies are quantitative in nature. That is,
they focus on counting things. For example, in quantitative studies, description typically
refers to the characteristics of a population; it is based on quantitative data obtained from a
sample of people that is thought to be representative of that population.
b) Qualitative Description:
Many descriptive studies are qualitative. In qualitative studies, description is more likely
to refer to a thicker examination of phenomena and their deeper meanings.
3) Explanation
A third general purpose of social work research is to explain things. Reporting why some
cities have higher child abuse rates than others is a case of explanation, but simply reporting
the different child abuse rates is description. Much explanatory research is in the form of
testing hypotheses
4) Evaluation
A fourth purpose of social work research is to evaluate social policies, programs, and
interventions. The evaluative purpose of social work research actually encompasses all
three of the preceding purposes: exploration, description, and explanation. Evaluative
studies also commonly ask whether social policies, programs, or services are effective in
achieving their stated goals. Evaluations of goal achievement can be done in an exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory way.
27) Research studies that examine some phenomenon by taking a cross section of it at one
time and analyzing that cross section carefully are called cross-sectional studies. Such a
study may have an exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purpose.
28) Studies that are intended to describe processes occurring over time and thus conduct their
observations over an extended period are called longitudinal studies.
29) Three special types of longitudinal studies should be noted here.
a) Trend studies
b) Cohort studies
c) Panel studies

5. a) Trend studies are those that study changes within some general population over time.
b) Cohort studies examine more specific sub populations (cohorts) as they change over time.
c) Panel studies examine the same set of people each time.
29) The ecological fallacy is risked when conclusions about individual behavior are derived
from group level data.
30) The statement that postulates the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables is called the Hypothesis.
31) In a Positive Relationship, the dependent variable increases as the independent variable
increases (or decreases as the independent variable decreases) that is, both variables move in
the same direction.
32) A negative (inverse) relationship means that the two variables move in opposite
directions—that is, as one increases, the other decreases.
33) A curvilinear relationship is one in which the nature of the relationship changes at
certain levels of the variables
34) The term Operational Definition refers to that translation: the operations, or indicators,
we will use to determine the quantity or attribute we observe about a particular variable.
Operational definitions differ from nominal definitions.
35) Nominal definitions, like dictionary definitions, use a set of words to help us understand
what a term means, but they do not tell us what indicators to use in observing the term in a
research study.
36) Conceptualization is the process through which we specify precisely what we will mean
when we use particular terms.
37) Variables can be operationally defined at one or more of four levels of measurement:
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio.
38) a) Nominal level of measurement, variables are defined in terms of qualitative
attributes that are categorical only.
b) Variables at the ordinal level of measurement can be rank-ordered in that different
attributes represent relatively more or less of the variable. But the differences between
the attributes are not precise.
c) Variables at the interval level of measurement, differences between different levels
have the same meanings.

6. d) Ratio level of measurement have the same attributes as interval measures, but in addition
have a true zero point.
39) Measurement error occurs when we obtain data that do not accurately portray the concept
we are attempting to measure.
40) Common sources of measurement error come in two types: Systematic error and Random
error.
41) Systematic error occurs when the information we collect consistently reflects a false
picture of the concept we seek to measure because of either the way we collect the data or
the dynamics of those who are providing the data. Sometimes our measures really do not
measure what we think they do.
42) If the things we are measuring do not change over time but our measures keep coming
up with different results, then we have inconsistencies in measurement, or random error.
43) Alternative forms of measurement include written self-reports, interviews, direct
behavioral observation, and examining available records. Each of these options is
vulnerable to measurement error
44) Reliability is a matter of whether a particular technique, applied repeatedly to the same
object, would yield the same result each time.
45) Test-retest reliability measures the consistency of results when you repeat the same test
on the same sample at a different point in time.
46) Interrater reliability (also called interobserver reliability) measures the degree of
agreement between different people observing or assessing the same thing.
47) Parallel forms reliability measures the correlation between two equivalent versions of
a test. You use it when you have two different assessment tools or sets of questions designed to
measure the same thing.
48) Split-half reliability: You randomly split a set of measures into two sets. After testing the
entire set on the respondents, you calculate the correlation between the two sets of responses.
49) The term validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects
the real meaning of the concept under consideration.
50) Types of validity:
Face validity, Content validity, Criterion-related validity, Construct validity, Factorial validity.
51) Face validity refers to the extent to which a test appears to measure what it is intended
to measure.
52) Content validity refers to the extent to which the items on a test are fairly representative
of the entire domain the test seeks to measure.

