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.23 Viggiano, F. Anthony, 1908-
1942 The production of musical programs in
•V5 senior high school; the administration,
production, and psychology of effective
musical performance... New York,
1942.
ix,153 typewritten leaves, illus.,
m a p , d i a g r s f o r m s . 29cm.
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university, School of education, 1942.
Bibliography: p.129-134.
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3. — ^
Pinal Doennenti ^ '* ■
Accepted, D a t e - D C l i ^ - ^
THE PRODUCTION OF MUSICAL PROGRAMS
IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
The Administration, Production, and Psychology
of Effective Musical Performance
F. ANTHONY VIGGIANO
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Education In the School of Education of
New York University
19*2

4. PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
indistinct print.
Filmed as received.
Univers ity Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer ie indebted to the members of his sponsoring
committee for encouragement and guidance throughout the period
of the preparation of this study. This committee was made up
of Dr. Alonzo F. Myers, chairman; Assistant Professor Luther W.
Goodhart and Professor Hughes Mearns.
Gratitude is also expressed to Mr. Edgar Acker and Mr.
Thurston Munson for drawings; to Mr. Albert Raschi, a student
at the High School of Commerce, Springfield, Massachusetts, for
the photographs; to the executive staff at Radio City Music Hall;
to my wife Betty and to many others who aided in the study.
11
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I
THE PROBLEM
THE PROBLEM ..............................
Introduction .......... ..........
Purposes ...................... .
Scope........ ......................
PROCEDURE IN COLLECTING D A T A ......... .
Survey of Current Practices • • • • • •
Questionnaire....................
Literature •
Study of Professional Practices • • • •
Radio City Music Hall • • • . . .
Small Theatre Visitation ........
Experiments ................ .
QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS...................
Findings......... • • . . ...........
Program Types ...................
Sponsoring and Financing • • . • •
Publicity . . . .................
Staging • .......................
Lighting.............. .
Printed Materials • • • • • • . .
Costuming ........... • •
Commencement Music • • • • • • •
GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........
PART II
A PRODUCTION GUIDE FOR DIRECTORS OF MUSIC
IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS
(A Handbook)
TYPES OF MUSICAL PROGRAMS . .
Naming the Program • • •
Formal Concert • • • • .
Assembly . . . ........
Christmas Program • • •
Music Festivals . • . .
Band Pageantry . . . .
Opera, Operetta, Pageant
Other Forms ..........
Ill

7. >
Chapter
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
PROGRAM BUILDING.......................... |7
Attention •• ............ . . . . . . 27
Contrast ......... 28
Variety.......... ...................
C l i m a x ......................... 29
Novelty................. 29
Familiar Music ........... 31
Continuity • • • • • ................ 32
Unity ......... 32
Length ................. 32
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION . . . . . . 33
Scientific Management • 34
Scheduling . . . . . . .............. 35
Committees • • • • . • • .......... • 36
Co-workers • • • • .................. 37
Financing ........................ 39
Miscellaneous Items • • • • • • • • • • 40
PUBLICITY................................ 42
Planning . . . . . ............ . . . 42
Writing.............................. 43
Photographs............. 43
Posters......... 46
Assembly S k i t s ............... 46
Mimeographed Announcements • • • • • . 46
Other Forms . . • • • • • • • ........ 47
PROGRAMS AND TICKETS...................... 49
The Program.......................... 49
Creating the Mood ......... 50
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Program Content • • • • • • • • • 54
Tickets .................... • • • • • 57
As an Advertising Medium • • • • • 58
Price of Admission • • • • • • • • 58
S T A G I N G .................................. 60
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6l
Organization and Planning . • • • • . . 61
Properties • • • • • . • • • • • • • • 62
Stage Crew • • • • • . . • • • . • • • 62
Levels . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 64
Tableau • • • . . . ........... 68
Overture Visual Aids . . . • • • • • • 70
Humor ............ • • • • • • • • . . 75
Scenery............ 75
Curtain 76
iv

8. Chapter
XI. LIGHTING.................................. 78
Planning • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 78
Switchboard • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 79
Purposes of Lighting • • • • . • • • • 79
Color Psychology ........... 81
Light Plot • . • • • • • • • • • • • • 83
Stroblite ............ . 83
Christinas Program L i g h t i n g .......... 84
XII. MOTION.................................... 90
Relative Values of a Stage • • • • • • 90
Groupings • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 91
Gestures 92
Dances ............. 92
A c t i n g ............................. 92
XIII. COSTUMING................................ 96
The Band • • • • • • • • • • . • • • » 96
The Orchestra....................... 98
The Chorus ............ . . . . . . . 98
Opera and Pageant • • • • • 100
General Considerations in Costuming . • 102
Make-up • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 103
XIV. THE ASSEMBLE SING FOR THE GENERAL STUDENT . 107
Systems in Handling Music and Text . • 108
The Song Book ......... 109
Mimeographed Sheets . • • • • • • 109
Song Slides • • • • • • • • • • • 110
XV. THE MARCHING BAND . . . . • • • • • • • • • 115
P l a n n i n g ..................... 116
The Drum Major and Twlrlers . • • « . . 117
The Color Guard . • • • • • • • • • • • 118
The Bell lyre ............. 119
Suggestions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 119
XVI. RADIO BROADCASTING...........................121
Educational Values ........ . • • • • 121
Preparation • • • • • ........ • • • • 122
Production Hints .......... • • • • • 123
XVII. FOLLOW THROUGH
Finale •
126
127

9. Zsse
BIBLIOGRAPHY........................... . 129
APPENDICES . . • . . ......... 135
A. Questionnaire • • • • • • • • • • • • 136
B. The Copyright Law • • • * • • • • • • 141
C. Code of Ethics for School Musicians • 145
D. Flexibility In Stage Levels • • • • • 147
E. Sample Programs • • • • • • • • • • • 149
▼1

10. LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
I. Types of Programs and Number of Each Type
Presented as Reported by 154 Music Directors
In Senior High Schools................... 11
II. Sponsoring and Financing Productions ......... 12
III. Publicity .................................. 13
IV. Number of Senior High Schools using Special
Staging for Music Productions • • • . • • • • 14
V. Frequency of Types of Lighting used in Musical
Productions as Reported by 15? Selected
Secondary Schools • 15
VI. Number and Per Cent of Directors of Music who
Report Specific Attention toPrinted Materials
for a Musical Production • • • • • • 16
VII. Methods of Providing Costumes for Opera Type
Musical Productions • • • • • • • • ........ 17
VIII. Main Types of Programs used at Secondary
School Commencements as Reported by 154
Directors of Mu s i c.......................... 18
rii

11. LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page
I. Novelty In Program Building • • • • • • • • • • 30
II. Planning for Unity .............. • 41
III. Newspaper Publicity Photographs........... • 44
IV. Posters................ 45
V. Publicity Ideas.................................48
VI. Programs..................................... 51
VII. Silk Screen P r o c e s s ......................... 53
VIII. Program Cover Ideas • • . . . . • • • • • • • • 56
IX. Novel Large T i c k e t ............................. 59
X. Stage Planning........... 63
XI. Faysen Collapsible Rostrums • • • • • • • • • • 65
XII. Vocal Improvement through the use of Levels • • 66
XIII. Pageant Stage Levels . . . . . • • • 67
XIV. Tableau Effect......................... • • 69
XV. Overture Visual Aids . . . . . . . 71
XVI. "H.M.S. Pinafore” Visual A i d s ................... 73
XVII. Pinafore Visual Aids(concluded) . . • • • • • 74
XVIII. Staging Humor.............................. • 77
XIX. Gelatine Color Chart .......................... 82
XX. Christmas Program Lighting................... 86
XXI. Comparison of Light and PaintMixing • • • • • 87
▼ill

12. Plate I§S2
XXII. Silhouette Effect through Lighting . 88
XXIII. Opera Lighting .............................. 89
XXIV. Naturalness in Stage Movements......... • • 94
XXV. Chorus Groupings . . . ........ • • • • • • • 95
XXVI. Costuming......................................106
XXVII. Song Slide Techniques ................ 113
XXVIII. Visual Aids for S o n g s .........................114
XXIX. Band Details...................................120
XXX. Hand Signals...................................125
XXXI. Scope of Questionnaire Returns................. 139
XXXII. Flexibility in Stage Levels . • • • • « . • • 147
XXXIII. Music Festival Program & . • • . • • • • • • 149
XXXIV. Music Festival Program B • • ......... • • • • 150
XXXV. Christmas Concert Program ......... 151
XXXVI. Youth Concert Program . • • • • • • • • • • • 152
XXXVII. "H.M.S. Pinafore" Program .................... 153
ix

13. PART I
THE PROBUEU

14. CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
During the past twenty years music education in the United
States has enjoyed a phenomenal growth. Public performances of
senior high school music have been greatly improved by trained
music specialists who are well versed in educational aims and ob­
jectives. This practical side of music education has found its
main outlet in the formation and development of school bands,
orchestras, and choral organizations.
Although educationally ooncelved experiments in the pro­
duction of musical programs have been going on in many villages,
towns, and cities throughout the United States, the neglected as­
pect in the production of these programs has been a thorough and
systematic study of the non-musical details to which music educa­
tors generally give too little consideration. It too often occurs
that directors do not see beyond the limitations of subject matter
with the result that the potentialities of a musical production
are frequently not realized.
In addition to teaching music, the successful music director
in a senior high school assumes many other responsibilities in the
field. Being the organizer of musical performances, he may dis­
play his talents as an instructor by the way the young musicians

15. 2
perform, but a good performance can be elevated to one of excel­
lence by attention to such things as staging, lighting, printed
materials, and costuming. Keen observation of professional per­
formances, plus skill In adaptation to high school needs, can
lead to superior results In high school muslo activity.
Purposes
The purposes of this study are to examine the nature and
scope of non-musical problems as they affect school music perform­
ances; to determine to what degree music teachers should be famil­
iar with technicalities Involved; to ascertain to what extent direc­
tors are called upon to handle them; and to prepare a handbook
suggesting means of dealing with them successfully.
floope
This study Includes an analysis of the types of musical
programs presented by representative senior high schools (grades
9-12 Inclusive) throughout the country, and the methods used to
deal with their non-musical details. A comparison of school
practices with professional practices has been made to determine
the extent to which professional techniques can be adapted to
secondary school musical presentations.
Correlation with other Departments
To realize fully the scope of this study It Is neoessary
to analyze the non-musical details themselves. The correlation
of the art, drama, English, commercial, home economics, shop,

