Building the Agile Business through Digital Transformation_ How to Lead Digit...DarkoGolec
1. Exponential increases in processing power and ubiquitous access to information via digital technologies have radically transformed customer expectations and business operations.
2. Digital technologies are disrupting existing business models, competitive advantages, and best practices across industries with unprecedented speed.
3. In order to respond effectively to these challenges, organizations need to transform not just their strategies but their mindsets, approaches, thinking, and behaviors to acquire greater agility. The passage focuses on how to transform rather than just discussing the need for change.
Pregledno gradivo za predmet "Poslovna informatika"
1. del: uvod v poslovno informatiko, poslovni informacijski sistemi, terminologija, podpora upravljanju
Dodiplomski študij, DOBA Fakulteta za uporabne poslovne in družbene študije Maribor
Arquitetando seus dados na prática para a LGPD - Alessandra MartinsiMasters
Diante das novas regulamentações externas (GDPR), e a nova legislação Brasileira sobre Proteção de Dados Pessoais (LGPD), o que fazer para se adequar? Por Onde começar? O que Fazer? E o que não fazer? Para que serve a Governança de Dados e como ela pode ajudar sua empresa no processo de adequação/conformidade a padrões internacionais de Privacidade e Segurança da Informação? Diante de tantos caminhos e desafios, um overview do que se trata, por onde começar o caminho, algumas armadilhas a evitar, e algumas boas práticas para não apenas se proteger, mas evitar futuros problemas.
Enterprise Architecture .vs. Collection of Architectures in EnterpriseYan Zhao
The document discusses the differences between enterprise architecture (EA) and a collection of architectures in an enterprise. It argues that EA requires a top-down guidance framework to ensure the various architectures developed across an organization are coordinated and aligned. The key elements of an effective EA framework include a target vision, principles, governance, reference architectures, development approaches, and an evolution roadmap. The document also outlines the focus areas in each phase of the TOGAF architecture development method to help ensure successful adoption of EA in initiatives, programs and projects. Effective EA requires balancing top-down guidance with bottom-up flexibility for organic growth.
Integrating It Frameworks, Methodologies And Best Practices Into It Delivery ...Alan McSweeney
The document proposes an integrated IT solution and operations management approach consisting of two pillars: 1) Architecture and Realisation, which is concerned with enterprise vision, strategy, architecture, implementation and operation. 2) Management and Processes, which addresses management of initiatives, programmes, projects and associated processes. It suggests grouping relevant frameworks under these pillars to provide guidance on core functions. Frameworks can help organizations quickly develop core competencies across functions like quality management, resource management, and financial management.
The document discusses Apache Atlas, an open source project aimed at solving data governance challenges in Hadoop. It proposes Atlas to provide capabilities like data classification, metadata exchange, centralized auditing, search and lineage tracking, and security policies. The architecture would involve a type system to define metadata, a graph database to store metadata, and search and lineage functionality. A governance certification program is also proposed to ensure partner solutions integrate well with Atlas and Hadoop.
IT Service Taxonomy Essentials: Separate IT and Business Services Catalogs?Evergreen Systems
IT Service Catalogs and portals are proliferating. How many Service Catalogs do you need? Should you have separate IT and business service catalogs? What do you do when a service combines parts of both? How do you not totally confuse your customers? Evergreen shares how to create and manage a federated Service Catalog approach – enabling both a consistent service face to your customers and giving your IT teams the latitude they need to execute effectively. We also briefly demonstrate our beautiful and innovative customer-centric Service Catalog (on ServiceNow) – with our service taxonomy framework built in! Recorded event with live demo available at http://content.evergreensys.com/it-service-catalog-webinar-separate-catalogs-slides
Don Casson, CEO and Jeff Benedict, ITSM Practice Manager share best practices you can use to clearly define and communicate - who is the Customer and what are the Services? They also share how a service catalog taxonomy framework helps you organize and manage this as ONE team. You may download or playback the recording here: http://bit.ly/1BWnEkX #servicecatalog #servicenow #itsm
Building the Agile Business through Digital Transformation_ How to Lead Digit...DarkoGolec
1. Exponential increases in processing power and ubiquitous access to information via digital technologies have radically transformed customer expectations and business operations.
2. Digital technologies are disrupting existing business models, competitive advantages, and best practices across industries with unprecedented speed.
3. In order to respond effectively to these challenges, organizations need to transform not just their strategies but their mindsets, approaches, thinking, and behaviors to acquire greater agility. The passage focuses on how to transform rather than just discussing the need for change.
Pregledno gradivo za predmet "Poslovna informatika"
1. del: uvod v poslovno informatiko, poslovni informacijski sistemi, terminologija, podpora upravljanju
Dodiplomski študij, DOBA Fakulteta za uporabne poslovne in družbene študije Maribor
Arquitetando seus dados na prática para a LGPD - Alessandra MartinsiMasters
Diante das novas regulamentações externas (GDPR), e a nova legislação Brasileira sobre Proteção de Dados Pessoais (LGPD), o que fazer para se adequar? Por Onde começar? O que Fazer? E o que não fazer? Para que serve a Governança de Dados e como ela pode ajudar sua empresa no processo de adequação/conformidade a padrões internacionais de Privacidade e Segurança da Informação? Diante de tantos caminhos e desafios, um overview do que se trata, por onde começar o caminho, algumas armadilhas a evitar, e algumas boas práticas para não apenas se proteger, mas evitar futuros problemas.