7. 53) Criterion-related validity refers to the extent to which scores on a test correlate with
scores on a measure of performance or behavior.
54) Construct validity is an assessment of how well you translated your ideas or theories
into actual programs or measures.
55) Factorial validity examines the extent to which the underlying putative structure of a
scale is recoverable in a set of test scores.
56) The term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, but an examination of a typical
questionnaire will probably reveal as many statements as questions.
57) Open-Ended questions, in which the respondent is asked to provide his or her own answer
to the question. Open-ended questions can be used in interview schedules as well as in self-
administered questionnaires.
58) Closed-Ended questions, the respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list
provided by the researcher. Closed-ended questions can be used in self-administered
questionnaires as well as interview schedules and are popular because they provide a greater
uniformity of responses and are more easily processed.
59) Questionnaire items should be clear and unambiguous.
60) Researchers ask respondents for a single answer to a combination of questions. Need to
avoid Double Barreled Questions.
61) The smaller group that the studies observe is called their Sample, and the process of
selecting this group is called Sampling.
62) The chief criterion of the quality of a sample is the degree to which it is representative—
the extent to which the characteristics of the sample are the same as those of the population
from which it was selected.
63) A sampling frame is a list of the members of a population. It is the resource used in the
selection of a sample. A sample’s representativeness depends directly on the extent to which a
sampling frame contains all the members of the total population that the sample is intended to
represent.
64) Probability Sampling or Random Sampling - we choose a sample based on the theory of
probability.
65) Non-Probability Sampling — Here we choose a sample based on non-random criteria,
and not every member of the population has a chance of being included.
66) Non probability Sampling:
(a) Reliance on available subjects
(b) Purposive or judgmental sampling,
(c) Quota sampling,
(d) Snowball sampling

8. 67) Relying on available subjects—sometimes called availability sampling, accidental
sampling, or convenience sampling—is a frequently used sampling method in social work
because it is usually less expensive than other methods and because other methods may not
be feasible for a particular type of study or population.
For example, stopping people at a street corner or some other location would be a risky way to
assess public opinion about a social issue.
68) Purposive or Judgmental Sampling -- Sometimes you may appropriately select your
sample on the basis of your own knowledge of the population, its elements, and the nature of
your research aims—in short, based on your judgment and the purpose of the study.
69) Researchers conducting qualitative studies are often particularly interested in studying
deviant cases—cases that don’t fit into fairly regular patterns of attitudes and behaviors—in
order to improve their understanding of the more regular pattern. This is called deviant case
sampling, and it is another form of purposive sampling.
70) Quota sampling begins with a matrix that describes the target population’s
characteristics: what proportion of the population is male or female, for example, and, for each
sex, what proportions fall into various age categories, educational levels, ethnic groups, and so
forth.
71) Snowball sampling is appropriate when the members of a special population are difficult to
locate. It might be appropriate, for example, to find a sample of homeless individuals, migrant
workers, or undocumented immigrants. This sampling procedure also results in samples that
have questionable representativeness, so it is used primarily for exploratory purposes.
72) Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each sample has an equal
probability of being chosen. A sample chosen randomly is meant to be an unbiased
representation of the total population.
73) Simple random sampling is the randomized selection of a small segment of individuals
or members from a whole population. It provides each individual or member of a
population with an equal and fair probability of being chosen.
74) Systematic sampling is the selection of specific individuals or members from an entire
population. The selection often follows a predetermined interval (k).
75) Stratified sampling, which includes the partitioning of a population into subclasses with
notable distinctions and variances.
76) Cluster sampling, which, similar to the stratified sampling method, includes dividing a
population into subclasses. Each of the subclasses should portray comparable
characteristics to the entire selected sample.
77) Survey research, a popular social research method, is the administration of
questionnaires to a sample of respondents selected from some population.
78) Survey research is especially appropriate for making descriptive studies of large
populations; survey data may also be used for explanatory purposes.