16. 3
science, and electricity departments with the music department
offers opportunity for the discovery and development of student
talent. In the drama departments of our high schools for instance,
a wealth of background and experience exists, waiting to find
broader expression through correlation with music.
In a recent survey, Kenneth Macgowan states*
Drama is a very new thing in the high schools. Not
student attempts at mock trials and senior plays, of
course, but the serious business of teaching boys and
girls to produce plays. It is a product of the past
six or seven years, and It is growing with Immense
speed • • • , A third of the 22,000 high schools of
America are probably studying and applying production
methods to a rather decent grade of play. These 7000
have definite courses with an average of fifty students
to a course. Some hundreds of thousands of young actors,
designers, stage-hands, and managers are producing plays
for an audience that runs into the millions. They have
every sort of stage to work on, from auditorium plat­
forms to plants so well equipped that the Theatre Guild's
Repertory Company plays there in preference to local
halls or opera houses. In many places the students prac­
tice playwrltlng and scene design as well as acting, and
Indulge in state-wide tournaments, 1
Substantiating these statements, Katherine Anne Ommanney
asserts that "in the United States, the drama is being democrat
tized as a practical means of developing more appreciative and
expressive human beings. From kindergarten to university, from
informal dramatizations to productions of high artistic caliber,
2
the drama is a recognized phase of modern education. H
1. Footlights Across America. P. 169.
2. The Stage and the School. P. xiii.

17. 4
The thousands of hands, orchestras, choruses, a cappella
choirs, and soloists appearing In the various contest-festivals
sponsored by the National School Music Competition Festivals
represent only a small phase of the great musical development
in the senior high schools. The 80,897 students participating
in festivals in 1941 represent entries from 2400 schools, hut
they comprise only a small portion of the number of schools
and students enrolled in the state and district contests pre-
1
llmlnary to the national.
The development of a self-sufficient democratic society
within the school itself can he brought about through the inte­
gration of several subjects of the ourriculum. It is from this
point of view that the investigator has noted the dependence of
the arts on each other in successful musical productions.
1. National fiohool Music Competltion-Festlvals, Report. 1941, P, 8,

18. CHAPTER II
PROCEDURE IN COLLECTING- DATA
//
/ During the past fourteen years the Investigator has ob­
served hundreds of high school musical groups. Notable are
those which appeared before members of the Eastern and National
Music Educators Conferences.
The dramatic principles of costuming, staging, lighting,
and motion were used to enhance the performance of many of the
superior groups. This led the Investigator to realize that each
/
musical director had met his problem through one means or another.
Inasmuch as little scientific data were available as to how these
successful groups met their non-musical problems, It was necessary
to collect data on the problem.
Survey of Current Practices in Schools
The questionnaire method was selected as being the most
direct and comprehensive In discovering just how non-musical
1
problems were being solved. In addition, a study was made of
the literature In the fields of drama and music.
1. Appendix A, P. 137.
5

19. 6
Questionnaire
Questionnaires were sent to the directors of music In
four hundred senior high schools throughout the country. The
mailing list was compiled from four sources*
1. One hundred and fifty directors of winning contest
groups covering ten major regions of the United
States. 1
2. One hundred directors who had produced a Gilbert
and Sullivan opera during the previous two years. 2
3. Seventy-five directors who were recommended by their
state directors of music as having been particularly
successful in the development of educationally worth­
while musical programs. 3
4. Seventy-five directors of performance groups which
received publiolty in the professional literature of
music education. 4
These names were secured from the sources mentioned in
the footnote references.
It was the belief of the investigator that a study of the
non-musical techniques used by these recognized groups would be
of more value than a study of those used by groups chosen at
random, since it is reasonable to assume that the skill with
which non-musical details were handled was to some extent respon­
sible for the recognition given the former groups.
Additional data were made available by asking directors
to append to the questionnaire sample copies of recently pre­
sented musical programs.
1. National School Music Competition Festival. Report. 1941.
2. From the private file of the Bass Music Publishers. Gilbert
and Sullivan specialists. 34 V. 33'rd St.. New York. N.Y.
3. Pennsylvania. Massachusetts. Delaware. Louisiana. Virginia.
New York. Missouri and Ohio.
4. Music Educators Journal. Educational Music Magazine, and the
School Musician. 1929-1941 inclusive.

20. Literature
Research through literature bearing upon the educational
and dramatic aspects of the problem brought to light many texts
written by teachers of dramatics In public schools. Study of
these texts makes It evident that teachers of dramatics and teach­
ers of music have many similar problems. A further investigation
disclosed several articles from music education periodicals pre­
senting the Ideas of music directors on many of the problems.
Thus the experience of both teachers of drama and of music are
significant in fully understanding the problem.
Study of Professional Practices
Since a major aim of the study was to determine to what
extent professional practices can be applied to school situations,
several procedures were used In collecting data on such practices.
Radio City Music Hall
Unique in Its position as an American show place and an
international institution. Radio City Music Hall, located in
Rockefeller Center. New York City, has been the subject of more
wonder and admiration than any other amusement enterprise of
modern times.
This center of entertainment may take its full share of
glory for bringing to the heterogeneous public of a great metrop­
olis an awareness and appreciation of art and beauty. It achieves

21. 8
this by the skillful blending of the so e&lled "high-class"
forms— opera, ballet, symphonic music— with the everyday life
of its audiences. Originally referred to as NThe World's Largest
Theatre,M It has now taken its rightful place as the world's
greatest.
Since its opening on December 27, 1932, the investigator
has attended over eighty Music Hall performances. Notes were
taken as to how the scenic beauty, the Instrumental and vocal
music effects, the amazing lighting effects, and the methods of
designs in motion may have been achieved.
It became necessary to substantiate this observation by
going behind the scenes to learn just how these effects were
created. Through the cooperation of the executive staff at Radio
City lfusie Hall, a backstage tour was arranged. It was possible
to observe methods employed in dealing with problems of organiza­
tion, stage techniques, costuming, motion, music arranging, timing,
and publicity.
Interviews as to Nhow it is done" were arranged with Leon
Leonldoff, Vice-President and Senior Produoer; Erno Rapee, Director
of Musio, and Fred L. lynch, Publicity Director, all of Radio
City Music Hall. The courtesies extended by them to the investi­
gator, their patience in answering questions, and their eagerness
to cooperate with the public schools resulted in the collection
of valuable data on the whys and wherefores of Music Hall magic.

22. 9
Small Theatre Visitations
Visits to small theatres where the stage problems were
most nearly analogous to the high school situations were made*
Notable among these were two theatres which specialize In the
1
production of Gilbert and Sullivan operas* Backstage visits and
Interviews with stage technicians* music, publicity, and costume
directors completed these observations*
Experiments
During the past fourteen years the Investigator has been
able to conduct production experiments under varying school con­
ditions. Professional techniques were applied in so far as they
were practical in school situations.
In Oreensburg, Pennsylvania High School, the stage facil­
ities were unusually fine. The switchboard, curtains, lighting
equipment, stage areas, and acoustics were splendid. In Allen­
town, Pennsylvania High School, the facilities were average. In
Springfield, Massachusetts High School of Commerce, the stage
was small, possessing little depth and meager lighting equipment*
In the latter school several interesting adaptations were made
resulting in effects which equalled and in some instances sur­
passed those in other schools*
1. Savoy Dpera Guild, dherry Lane Theatre, 38 Commerce St., New York.
The Light Opera Theatre, Provineetown Playhouse, 133 McDougal
St., New York.

23. CHAPTER III
QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS
The procedure used In analyzing questionnaire data was
to discover the types of programs being presented and the fre­
quency of each; to note the activities included in their pre­
paration and presentation; to classify technical and psycho­
logical details; and to evaluate practices in the light of
modern educational philosophy and practice.
Findings
Questionnaires were sent to four hundred directors of
senior high school music in the forty-eight states. One hundred
and fifty-four, or thirty-eight and one-half per cent, were
1
returned by directors from thirty-four states. Submitted with
these questionnaires were three hundred and sixty-three sample
programs which included music festivals, operas^ band concerts
and demonstrations, orchestral concerts, choral concerts, pag­
eants, recitals, creative projects, and commencement programs.
1* Appendix A, P. 139,
10

24. 11
J
The scope and frequency of musical performances shown
in Table I Indicate the latitude of experiments being conducted
In the schools responding, since all reported that some type of
performance had been presented during the school year.
TABUS 1
Types of Programs and Number of Baoh
Type Presented as Reported by 154
Music Directors In Senior High Schools
Type A B d i> total %
Formal concerts 53 36 35 24 148 96.1
Christmas programs 49 33 34 20 136 88.3
Assemblies 52 33 31 20 136 88.3
SoloistB 52 31 31 17 131 85.
Music festivals 47 28 27 18 120 77.9
Vlstting artists 38 31 16 16 101 65.5
Operettas 32 28 18 11 89 57.7
Gilbert and Sullivan
operas 11 29 21 9 70 45.4
Marching bands 25 15 17 9 66 42.8
Pageants 15 12 6 4 37 24.
Grand operas 4 8 5 6 23 14.2
Pantomime 6 4 3 6 19 12.3
Shadowgraph 0 0 0 1 1 .6
1. I?or purposes of analysis, all tables are divided Into four
groupst directors of winning oontest-festival groups are
designated by Gilbert and Sullivan high school pro­
ducers by B; state directors of music list by C; and those
obtained through periodicals by D. ~
2. Figures represent percentages of 154 returned questionnaires.

25. J
12
Sponsoring and Financing
The responsibility of financing a program rests primarily
with the school or its music department, as shown In Table II,
The extent to which the music department takes the initiative in
sponsoring programs, and the dependence for the financing of these
programs on the receipts realized from the sale of tickets is
significant. This finding Indicates that the skill and resource­
fulness of the school music director determine the financial
success or failure of a school musical production,
TABLE II
Sponsoring and FInanelng Productions*
Sponsored by A B d £> total *
Uuslc department 35 18 13 16 82 53.2
School 11 6 8 6 31 20.1
Board of education 1 1 1 0 3 1.9
P.T.A. 3 0 1 0 4 2.5
Financed bv
Sale of tickets 34 18 13 16 81 52.5
School 6 10 9 4 29 18.8
Uuslc department 7 5 6 4 22 14.2
Board of education 2 1 1 0 4 2.5
♦Numbers in table Indicate positive answers.

26. 13
Table III shows the media used for publicizing school
productions and who of the school personnel handles them.
It is apparent that this problem is a major one since
newspapers are the most frequently used medium. This implies
that material for publicity must be expertly handled. Whereas
the director of music may coordinate the details, it is satis­
fying to note the number of directors using students in planning
and writing. The use of committees as evidenced in the faculty-
student group indicates that the details can be successfully
managed by cooperating groups.
TABLE III
Publicity*
Media A B C D total i
Community newspapers 56 36 33 24 149 96.7
School newspapers 53 36 32 21 142 92.2
Posters 51 35 31 18 135 87.6
Bulletin boards 52 33 20 21 126 81.8
Assembly skits 32 33 22 14 101 65.5
Radio announcements 24 17 20 7 68 44.1
Stunts 2 1 2 1 6 3.8
Planned by
Director 24 12 13 13 62 40.2
Faculty-student s 16 8 11 8 43 27.2
Director-students 10 8 9 4 31 20.1
Principal 2 1 2 1 6 3.8
Written by
Director 29 20 9 8 66 42.2
Students 27 2 4 10 43 27.2
Faculty-students 0 9 14 6 29 18.8
Principal 2 1 2 1 6 3.8
Director-facuity 0 0 3 1 4 2.5
♦Numbers in table indicate positive answers.

27. 14
Staging
One hundred-thirty or eighty-four and four-tenths of
the directors responding to the questionnaire Indicated that
they do consider the problem of staging In producing a musical
program. Although this is a function of the art department or
a stage craft class it Is apparent that several methods are
being used.
The fact that students often design and paint the scenery
Is indicative of the desire to use the project for laboratory
experience.
TABLE IV
Number of Senior High Schools using
Special Staging for Music Productions*
A B C D total r
Schools using stage
decorations 45 36 30 21 130 84.4
Schools using various
stage levels 40 29 31 18 118 76.6
Designed bv
Art department 20 12 18 13 63 40.9
Student stage crew 13 8 4 3 28 18.1
Music director 6 5 3 3 17 11.
Professional 2 3 3 0 8 5.1
Drama department 0 5 0 0 5 3.2
Painted bv
Art department 23 14 17 10 64 41.5
Student stage crew 14 13 7 7 41 26.6
Professional 2 4 3 0 9 5.8
Drama department 1 1 0 0 2 1.2
♦As compiled from 154 returned questionnaires.

28. 15
Lightlug
The music director generally selects the type of lighting
to he used. This can he explained hy the fact that the formal
concert program is the most commonly performed. A program of
this type generally requires simple lighting and directors usually
have confidence in their own ideas.
TABLE V
Frequency of Types of Lighting used
in Musical Productions as Reported
hy 154 delected Secondary Schools
A B C D total *
Schools using special
lighting 47 35 32 19 133 86.3
Types used
Footlights 45 36 32 19 132 85.7
Colored lighting 47 34 30 20 131 85.
Borders 47 33 32 18 130 84.4
Floodlights 47 31 30 20 128 83.1
Spotlights 45 32 29 20 126 81.8
Stroblite 13 2 4 1 20 12.9
Planned hy
Music director 20 8 7 6 4l 26.6
Director and students 13 8 6 4 31 20.1
Art department 4 5 4 3 16 10.3
Professional 5 2 5 0 12 7.7
Faculty 2 1 5 0 8 5.1
Familiarity with the Jargon of lighting is indicated in
1
this table. The technique of strobllte is very seldom used,
probably because this type is highly technical and its "secret"
is not generally known.
1. A phosphorus luminous paint which is reflected into brilliant
colors through the use of an ultra-violet ray light, seemingly
in total darkness. Painted areas are the only ones visible.

29. 16
Printed Materials
Table 71 shows the questionnaire responses in regard to
printed materials used in connection with school musical pro­
ductions. Three hundred and sixty-three programs were Included
with the returned questionnaires. It was the exception to find
programs striking in design and general make-up. Seven directors
submitted programs which were unusual as to size, shape, type,
cover design, and color.
TABLE VI
Number and Per Cent of Directors of Music who
Report Specific Attention to Printed
Materials fog 3 Musical Production
Directors who A B d D total i
Plan programt size 49 27 32 19 127 82A
shape 47 28 31 19 125 81.1
color 48 26 31 19 124 80.5
Use a program cover design 38 25 27 20 110 71.4
Use a program design requir­
ing a zinc cut 22 19 19 9 69 44.9
Methods of printins programs
Commercially printed 33 26 16 12 87 56.4
School printed 21 22 20 15 78 50.6
Mimeographed 27 17 18 12 74 48.7
Multigraphed 0 2 3 3 8 5.1
Multilithed 1 1 2 0 4 2.5
Posters
School designed and made 44 34 32 21 131 85.
Commercially printed 22 14 10 6 52 33.7
Silk screen process 5 5 3 2 15 9.7
Tickets
Specially designed 31 19 18 15 83 53.8

30. 17
Costuming
The term HoostumeH was used to Indicate the type of
dress worn hy choral and Instrumental performers at conoerts
as well as those used In operas and pageants. It was believed
to be unnecessary to secure data regarding band uniforms as
practically every high school maintaining a band provides them.
The type of costume used for choral concerts varies, al­
though ninety-three, or 60,3 per cent of the directors reporting,
use choir robes or vestments,
Quite unexpected was the response on costumes for orchestra
members. Forty-one directors indicated a practice of using
formal attire at orchestral concerts. Only one school reported
a specially designed costume.
Table VII deals with the methods used in providing opera
type costumes for musical productions. Directors employ several
methods in handling this problem,
TABLE VII
Methods of Providing Oostumes for
Opera Type Musical Productions*
Method A B C D total *
Rented 24 33 17 10 84 54.5
Designed in art or home
economic classes 21 21 15 13 70 45.4
Made in homes of students 21 13 22 5 61 39.6
Made in home economic
classes 18 16 11 10 55 35.7
* Numbers in table indicate positive answers as compiled
from 154 replies.

31. 18
Commencement Music
Table VIII concerns commencement programs.
TABLE VIII
Main Types of Programs used at Secondary
School Commencements as Reported
by 154 Directors of Music*
Tvoe of program used A B C D total %
Concert 22 20 19 17 78 50.6
Senior class project 8 17 15 9 49 31.8
School project 6 6 5 7 24 15.5
Pageant 5 6 4 4 19 12.3
Participating groups
Orchestra 32 29 20 20 101 65.5
Choral groups 24 30 30 17 101 65.5
Soloists 22 31 19 16 88 57.1
Senior class 24 19 23 11 77 50.
Band 18 5 8 3 34 22.
* Numbers Indicate positive answers.
The planning of a commencement exercise is largely deter­
mined by school tradition. The procedure of a speaker and formal
music is deep-rooted in American school commencements. This
probably explains why comparatively few high schools hare adopted
the Benior class project or pageant presentation at commencements.
Additional data show that the tempos used for a processional
or recessional vary considerably. The most frequent rate of march
speed reported was eighty-four steps to the minute.

32. CHAPTER IV
GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
It becomes apparent from the data presented that music
teaching and directing involves more than a knowledge of music
as subject matter. The administration, production, and psychol­
ogy of musical production demand several talents in addition to
music. A creative activity such as music, if one wishes it to
be appreciated by as large an audience as possible, requires a
sensitivity to the means of creating mood.
Current practices show that the extra details of staging,
lighting, printed materials, and costuming are used to enhance
musical performances. The opportunity for using one's artistic
sense in blending the various elements within a production, is
thereby made possible.
It seems obvious that it is necessary to coordinate the
various phases of a production although the problem of providing
artistic unity is one which must be keenly felt. Therein lies
the solution to the problem. Consciously or subconsciously,
directors of music are coordinating directors. To what extent
they clarify in their own minds the demands of production is
partly dependent upon their ability to sense the proportionate
responsibilities of each component part.
19

33. i
20
The fact that these extra details are being considered
In a majority of school situations reveals a tendency to use
what may be termed the "dramatic approach" in musical production.
As an example, the striking robes worn by school a cappella
choirs have helped to Increase Interest in the group as well as
in the music itself.
The tables further show that whereas extraneous details
of costuming, staging, lighting, and attractive programs are
being frequently used to enhance productions, the opportunity
of letting them serve as a means of motivating students outside
the music department has only been partially realized. Musical
productions can therefore give "umph" to the "learn by doing"
philosophy.
Motivating several departments within a school using
student-faculty committees presents a challenge to those who
may wish to energize the curriculum.
Greater use should be made of English and Journalism
classes for publicity; art, shop, electricity, and dramatic
departments for staging; art and printing departments for pro­
grams, tickets, and posters; and the commercial department for
the business details.
The newer techniques such as the silk screen process, the
multilith, indirect lighting, levels, strobllte, and commence-
*
ment pageants can add to the scope of music production.
A guide in the form of a handbook outlining workable ideas
in producing effective musical programs for the average senior

34. 21
high school can serve as an aid In the development of the
"dramatic approach." Drawn from successful experiments of
professional producers, these Ideas can he the means of cre­
ating more convincing productions.
Finally, an understanding of the fundamental concepts
of these non-musical problems will be of value to music educa­
tors who aspire to unify and amalgamate the elements of a
musical program to effect an artistic and cohesive whole.