9. 79) Questionnaires may be administered in three different ways:
(a) Self-Administered Questionnaires can be completed by the respondents themselves.
(b) Interviewers can administer questionnaires in face-to-face encounters, Reading the
items to respondents and recording the answers.
(c) Interviewers can conduct telephone surveys.
80) A probe is a neutral, non-directive question that is designed to elicit an elaboration on an
in complete or ambiguous response given in an interview to an open-ended question.
Examples include “Anything else?” “How is that?” and “In what ways?”
81) The advantages of a self-administered questionnaire over an interview survey are
economy, speed, lack of interviewer bias, and the possibility of anonymity and privacy to
encourage more candid responses on sensitive issues.
82) The advantages of an interview survey over a self-administered questionnaire are fewer
incomplete questionnaires and fewer misunderstood questions, generally higher return
rates, and greater flexibility in terms of sampling and special observations.
83) Naturalism is an old tradition in qualitative research. It emphasizes observing people in their
everyday settings and reporting their stories as they tell them.
84) An ethnography is a study that focuses on detailed and accurate description rather than
explanation. Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers observe and/or
interact with a study's participants in their real-life environment.
85) Grounded theory, a term coined by Glaser and Strauss (1967), was mentioned earlier
in connection with the inductive approach to understanding. The openness of the grounded
theory approach allows a greater latitude for the discovery of the unexpected, some regularity
(or disparity) much unanticipated by the concepts that might make up a particular theory or
hypothesis.
85) In the participatory action research paradigm, the researcher’s function is to serve as a
resource to those being studied typically, disadvantaged groups —as an opportunity for them
to act effectively in their own interest. The disadvantaged participants define their problems,
define the remedies desired, and take the lead in designing the research that will help them realize
their aims.
86) A case study is an idiographic examination of a single individual, family, group,
organization, community, or society. Its chief purpose is description, although attempts at
explanation are also acceptable.
87) The focus group, which is one type of group interviewing, is usually considered a
qualitative method (although it can also be used in a quantitative way, such as by merely
counting how many times certain words are expressed).
88) It is based on structured, semi structured, or unstructured interviews. It allows the
researcher-interviewer to question several individuals systematically and simultaneously.

10. 89) Focus groups are often used to assess whether a new social program or social service
being considered is really needed in a community.
90) In a focus group, people are brought together in a private, comfortable environment to
engage in a guided discussion of a specified topic.
91) The main idea is that the participants in a focus group will be stimulated by each other’s
comments to think of things that might not have occurred to them in an individual interview.
92) Key informant interviews, also called In-depth interviews are a research method to gather
specific qualitative information, from “informants” who are usually experts and decision-
makers, about a topic or a community’s views.
93) Researchers walk through a pre-determined question guide with the informant, to get
their views on issues of concern and communication strategies and activities that can be
adopted to solve the issues.
94) Facilitators must treat informants with courtesy and respect. Facilitators must explain
the nature of the research, why it is occurring and what will happen with the results.
95) Informant information must be kept confidential, unless they agree otherwise.
96) Triangulate the information with other data sources – such as the focus group
discussions, to draw a clear picture of the issues and potential solutions.
97) A technical term used in connection with the elaboration model refers to Elucidation.
98) When an exchange of cultural traits and complexes between different societies takes
place its termed as Transculturation.
99) A research concerned primarily with discovering the most effective means of bringing
about desired social change is known as Action Research.
100) Levi Strauss has stated three Exchanges. Which are the
a) Exchange of Words
b) Exchange of Women
c) Exchange of Things
101) Who has broadly classified the definitions of Culture into Universalitic, hierarchical and
pluralistic?
T.K Oommen
102) A Likert scale is a unidimensional scale that researchers use to collect respondents
attitudes and opinions.
103) The Scale is named for the Psychologist who created it Rensis Likert.
104) The semantic differential scale measures the connotative meaning of things. For
example, while the word “heart” is defined as the organ that pumps blood around the body, it's

11. connotative meaning is love or heartache. The scale is used in surveys to gauge people's feelings
towards a particular subject.
105) The Bogardus social distance scale is a psychological testing scale created by Emory
S. Bogardus to empirically measure people's willingness to participate in social contacts of
varying degrees of closeness with members of diverse social groups, such as racial and ethnic
groups.
106) In psychology and sociology, the Thurstone scale was the first formal technique to
measure an attitude. It was developed by Louis Leon Thurstone in 1928.
107) Sociometry is a qualitative method for measuring social relationships. It was developed
by psychotherapist Jacob L. Moreno and Helen Hall Jennings in their studies of the
relationship between social structures and psychological well-being, and used during
Remedial Teaching.
108) Sociography is writing on society, societal sub-divisions and societal patterns, done
without first conducting the in-depth study typically required in the academic field of sociology.
The term was coined by the Dutch sociologist Sebald Rudolf Steinmetz in 1913.