35. PART II
A PRODUCTION GUIDE FOR DIRECTORS OF MUSIC
IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS
A Handbook
22

36. CHAPTER V
TYPES OF MUSICAL PROGRAMS
In the production of musical programs in senior high
school a consideration of the types feasible with student talent
is of prime importance.
The psychology of the school and community and an under­
standing of the musical-dramatic resources within a school oan
help to determine selection. The requirements of each type of
program should be clearly established in the mind of the crea­
tive director before making a final decision,
A study of practices in the field of music education re­
veals several interesting types of programs, which usually are
initiated by one of the teachers of music. If the dramatic or
art department takes the initiative, the role of the music direc­
tor will be that of a cooperating agent or perhaps that of a
coordinating director.
It becomes necessary for the teacher of music to act as
coordinator in production details in a program initiated by the
music department. Such organizational control will produce the
best results.
23

37. 24
Naming £he Program
There is a psychological Implication in naming a musical
program. The opera, operetta, and musical comedy, although
similar in nature, carry a connotation strongly established
through tradition. The word concert implies formalism. The
addition of the dramatic technique may change a concert into
a festival. Such terms as "Anniversary Band Concert," "Youth
on Parade," "Choral-Symphonic," "All American Program,"— may
help to create Interest. To illustrate: Leopold Stokowski,
world renoved orchestral conductor is well known for his inter­
est in the principles of showmanship. He dramatized the idea
of the symphony concert when he organized a youth orchestra. He
further dramatized it when he named it the "All American Youth
Orchestra."
Formal Concert
The formal concert type program is a traditional pattern
requiring little assistance from other departments. This form
of expression usually concerns the orchestra, the band, the glee
club, the a cappella choir, and soloists. The simplicity of pro­
duction details makes this form a desirable one for the average
high school.
Assembly
Short musical programs featuring student talent are com­
monly presented at school assemblies. The program may have a
theme, such as "Stephen Foster Day," "Solo Day," "Talent on Parade,"
or a "Student Sing." The last named is educationally worthy
because the entire student body participates.

38. 25
i
Christmas P£o&£M}
A focal point In the year’s musical activities Is the
presentation of the Christmas program* Here the correlation
with art and drama offers great latitude of expression* The
Christmas program may take the form of a pageant, a carol sing,
Christmas vespers, a cantata, wYe Olde English Christmas,* or
tableaux*
MUSIS Festivals
The music festival offers a fine opportunity for the Inte­
gration of the instrumental and vocal music activities* It may
embody one or more performances during a stated period such as
National Music Week*, or It may present one or more groups in a
single production*
Bfigd Pageantry
The well-planned band parade, customarily presented during
the halves of a football game, is a popular means of expression
for the school band. Military formations, a feeling for design,
and a sense of showmanship are needed for effective results*
Opera. Operetta. Pageant
More difficult forms of expression are those of the opera,
the operetta, or the pageant* The complexity of preparation de­
tails is challenging to the skill of a coordinating director be­
cause several component parts, each a specialty in itself, must
* Beginning the first Sunday in May*

39. 26
be blended Into an artistic whole. This artistic unity Is
difficult to conceive and more difficult to achieve. The wan­
ing interest in this form may be traced to the complexity of
production requirements as well as to a lack of worth-while
compositions adaptable for schools.
Other Forms
Less common types of music programs Include demonstrations,
visiting artists, tableaux, shadowgraph, and pantomime.

40. CHAPTER VI
PROGRAM BUILDING
Many of our directors feel they are missionaries and are
imbued with the idea of "educating" their audiences, stuffing
them with museum pieces, so that they never return for a second
"exposure" to education • • . • "The aim is to create a crescendo
of Interest and enthusiasm as the program reaches its climax at
M1
the end.
In building a program, several psychological facts should
be observed. To say that a musical production should be enter­
taining is not necessarily derogatory. Entertainment can have
educational values and the wise director will try to build and
sustain audience Interest throughout a performance.
Attention
As first impressions are lasting ones great care should
be given to the opening selection. A selection which will lmme*
dlately arrest the attention of the audience should be used. Bril­
liant and objective music will most easily accomplish this. Once
the attention has been secured, the problem is to maintain it.
1- DeJarnette. Reven S.. Hollis Pann. P. 144.
27

41. 28
Contrast
Contrast is obtained by using various moods, tempos,
dynamics, rhythms, keys, and modes, A subjective selection
may be followed by one that is objective, A fast number fol­
lowed by a slower one, or music that has forceful rhythms con­
trasted with music which is stronger in melodic or harmonic
make-up can produce this feeling of contrast.
Variety
Variety is closely related to contrast. Its difference
lies in the fact that variety is concerned with the balance of
the entire program, but contrast is more concerned with a unit
of a program. It requires several selections to produce variety,
but two contrasting selections will provide contrast. As an ex­
ample, a unit of religious music may have subjective and objec­
tive songs within a single unit— thereby producing contrast. In
an attempt to create variety it would be in poor taste to follow
such a unit with a Hfunw unit. The contrast would be too violent.
This MfunM unit could be used later in the program, preferably
towards the end in providing necessary variety, A secular unit,
not a "fun" unit could follow a religious group of numbers if
some means of breaking the religious mood could be provided. For
example, some choirs leave the stage after the religious unit,
change from robes to evening wear, and return for a second group
of songs which are secular in nature.

42. 29
Climax
A program may be planned with one or more climaxes, with
the predominating one appearing either at the close or near It.
Climaxes can be determined only by studying the type of program
being presented. The creative director sees a program as a whole
and observes the high and low spots in his program material, blend­
ing them harmoniously. In an opera or pageant, such climaxes are
taken care of by the librettist and composer. The director, how­
ever, must be able to note where such climaxes are. The same analy­
sis technique applies as in the program of individual selections.
Novelty
Judicious use of novelty has good sales value. It is the
unusual that attracts in any good advertising campaign. The novelty
should be in keeping with the general character of the program
Itself.
Plate I, (P. 30) illustrates the use of novelty. A modern­
istic playing card served as inspiration for an original ballet
entitled "Romance of the Cards." The King of Spades, and the
Jack and Queen of Hearts pantomimed in ballet and gesture a love
story, while the school band played appropriate accompaniments.
This was used as a climax to a band concert program. This novelty
sold the concert to the extent of three hundred and fifty dollars
profit, whereas a previous concert did not make expenses. The
familiarity of subject, dramatic publicity, and unity of idea were
mainly responsible for its success.

43. 30
M U S IC FESTIVAL
T»c* * t SAUh
STARTS iQ O A Vi
fvnOof
_ a t * «
Note unity of modernisltle playing card Idea with
publicity, program and stage.
Nonrelty In Program Building
PLATE I

44. 31
Familiar Music
Mot all good music Is difficult nor Is all difficult
music good. Simple music well performed Is preferable to
difficult music faultily played. These principles should be
observed in selecting familiar music for a program. The lay
publlo Is more alert to good musical performance than it is
generally credited to be. Even though a person may not know the
technicalities of music, he does know whether or not he likes a
composition. A common ground of understanding can be established
through the use of familiar music. Fritz Kreisler has used the
familiar music technique for years. He incidentally is one of
the most popular serious artists the world possesses. John Philip
Bousa, famous band leader, used the device in all his tours.
The problem is to make unfamiliar music popular. Popular*
ity Is brought about through frequent repetition. Dr. Hollis
Dann has stated! "Frequent repetition of good music effectually
M1
develops good musical taste and a love for the beautiful. This
explains In part the acceptance of what is often termed "popular"
music. The constant repetitions over the radio help to make
music "popular. " In communities where a performing group is
heard several times within a school year, it might be desirable
to repeat previously performed numbers in an effort to build up
a background which will eventually make unfamiliar music familiar
and familiar music "popular."
1. DeJarnette. Reven B.. ftollls Dann. P. 1*7.

45. 32
Continuity
Even though the elementb of contrast and variety are being
applied, the program should be continuous in feeling. This is
achieved to some extent by moving properties, music stands and
the like, as unostentatiously and as quickly as advance planning
will allow.
Unity
Not only should the principle of unity be persistently
followed in the musical program make-up but it should function
in the matter of printed programs, publicity, staging, lighting,
costuming, and movements. This artistic unity is the largest
single responsibility of the coordinating music director. Unity
of general mood and purpose should be constantly in the mind of
the creative director.
length
The psychological principle of sending the audience away
wanting more Is not possible in the very long program. There is
a saturation point, and even though school groups perform well,
and an increasing number of them do, a consideration of the length
of a program must be observed.
A concert type program should not last more than an hour
and a half, two hours or less would be sufficient for an opera.
To aohleve this, the director must carefully time each number
before a concert. He will allow ample time for in-between num­
bers, stage movements, and intermission.

46. CHAPTER VII
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION
When a musical director undertakes to present a musical
program he assumes the role of an administrator. He must he
able to outline needs, plan schedules, and determine production
requirements. In addition to being a musician, an artist, a
diplomat, a zealot, and a showman; he must be an organizer.
The musical director analyzes his needs as to finance,
printed materials, stage and lighting requirements, tickets,
sponsorship, committees, scheduling, and rehearsing. The pop­
ular prejudice that a musician is generally poor in the handling
of business details will bring him little sympathy in actual
practice in music education.
Administrative and organizing skills are learned through
intelligent exercise in actual school situations. A director
grows in authority when he demonstrates his understanding of the
details that productions require.
Directors often are discouraged by a lack of audience
appreciation. Placing music in an ivory tower of classicism
does not help to make it palatable. To popularize his music
Ideal, the director need not lower standards to the level of
Juke-box tawdryness. The point to keep in mind is that a per­
formance, regardless of the type, must have finish, polish, and
beauty, as they are the magic means of sustaining interest.
33

47. 34
SolentIfle Management
F« H. Leffingwell, Management Engineer, very ably sums
up and explains scientific management in his statement "Hot* to
Manage" as follows*
1. Define your purpose.
You must know what is to be done before
you can know how. This is your master
work.
2. Analyze your problem.
Your master work will then break up Into
many detail tasks. Consider them all-
neglect none.
3. Seek the facts.
Study every condition governing eaoh
task, find the undesirable elements,
the desirable elements to be retained.
Then standardize right conditions.
4. Devise the one best method.
Aim to conserve energy— time— space-
material.
5. Find the person best fitted.
For each task certain personal qualities
are essential. In each person certain
qualities predominate. Find the oerson
best fitted.
6. Teach the person best fitted the one best
method.
Not by driving, but by thorough, patient
teaching are understanding and skill
developed•
7. Plan carefully.
Right planning of arrangements and sequence
of work will enable you to accomplish tasks
in logical order— accurately— quickly—
economically.
8. Win cooperation.
Cooperation means working together. It
cannot be demanded. It must be won.
Accept your share of responsibilities.
Respect the rights and aspirations of
others. 1
1. Cornell, William B., Syllabus of Industrial Management.
pp. 11-12.

48. 35
Many administrators evaluate a music education program
by the results apparent to them. They think in terms of effi­
ciency and educational objectives. These may be achieved by
a director if he will apply the principles of scientific man­
agement to production technique.
Scheduling
Long range planning Is needed to set up an adequate and
workable rehearsal schedule. The date of a program can be set
after cheoklng the school and community oalendar. The amount
of rehearsal time available in school and the actual rehearsal
needs may require the setting up of an after school schedule.
In doing so, one must fully consider the student's responsibil­
ities toward other departments within the school. A schedule
should be set several weeks prior to a program, with sufficient
flexibility to permit necessary changes.
Final rehearsals requiring several groups, costumes,
properties, scenery, lighting, and stage directions should take
place at least two days before a performance. Such a policy
will relieve the emotional strain brought about through inten­
sive drilling.
The detallB of the production schedule should be posted
at least a week in advance of actual rehearsals. It is a cour­
tesy to students to inform them of the weekly demands, particu­
larly if after-school rehearsals are needed. The individual will
then be willing to cooperate more fully.

49. 36
Committees
One of the major purposes of this handbook Is to provide
the musical director with an understanding of the requirements
necessary In building musical productions. It Is obvious that
this Includes more than a knowledge of music. The purpose of
such Information Is that he may Intelligently discuss and sug­
gest to others plans which make for more effective outcomes.
This does not imply that the director should himself do the de­
tail work. The musical demands generally require considerable
time in rehearsing, and the director will need to conserve the
greater proportion of his time for this duty.
It must be understood at the outset that the authority
and the chief responsibility for the preparation and final per­
formance rests upon the coordinating director. This presupposes
his ability to understand and get along with people. His conta­
gious enthusiasm and confidence will be reflected in the produc­
tion Itself.
Uuslc education Implies that music in school should have
basic educational alms to justify its existence. With this in
mind the program should reach as many participants as possible.
Student talent should be used whenever possible In connection
with the tasks of production.
Three methods of delegating responsibilities are In com­
mon use. They are* faculty committees, student committees, and
faculty-student committees.
In general, the faculty-student committee works best in
practice. Faculty supervision tends to draw out the students'

50. 37
beet abilities. The initiative, the talent, the energy, and
the resourcefulness which young minds often possess should be
used to the full in preparation of musical productions. Nat­
urally students are selected with reference to their abilities*
A carpenter hobbyist would be wasted on the publicity committee.
It is therefore necessary to know a student's interests and
capabilities. Production details can provide an outlet for the
artist, the writer, the builder, the research student, the radio
enthusiast, the salesman, the stenographer, the electrician, the
designer, and the composer.
Engaging as many faculty members as are willing to con­
tribute to a production has a good psychological effect in build­
ing a favorable attitude toward the muBlc program throughout the
school and community.
Oo-workers
The term, "co-workers," is used to denote those members
of a school faculty who help the music director in administering
musical programs. On this phase of administration, the opinion
of a superintendent oan shed light. Ur. Ben Gfrraham, formerly
superintendent of schools in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania statedi
The school administrator finds one of his chief problems
in mutfle is securing close and sympathetic cooperation
between the music teachers and other teachers of the
faculty in the high school* This is due in part because
music has but lately become a part of our high school
program of studies. Therefore, there are many teachers
of the traditional subjects who have not yet come to
look upon music as of equal Importance to the subjeots
they teach. Naturally, the music teacher resents this
attitude, and therefore conflict between teachers ensues*

51. 38
It is Impossible to arrange orchestra practice, chorus
practice and band practice in school time, without
occasionally conflicting with assignments of pupils
to other subjects. The teacher of an academic subject
resents having a puoil taken from her classroom for
music practice. The music teacher feels that her work
is interfered with if pupils are absent from scheduled
practices. There must be developed on the part of all
teachers the spirit of give and take, which comes
only when all teachers of the faculty have come to
realize the Important part music plays in our high
school organization today. The music teacher with a
winning personality, who can gain the sympathy and
friendship of other members of the faoulty, will prob­
ably accomplish more in the space of the school term
in promoting the advancement of music in the school,
than the teacher of high technical skill who can not
win such a degree of cooperation.
The sympathy of the principal and other members of the
faculty can be secured best by music teachers who have
broad training, and who understand the importance of
fields other than their own. The director of an orches­
tra who can Intelligently discuss the problems of the
science teacher or the mathematics teacher will gain
their cooperation and Interest in his music far more
quickly than the one who is entirely ignorant of these
fields.
There is no place for the temperamental teacher in the
high school organization. Broad training, winning per­
sonality, cooperative spirit and a high order of skill
as a teacher are required to obtain the best results in
the field of high school music today. 1
Personal likes and dislikes among members of the faculty
should be forgotten and a professional relationship substituted.
Departments assisting should be made to realize the importance of
their contributions not only to the production Itself, but more
Important, to the motivation of student talent in their own de­
partments.
1. Ben Graham, Music Education from the Standpoint of the
Administration Officer, Music Educators Journal. XIX
(October, 1932), P. 21.

52. 39
Take It for granted that cooperation will be forthcoming,
and win cooperation by being cooperative. For example, the art
department may plan to have an art exhibit of students' work.
Suggest the oosslbility of having music at the opening.
Financing
The handling of school money is important in any phase
of public education. The size of budget does not alter one's
responsibility for its wise expenditure. Extreme care should
be exercised in the business of budgeting, selling, collecting,
depositing, accounting, and auditing. Students may gain valu­
able experience in handling money. Such a detail lends Itself
well to cooperation with the commercial department within a
school.
Underwriting
The simplest plan is to have the board of education under­
write the expenses of a musical program. In practice this is
rarely done. It is commonly financed by the music department,
the school, or the general organization (G. 0.*). The sale of
tickets usually constitutes the main source of income. Profits
Bhould not be the guiding purpose unless they are to be used in
making subsequent programs more artistic.
* Several schools have what is known as a general organization
(G.O.) or student association (S.A.). Membership may in­
clude admittance to athletic contests, musicals, dramatic
presentations, subscription to school paper, and yearbook.
Student membership fees serve as a means of setting up bud­
gets for the various departments within the organization.
This cooperative plan works to the advantage of both students
and departments, supplying larger audiences at school func­
tions and cutting the oost per benefit per pupil to a minimum.

53. 40
Budgeting
Past experience Is the best guide In setting up a budget
for a school musical program. Assuming that the program Is to
be self-supporting, and this Is general practice, the budget
should be determined by studying past practices and present
needs. The traditions of the school, previous presentations,
ability of the community to pay, other community events, and
the number of students participating In the project are items
to be taken Into account, as veil as the artistic demands of a
program. Good programs pave the way for better programs which
in turn stimulate greater student interest in participation.
Miscellaneous Items
Miscellaneous items which should be Included are house
arrangements such as making provision for ushers, ticket collec­
tors, proper ventilation, heating, cooling, etc. The hiring of
a policeman for protection is required by law in many communities*

54. 41
YOUTH 25* ADULTS 40*
YOUTH CONCERT
JOSEF WAGNER
Opened nrogram
Poster
Keyboard motif
Unifying poster,
program, ticket,
and newspaper
advertising.
t i c k e t
J l i i i i i J i j i i i i i i1 Newspaper advertisement
closed program
Planning Unity
PLATE ii

55. CHAPTER VIII
PUBLICITY
The activities involved in the presentation of a musical
program lend themselves to display. Publicity concerning these
activities should reflect the tone and dignity appropriate to
public education.
Publicity is used to draw audiences and to create goodwill,
the latter receiving major emphasis. Details of publicity should
be primarily concerned with the students involved in the prepara­
tion and presentation of a project. Professional ethics would
suggest that directors use publicity as a means of interpreting
the aims of music in public education.
Planning
Although directors furnish data concerning a production,
a committee consisting of students and faculty from the English
and commercial departments could do the planning. Faculty guid­
ance is an aid in maintaining dignified and purposeful publicity.
A publicity committee considers the various methods of
publicity— community and school newspapers, photographs, posters,
assembly skits, bulletin boards, radio, direct mall, and stunts.
42

56. 43
Writing
In preparing copy for newspapers, essential facts should
be provided. Publicity should be submitted while It Is still
news, two or three days in advance of publication. Typewrite
material using triple spacings for easy editing. Use one side
of a sheet, number pages, and place the subject along with the
publication date on the upper right hand corner of the cover
page. Duplicate or oarbon copies filed with dippings, photo­
graphs, and sample programs will be useful for reference and
checking. Material can be drawn from the sources of inspiration
for the production, the type of program, the date, the make-up,
participating groups, appointment of committees, creative aspects,
patrons, guests, dress rehearsals, and ushers.
Photographs
The advertising value of an attractive and striking photo­
graph surpasses lengthy written accounts, A policy of planning
interesting photographs paves the way for pleasant relations
not only with the press but with the public to be reached.
Aotion photographs showing students rehearsing, building,
designing, painting, sewing, and planning are of general public
interest. Angles, levels, lighting, unusual properties, and
1
costumes produce dramatic and interesting photographs.
1. Plate III, P. 44.

57. Newspaper Pulallolty Photographs*
♦High School of Commerce
Springfield, Haas*, May, 1938.
P1AVS III

58. £ v
W)hJtden
lAncp
i
i
Posters
i
PLATE IV |
i..

59. 46
Posters
The art department may be able to design and produce
1
attractive posters. An excellent method of duplicating, true
2
to the original, Is through the use of the screen prooess.
Several colors may be used and the cost Is relatively low*
Medium sized posters are more likely to be placed In
windows than are huge ones.
Assembly Skits
To create Interest and enthusiasm, a skit containing por­
tions of a coming program may be presented at a student managed
assembly. An announcement would mention type of program, date,
hour, and price of admission. Clever stereoptloon slides can
be made and flashed on the screen to supplement the announcement.
Mimeographed Announcemente
The following mimeographed announcement concerning a high
school operetta was Initiated by a superintendent of schools In
a Pennsylvania community. It was given to elementary school
pupils to be taken home to their parents.
PUBLIC SCHOOLS
For a number of years the High School Operetta has been
one of the outstanding events of the school year. It
has been the big contribution of a number of departments.
Many students participate in this production. Besides
those who appear on the stage, many assist In making
costumes and In building and decorating scenery.
1. Plate IV, P. 45.
2. Biegeleisen and Bussembark, The Silk Screen Printing Process.

60. 47
On the stage appear 160 students. They receive train­
ing in singing, acting and dancing over a two month
period. In the orchestra, 35 more receive intensive
training over a similar period.
Believing that such training is of inestimable value,
we make no apology for calling the operetta to the
attention of all school pupils, teachers and parents.
Interest in the music program of the high school will
be felt in the lover grades. Young pupils will, we
hope, begin a study of voice or start Instruction on
a musical instrument early enough to enable them to
share in the High School program.
The Operetta this year will be a beautiful performance.
Laid in Spain, it is colorful in setting and charming
in music, ^e sincerely hope that many of you will be
able to attend this performance.
The Operetta will be given for one evening only. Every
seat in the High School auditorium is a good seat. We
thought that you would appreciate having your attention
called to it so that if you have not already done so you
may get seats reserved.
HIGH SCHOOL AUDITORIUM - - FRIDAY EVENING -- MARCH 8, 1935
Other Forms
Less frequently used forms of publicity are bulletin
board displays, direct mall penny post-card announcements,
1 2
blotters, tags, radio skits, homeroom announcements, and
contests.
1. Plate V, Eigure 4, P. 45.
2. Ibid., Figure 2.

61. 48
Figure 1 - Photograph
angles
Angles
Publicity Ideas
PLATE V
Figure 2
Tag
! MUSIC FESTIVAL
TICKET SALE
STARTS TODAY
Adult* 23c
Figure 4
Figure 3 Blotter or bookmark
Music director as guide and teacher

62. CHAPTER IX
PROGRAMS AND TICKETS
Psychologically, a first impression is an important one.
Accepting this, a program or ticket may set the tone of a pro­
duction well in advance of the presentation. Parents, friends,
school people and school patrons— each is represented in the
audience, and each has a particular interest in the production.
His ticket of admission and the program handed him on entering
the auditorium create for each member of the audience a first
impression of what is to come. It is advisable, therefore, to
give as careful thought and planning to these seemingly lesser
items as to the production itself.
The music director, in planning for tickets and program,
should take advantage of the assistance to be obtained through
the cooperation of other departments of the school. The art de­
partment, the printing, the shop, the commercial department—
all can take part in planning and producing the program. Not
only is this sound educational practice, but it may well cut the
costs of production.
The P ro g ra m
The purpose of a program is to give the audience informa­
tion concerning the production, and to give credit to all who made
49

63. 50
the production possible. Whether or not the program Is read In
its entirety, thus accomplishing Its purpose, depends largely on
the manner In which the content has been arranged.
The program director should have in mind the mood to be
created for the particular production, the design, the content,
and the printing. His firBt and greatest problem will be in
adapting his ideas to a budget. However, through careful plan­
ning, it is possible to create an artistic program even with
limited funds.
Creating the Mood
In certain types of productions the music director may
wish to create a mood in his audience before the rising of the
curtain. This can well be accomplished through the medium of
the program. Color, quality of paper, size, shape, design— all
1
can help in the attainment of his purpose.
The psychology of color is important. For the formal
concert program, the conservative white paper with black let­
tering is traditional. For this type of program it would be
incongruous to have colored paper or inking. The plain black
and white spells formality and creates the mood. For less for­
mal occasions colors or various tones of a single color might
be used.
The size of the program can be adapted to the impression
desired. A huge program may suggest grandeur, regality, pomp,
but if poorly treated may result in mere awkwardness. A tiny
program may suggest daintiness, simplicity, or timidity. A
1.Plate Vi, Figure 1,P. 51.

64. r.ONCI»1
figure 1
Program display
Figure 2. Various program interpretations of H.M.S. Pinafore.
Programs
PLATE VI

65. /
52
s
feeling for design and color in fostering a mood can be acquired
through the study of the program which one receives at operas,
concerts, lectures, theatres, and ballets. The length to which
the professional music-dramatists have gone in this respect re­
flects the growth of art appreciation by the general public. The
care in harmonizing color and design in the modern home is another
manifestation of this same idea.
Design
Simplicity of the front page is preferred to a design
which includes considerable information. One word in the title
page can often create the desired effect. Cuts would rarely be
used on a single page program, except as a border or heading.
The program shape, size, and fold have a bearing on its practi­
cality. Folded in such a way that it will easily fit in the
average pocket, a program is more likely to be taken home. Tfhen
the data are brief, medium and small-sized programs can be used.
If large programs are necessary, attention to spacing can facil­
itate reading.
The art students can be of tremendous help in designing
the program. An entire class might adopt it as a project. Such
motivation gives stimulus to creative talent. The original de­
signs of the students can be made into zinc cuts and reproduced
in the printed program.
A most satisfactory method for producing cover designs in
which one or more colors may be used is the silk screen process.^
1. Plate VII, P. 55.

66. IP 53
SewnfMrf"
Silk Screen Process*
PLATE VII
* Designed at Springfield, Mass. Trade School

67. 54
It is relatively inexpensive and eliminates the need of a cut.
Comparatively few schools have adopted this modern teohnlque.
Program Content
The name of the school, the place of the performance (in­
cluding street, city, and state), the organizations participating,
the date, and the time are essential data for the program. Include
the name of every participant and committee member and acknowledge
borrowed properties, special courtesies, and administrative support.
Such a policy is both courteous and psychologically sound. A per­
son1s name inadvertently omitted can make a sensitive adolescent
quite unhapoy. To avoid this, place a carbon copy of the program
on an accessible bulletin board. Inform participants that it is
their responsibility to check the manuscript and to make certain
that their names are not only there, but that they are properly
spelled. If errors are noted, the person concerned should print
his name on a small piece of paper and hand it to the program com­
mittee chairman. Corrections are then made on both the original
and bulletin board copy. It works. Here is where the commercial
department will be of assistance.
Program notes concisely stated may add to the enjoyment of
the musical performance. Information concerning the composer and
the composition may make the performance more meaningful to the
audience. In an opera program one might mention backstage details
or how a committee functions In preparing the production.
One cannot expect a good program proof unless extreme care
has been taken in suggesting the relative importance of items
within a program manuscript. This can be easily suggested on

68. 55
a typewriter by using small or large letters, spacinge, and
underlinings.
If the budget is limited, a less expensive form may be
desired. In this instance, one of the following methods of
reproduction may be used to advantage*
Mimeograph* The mimeographed program is the least ex­
pensive. Good results can be obtained when the stenciled cover
1
design has been carefully made. A heavy paper is needed to
prevent the ink from showing through. For covers,the stylus
and guides are needed tools. For shadings, screen plates are
used.
Mult111th* A new duplicating process which will repro­
duce typing, drawings, photographs or writings has been recently
2
developed. The multilith duplicator is unique among duplicating
methods for school use. From the original image on a planographic
surface, a thin film of quick-drying ink is laid on the sheet.
Spreading and distortion are eliminated. Slip-sheeting is un­
necessary, greatly speeding up production. Sheets can frequently
be used on both sides, reducing paper cost. Impressions are clear
and unbroken, whether the line is fine or heavy, whether the type­
writer characters are small or large. The work will not smudge,
nor fade from age or strong light. Color can be used freely to
add emphasis and interest to text matter.
1. Plate VIII, Figure 3, P. 56
2. Ibid., Figure 1.

69. f t
Figure 1
Multillth possibilities
Cemmcwuf of tL 9Gn^, *£eul6 XIV,
a>« M bJ to M m Ji
Si flpm-Cnwlyi
SiKa ^V ontic S ^ltjoician
£ImIIi (y SUim
^|(||||^ 0^^|| ^gmigj
<fiL
JCmmmindVtte
8.6tCJ^4&r*1666
Figure 2
Cover as a personal invitation
frY.
(y/ H. IA. S.
pinafore
Crilberf- <SulW an
Ki*ti School (.udllorlia
Portnber 16, lejg
Proi
Figure 3
Mimeographed
Cover Ideas
ATE VIII

70. 57
Tickets
Handling several hundred tickets constitutes a major
problem in the business side of musical productions to which
an admission is charged.
In theory it would be better if educationally-conceived
school programs were financed by the board of education. This is
seldom the case in practice, since school boards rarely appreciate
artistic aims to the extent of approving large expenditures.
The common practice of financing a program is through the
sale of tickets. Some system should be devised for efficient
distribution and accounting of tickets. A number placed on the
back of the ticket, and an inventory prior to distributing the
tickets for sale is one efficient method.
A padlocked box with a small opening can be used in "hlch
to place collected tickets or stubs (if seats are reserved) when
presented at the door. The business manager later checks these
with receipts. In practice, it often happens that more money is
turned in than tickets or stubs indicate. The reason for this
is that many patrons purchase school tickets and for one reason
or another do not attend the performance.
Each ticket should include the following data:
1. The type of presentation offered
(i. e., concert, opera, festival, etc.)
2. Sponsor
(music department, school, P.T.A. etc.)
3. Date, including day of week, month and year.
A. Place
5. Cost
(it is now necessary to comply with s
government tax regulations)
6• Hour
7. Reserved seats must Include section,
row, and seat number.

71. 58
As an Advertising Medium
Experiments as to size, shape, type of card, font of
type, color, and design may produce Interesting results. A
large ticket is novel and, if not overworked, attracts favor-
1
ahle attention to a coming program. Once the novelty has worn
off, It would be necessary to create another Individual type of
ticket, possibly a round one. The principle is stated because
It has produced results.
Price of Admission
Local conditions will determine the price of admission
for school musicals. In the case of reserved seats, it is a
courtesy, as well as good business, to permit participants to
purchase, or to have seats set aside, one day prior to the
general public seat sale. This alone can often sell fifty per
cent of a house, thus creating a positive psychological effect
upon hesitant purchasers.
Whether faculty members should receive complimentary
tickets is a matter of policy. If this is to be done, have a
student committee prepare personal invitations for each faculty
member and present two choice seats to all who accept.
1. Plate IX, P. 59.

72. 59
MUSIC FESTIVAL
HIGH SCHOOL of COMMERCE
featuring
AMERICAN FANTASIA
THURSDAY, APRIL 24, 1941
Ticket 25 cents
Tax Exempt
Assembly Hall
8 O ’clock
Novel Large Ticket
PLATE IX *

73. CHAPTER X
STAGING
Modern stage design arose from a dire need for art In the
theatre. It has taken too long a time to live down the misdeeds
of the past committed in the name of decoration. This "theatrical"
aspect was Interpreted as artificial and garish. It was.
Modern architects, stage designers, and creative artists
have given the modern theatre a new hope by applying the elements
of good design and art to stage decoration.
As a musician, the director must remember that the music
Is the primary element and that the stage decoration Is secondary.
Dramatic directors Insist that "the play Is the thing." It Is
true. Similarly, "music Is the thing" for the musician. There
has been much hesitancy In the matter of using stage properties
for purely musical programs because of this belief. However, It
Is foolhardy to disregard the element entirely,
Leopold Stokowski, the master-showman, recently used a
modernistic blue background setting for his NA11 American Youth
Orchestra" on its second tour. The tremendous transportation
problems involved in moving the elaborate staging would probably
have discouraged using the idea had it not been considered essen­
tial. This background device was called a tone reflector and Its
modern design also served as decoration. The idea may be traced
60

74. 61
to the opening minutes of Walt Disney'b Fantasia where a colorful
and dramatic background was created to arrest attention.
When and where to use "dramatic" staging is simply a
matter of taste. The extremes to which directors of music go
can be observed by attending a dozen different school productions.
The artistic concept being relative, it is sufficient to say that
stage decorations should be simple, direct, and in the mood of the
music to be performed,
gvrppqt
The purpose of staging in musical production is to create
the proper mood for the reception of the music itself. The human
eye is as receptive to impressions as is the ear. It is a psycho­
logical truth that the span of attention of either faculty is
limited. The eye appeal technique directs attention momentarily
to the visual aspects and "rests" the ear. The relaxing nature
of this duality should be understood.
Organization and Planning
The type of urogram, the mood needed, the size of the stage,
and the number of participants all influence staging. The type
of program to be presented should be kept constantly in mind. For
Instance, the music festival generally has several groups appear­
ing. Stage waits are common and do much to destroy previous good
effects. It is safe to say that the attention of an audience will
be better retained through a carefully worked out stage plan.

75. i
62
Hava the stage committee Fork out each detail In Its
entirety— from the moving of a single second violinist's chair
to the setting of a cathedral scene for the a cappella choir.
Give full resDonsibility for each detail to capable persons.
1
A miniature stage built to scale of the stage itself, with the
assistance of the shop, electricity, and art department, can be
of valuable aid in planning operettas, pageants, and tableaux.
Designs can be made from art materials. Interesting interpre­
tations of the same idea Fill be forthcoming from the art design
classes.
Properties
One simple means of creating a stage effect is through
the use of a property often known as a "cut-out." It may be a
design placed in the rear of the stage or it may be a piece of
scenery or part of a curtain. A stained glass window effect
would be appropriate for religious music or a papier mache
American Eagle could be used for a chorus or band performing
patriotic music.
Stage Crew
The stage crew helps build and paint stage decorations as
well as take care of backstage details during the performance.
They should fully rehearse all details much in the same manner
that one drills for technical accuracy in the orchestra or chorus
1. Plate X, figure 2, P. 63.

76. V J
. > * « ? . , , ' ^ } f r "1 4 : f' * • *
» * * r ■■’,7 * U ■- * - ! ■ • > - * 1 't I
1 , ‘ ' ■' ■* :I-f H Hj f r l - t - f- f * - •
,•« < *>1 n m *1 H v w ^ h tin f;l}r '•>"
^ I* • ?• <k_i
Figure 1
Joliet Illinois High School Band and Choir
Figure 2
Miniature stage*
gt.afie Planning
PLATE X
* Radio City Music Hall

77. 64
rehearsal. This can be accomplished only when clarity has been
established In the minds of each member of the stage crew. First
the director must know what he wants, and should then transmit
this Information to the stage committee head, who In turn will
train the stage crew.
Levels
Standing or sitting at various levels In band, choir, or
orchestral concerts has been adopted by many school groups. Not
only does It nrovide better visibility for both the performer and
the audience but It also imoroves the music. Paysen1s patented
1
collapsible rostrums are used successfully for this purpose. The
resulting compactness of the performers will help them to blend
better, a finer sense of balance and an improved tone quality will
result, and the effect from the point of view of staging is arrest
ing.
The correlation possibilities of band and chorus was sug­
gested when the Joliet, Illinois high school musical groups Joined
2
forces in a recent concert. Note the levels, the balance, and
the attention to stage details. This eye appeal Just did not
happen— it was created by means of a carefully worked out plan.
A third example from the field of school music represents
several stage levels which were used to create a magnificent pa-
3
triotic pageant entitled Muslca Americana. It took organizing
and planning skill, to coordinate the efforts of twenty-five
1. Plates Xl and XII, pp. 65-66,
2. Plate X, Figure 1, P. 63.
3. Plate XIII, P. 67.

78. 65
iEkTA R E THREE SECTIONS STACKED ALONG' TRL' V A L L
Space Required; Length 7 feet 1/ 2 inch; Depth 14 inches; H eigh yfjr& ic& r
A STAND
FOR EVERY BAND
~^5p
1 J C'*3r rail.ni,-)
r-o^V
W^
•dfe'QNL SfCTtON
y y Tw o S t l p B a n d S ta n d
Paysen Collapsible Rost rums
PLATE XI

79. 66
B e f o r e a n d ^ A f t e r
^ .V . >
X
H IG H SCHOOL A CAPPELA CHOHL Holland Michigan — Miss Trixie Moore, Director
Vooal Improvement Through the Use of Levela
PLATE XII

80. 67
SCENES FROM THE CENTENNIAL FESTIVAL PAGEANT "MUSICA AMERICANA" .
P resented by the St. L ouis public high schools, “ M usica A m ericana" w as n o t only a rem arkable production fully justifying itsim portanceas the:
official presentation of th e centennial anniversary observance; it w as also a significant exam ple of practical integration, and it afforded a new ;
challenge, by th e artistic and professional standards achieved, in a school m usic project of th is kind. Compiled, supervised and directed by a
staff m em ber of the St. Louis public schools m usic departm ent, E rn e st H ares, a s sista n t supervisor of m usic, th e en tire production, w ith a, student
orchestra and w ith a stu d en t c a st to tallin g tw enty-five hundred, w as "hom em ade" throughout. Even th e costum es, scenery, and properties w ere
m ade in th e schools. T h e perform ance provided a thrilling experience th a t will never be forgotten. A com plete synopsis of th e pag ean t and a >
descriptive analysis of th e production w ill,be published in th e 1938 M. E. N. C. Yearbook. „ j
Pflgeant Stage Levels
PLATE XIII

81. 68
hundred high school students. So successful was this pageant
that another was presented at Milwaukee, Fisconsin, on the occasion
of the biennial convention of the Music Educators National Confer-
1 ..
ence in that city in April, 194-2. Both these pageants were home
made" throughout, providing opportunities for the expression of a
wide range of students'talents. Of course pageants including
twenty-five hundred students can occur in large cities only where
several schools cooperate, but the principles of modern staging
can be applied in making musical presentations more effective,
regardless of the size of the group*
2
Tableau
The tableau is a vivid representation and is particularly
effective in creating mood. Though it presents a simple stage
problem, the results more than Justify the cost and time needed.
The use of the tableau with music is capable of a much wider and
more varied development than it has generally been given.
The effectiveness of a tableau may be increased by setting
the characters Inside the opening of a large gold frame. This
opening may be covered with scrim curtain. The scrim curtain, the
lights, the frame, and familiarity of subject create dramatic power.
The scope which the tableau suggests is unlimited. For
example, a series of religious paintings identified with the Christ­
mas season may be used. An a cappella choir singing carols back­
stage can enhance the total effect.
1. Educational Policies Commission, Free Men. The Drama of
Democracy, Fashington, 1942.
2. Plate XIV, P. 69.

82. 69
Signing of the Declaration of Independence
The characters remain stationary while a narrator— unseen
to the audience reads pertinent and familiar lines from
the Declaration document, A flute and muted strings may
he used as "background.*
Tableau Effect
PLATE XIV
*Musict My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free
by Francis Hopkinson, one of the
original signers.

83. 70
Overture Visual Alda
Opera composers have long been aware of the psychological
principle of arresting attention at the beginning of a performance.
One reason for an overture was to wrench the audience from a talk­
ative. carefree mood to the mood of the opera. Visual aids as
a means of adding Interest to the overture are outlined in the
following three experiments.
Instrumental Techniques
A composite photograph of the hand and finger motions in­
volved in playing the various orchestral instruments was projected
1
on a silver screen while the orchestra played an overture. Amber
lights were directed over the orchestra itself from spotlights
placed upon right and left sides of the balcony, drawing essential
attention to the orchestra and its music.
Shadowgraph Visual Aid Combination
The drawing of the Chinese dragon was made into a colored
stereopticon slide and shown above a silhouette screen in the style
2
of a shadowgraph. Principal characters from the operetta "The
China Shop," by Arthur Penn, pantomimed characteristic motions
used in the operetta itself while the orchestra played the music
of the overture. The silhouette figures of Chinese characters
fanning briskly while taking mincing steps helped to place the
audience in the mood for the opening of the operetta itself.
1. Plate 3tV, figure 1, P. 71#
2. Ibid., Figure 2.

84. 71
Figure 1
Instrumental techniques
Figure 2
Shadowgraph-visual aid combination
1
PLATE X V : Overture Visual Aids

85. 72
Introducing Characters of an Opera
An Interesting overture novelty was developed to Introduce
1
the cast of characters of H.M.S. Pinafore.
Black and white drawings were made of each character depict­
ing In a rather humorous way the characterizations. Sir William
Gilbert, librettist of H.M.S. Pinafore was a genius In creating
strongly contrasting characters. This simplified the task.
A photograph 3£x4J was taken of each drawing. The nega­
tive film, which Is the reverse of the drawing, was placed between
2
two glass slides; colored by painting upon the emulsion side of
the film; Inserted between the slide glasses and edged with cellu-
3
lose tape to keep the slide together. Each slide cost a total
of sixty cents.
The lights lowered, amber spots were directed from the
balcony sides upon the orchestra and the overture began. The stage
4
curtains parted and the first slide was projected on the lowered
sliver screen. As the overture progressed the various characters
appeared singly, first one on the extreme stage right and then
another on the extreme stage left. Each assumed a characteristic
pantomimic pose. A concealed R40, 150 watt spotlight was thrown
on each character as she appeared. The audience1s attention
traveled from screen to character, to screen and to another char­
acter until all characters had been properly Introduced.
1. High School of dommerce, Springfield, Mass., May 17, 1942,
with an all girl cast.
2. Eastman Kodak color outfit.
3. Plate XVI, Figure 1, P. 73.
4. Plate XVII, Figure 1, P. 74.

86. Figure 1
School made stereoptican slides used In the overture
H.M.S. Pinafore
LITTLE
BUTTERCUP
A POM/MOUTH iUM&OAT W O M AN
IREN
Dialed LLj
PAULO
Figure 2
"Introducing
little
Buttercup"
H.M.S. Pinafore Visual Aids
PLATE XVI

87. 7 *
C E L E B R A T I N G
T H E O N E H U N D P v E T H A N N I V E M A R Y
O F T H E 5 I A T H O F 11A ARTHUR, iULUVAM
W H O W I T H W . i . G I L B E R T C O M P O I E D
H.M.S. PLWAFORE
C A S T OF
CHARACTERS
/
Figure 1
Opening slide
CAPTAIN
(OKOtAK
C O M M A N D IN G H.M.5. PINAFORE
ILAYED 3Y
LORRAINE
COUGHLIN
Figure 2
"Introducing Captain
Corcoran"
H.M. 3. Pinafore Visual Aida
(concluded)
plate XVII
o
E C K TT H E SHIP 5 C A k P E N T E k
a</6a ot/
ANNETTE
GRANT

88. 75
Humor
Humor 1 b a welcome relief to any tense situation. It
Is obvious to the artistic sensitive mind that this element
should not be used In certain types of programs, religious onee
for example. There is ample opportunity however, to add a dash
of humor to give zest to most types of programs. Extremes should
of course be avoided, and as in the case of stage decorations,
becomes a matter of taste. Young people of high school age have
a balanced sense of humor that oldsters might well emulate.
The photographs of Plate XVIII, P. 77, were taken at a
rehearsal of American Fantasia— an original compilation of epi-
1
sodes in American history. The gay nineties period followed
several units of contrasting moods. The humor served as a means
of lightening the program and still it kept within the bound­
aries of the theme of American history.
Scenery
Scenery is an important element of staging. Local condi­
tions and facilities for designing, building, and painting will
determine the methods to employ. There are many excellent books
on stage-craft, outlining methods of designing, building, and
painting opera scenes. The inspiration, the ideas, and specifi­
cations, however, should come from the coordinating head. In
musical programs this would be the music director.
1. Plate XXXIII, P. 149.

89. 76
Curtain
The simple task of opening and closing a curtain will
have a psychological effect in maintaining atmosphere. The
speed and smoothness of the curtain draw will be determined
by the type of setting. An a cappella choir ready to sing a
religious number would probably require a slowly drawn curtain.
The finale of an opera may require a fast curtain draw. Common
sense and a feeling for mood will serve as adequate guides.

90. Figure 2
Life with father
Figure 1
Playing croquet
Figure 3
"On route to California, 1849" Staging Haa&E
PLATE XVIII
A
Figure 4
On a bicycle built for two"

91. CHAPTER XI
LIGHTING
Modern lighting is a most effective instrument in
creating moods. Its flexibility is a revelation to the novice.
It is the very core of a stage picture, for it is vibrant and
atmospheric. It can unify, accentuate or diminish relative
values within a setting. Old scenery and properties can be
made to look fresh and rich through skillful manipulation of
lights. It further provides contrast, variety and balance— all
necessary phases of the artistic stage picture.
Lighting details should not be left to the last moment.
Even in the formal concert thought must be given to the possi­
bilities of improving the performance by means of lighting.
Planning
It is more desirable to have many Bmall lights rather
than a few ultra-bright ones, since the former permits greater
control and flexibility of effect.
A creative artist may through the careful choice of
colors and lights enhance the beauty of a stage, but a poor
techniclan may destroy what beauty there is by spilling light
indiscriminately. Through careful color choices and manipula­
tion of equipment he can create several interesting effects.
78

92. 79
Incidentally, it la desirable to keep from the view of the
audience as many sources of light as possible.
Unless special lighting adds to a musical presentation,
it should be omitted. The determining factor is achievement of
a desired effect, not merely the use of lighting simply because
it Is being done. A single light stream will often produce the
required effect.
Switchboard
The most important single element of good lighting is the
switchboard. In the perfect switchboard, every individual light
or series of lights is wired with its own individual switch and
dimmer, with a rheostat controlling the amount of current that
flows to every individual light. Every spotlight and every flood­
light, or every receptacle leading to these units, should have its
own switch and dimmer, so that it not only can be cut off independ­
ently of every other unit, but that it also can be made of any
desired degree of brightness up to its full capacity,
Purposes of
!• Visibilityt The purpose of lighting is to illuminate
the performing groups and the staging in proper ratio. Over-
lighting is a common fault, but underlighting is a worse condition
for the audience. Shadows should not be entirely eliminated, as
they often produce interesting effects. A lighting effeot must
help a setting; otherwise it should be omitted.

93. 80
2. Interpretation of mood: The type of lighting, and
more Important, the colors used will help to Interpret a mood.
Light being mobile, has great flexibility In suggesting whether
a mood Is gay, comic, dramatic, or tragic.
3. "Painting” the scenery: A colored light brings out
Its own color and kills all others. This suggests the Importance
of the lighting committee. It Is a simple matter to destroy all
the beauty painted In a set. However, proper lighting will bring
out the tones and relative values of a set in' the proportion that
the art committee had In mind If time is taken to experiment with
types of lights and colors.
Light— a, Factor In Itself
All things reflect light. We are able to see objects
because the light rays are reflected by them to the eye.
The power of an object in reflecting light is called its
luminosity. Those objects that are most luminous we
call white, those least luminous we call black. Magne-
Bium carbonate reflects the most light of any substance
known and is called the whitest. Black velvet, reflect­
ing the least light, is called black . . . . Another
point is that we see depth and solidity because of light
and shadow. Therefore, too much light destroys the sense
of depth. If an object is lighted evenly from all sides
we fall to see its details of form. 1
Color Mixing
These colors we have arranged in a series known commonly
as the spectrum or color wheel . . . . They are: red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. It is because
of the fact that white light Is composed of all colors
that we can behold colors. 2
1. Victor D'Amlco. Theatre Art. P. 93#
2. Ibid., P. 96.

94. 81
Te have two kinds of color sets: a light set and
a pigment set. 1 The primary colors In light are
red, blue and green. From the mixture of these we
can get any color. From the mixture of the three,
we get real white light. 2 . . . . One Important
factor in using light and pigment colors is that
colored light thrown against a pigment of the same
color will emphasize that color. For example, a
blue light thrown on a blue surface will make that
surface appear a richer blue. However, any other
color thrown upon the blue surface will make the
surface appear black because a color reflects Its
own color and absorbs all other colorB. The prin­
ciple is that a colored light will pick up its own
color: red light will pick up red colored pigment,
green light will pick up green, and so on. 3
Color Psychology
Every color has a mood of its own. For instance, purity
is suggested by white, and blue suggests a "cool" mood, because
of psychological associations— skies are blue and cool, glaciers
are tinged with blue, and so on. Gray suggests somberness,
yellow is warm and cheerful, and red is vibrant and arresting.
Moods are quickly created through the use of color, but it should
be used only when it will add to a musical performance, not for
its intrinsic beauty.
Selection
Color values are as variable in peoples minds as are
musical tone values. The color blue may mean a light, medium
or dark blue and each may have sub-tones. Exact color tones are
necessary. A safe method is to use a gelatin chart and signify
choice by numbers rather than by colors. Thus, when a director
1. Plate XXI, P. 87.
2. Victor D'Amico, Theatre Art. P. 97
3. Ibid., P. 98.

95. Surprise
Purplr'
Surfrts*
Vie1st
QeJatine (PUaphana) stoats
•^siaoJk^
Gelatine Color Chart
p l a t e XIX

96. 83
or light committee head says “thirty-eight green," he has
1
Indicated a specific shade of that color.
Light Plot
If detailed and changing lighting effects are to be
used, then a careful lighting plot should be made, taking into
consideration the types of equipment available, the number of
outlets, and the amperage for each.
Light cues may be marked in a musical score, which may
be followed by a stage crew member who will carry out the effect
at the exact time needed. Changes should be made unostentatiously
and gradually. It may be difficult to do thiB without dimmers,
but several small lights brought on one at a time may be sub­
stituted. However, purposeful lighting effects can be achieved
only through careful experimentation.
StrobiIte
Stroblite is a method of producing new spectacular color
and lighting effects in darkened surroundings, obtained through
a combination of ultra violet light and specially prepared lumi­
nescent colors. Stroblite is no ordinary light, nor does it
enroloy ordinary colors, but invisible ultra violet light and
2
newly developed stroblite colors. This patented paint is
commonly used for striking effects in the theatre. Its use should
probably be confined to pageants, tableaux, and operas and of
course would not be used without a definite purpose.
1. Plate XIX, P. 82.
2. Obtainable from Stroblite Co., 35 West 52'nd St., New York, N.Y.