Enterprise Architecture .vs. Collection of Architectures in EnterpriseYan Zhao
The document discusses the differences between enterprise architecture (EA) and a collection of architectures in an enterprise. It argues that EA requires a top-down guidance framework to ensure the various architectures developed across an organization are coordinated and aligned. The key elements of an effective EA framework include a target vision, principles, governance, reference architectures, development approaches, and an evolution roadmap. The document also outlines the focus areas in each phase of the TOGAF architecture development method to help ensure successful adoption of EA in initiatives, programs and projects. Effective EA requires balancing top-down guidance with bottom-up flexibility for organic growth.
Integrating It Frameworks, Methodologies And Best Practices Into It Delivery ...Alan McSweeney
The document proposes an integrated IT solution and operations management approach consisting of two pillars: 1) Architecture and Realisation, which is concerned with enterprise vision, strategy, architecture, implementation and operation. 2) Management and Processes, which addresses management of initiatives, programmes, projects and associated processes. It suggests grouping relevant frameworks under these pillars to provide guidance on core functions. Frameworks can help organizations quickly develop core competencies across functions like quality management, resource management, and financial management.
The document discusses Apache Atlas, an open source project aimed at solving data governance challenges in Hadoop. It proposes Atlas to provide capabilities like data classification, metadata exchange, centralized auditing, search and lineage tracking, and security policies. The architecture would involve a type system to define metadata, a graph database to store metadata, and search and lineage functionality. A governance certification program is also proposed to ensure partner solutions integrate well with Atlas and Hadoop.
IT Service Taxonomy Essentials: Separate IT and Business Services Catalogs?Evergreen Systems
IT Service Catalogs and portals are proliferating. How many Service Catalogs do you need? Should you have separate IT and business service catalogs? What do you do when a service combines parts of both? How do you not totally confuse your customers? Evergreen shares how to create and manage a federated Service Catalog approach – enabling both a consistent service face to your customers and giving your IT teams the latitude they need to execute effectively. We also briefly demonstrate our beautiful and innovative customer-centric Service Catalog (on ServiceNow) – with our service taxonomy framework built in! Recorded event with live demo available at http://content.evergreensys.com/it-service-catalog-webinar-separate-catalogs-slides
Don Casson, CEO and Jeff Benedict, ITSM Practice Manager share best practices you can use to clearly define and communicate - who is the Customer and what are the Services? They also share how a service catalog taxonomy framework helps you organize and manage this as ONE team. You may download or playback the recording here: http://bit.ly/1BWnEkX #servicecatalog #servicenow #itsm
"Unleash the potential of Platforms for your business"
ServiceNow technology has the potential to radically change the way IT departments work, by optimally matching their services to the needs of their customers. ServiceNow makes application development possible in which the platform offers standard functional blocks with shared infrastructures, data and interfaces.
We assists companies to get from expectation to result. We do this by providing a complete set of services from strategic advice, implementation of platforms to the development of platform applications.
What is the Value of Mature Enterprise Architecture TOGAFxavblai
This document summarizes the key points made by Judith Jones, CEO of Architecting the Enterprise, in her presentation at the Telelogic Conference on November 4th 2008 about the value of mature enterprise architecture. She discusses how enterprise architecture exists within every organization and affects its efficiency and effectiveness. It is not optional. She outlines TOGAF as the industry standard architecture framework and how it provides best practices and professionalism. Mature enterprise architecture helps organizations get work done quicker, reduce risks, and lower running costs, demonstrating its business value.
Data governance Program PowerPoint Presentation Slides SlideTeam
The document discusses the need for data governance programs in companies. It outlines why companies suffer without effective data governance, such as applications being unable to communicate and inconsistencies in data leading to increased costs. The document then compares manual and automated approaches to data governance. It provides details on key aspects of building a data governance program, including establishing a framework, defining roles and responsibilities, and outlining a roadmap for improving data governance over time.
Application rationalization- Invest today to save tomorrow!Vivek Mishra
The document discusses application rationalization and provides guidance on conducting the process. It outlines six key steps: 1) strategic alignment to define objectives and scope, 2) creating an application inventory, 3) assessing value and scoring applications, 4) designing the future state, 5) developing a rationalization roadmap, and 6) managing changes. Critical success factors include top management commitment, clear objectives, stakeholder participation, and robust application health analysis. Application rationalization is presented as a precursor to modernization efforts like cloud migration and helps optimize costs by eliminating redundant applications.
Este documento habla sobre Spark, un framework para procesar grandes cantidades de datos. Spark permite procesar datos en tiempo real de manera más rápida que Hadoop. Se recomienda usar Spark para explorar grandes conjuntos de datos, crear modelos y sistemas de producción que procesen grandes cantidades de eventos en tiempo real. Empresas como Netflix y IBM usan Spark para procesar billones de eventos diarios.
History of IT Service Management Practices and StandardsRob Akershoek
Evolution of IT service management practices and standards from Top Gun 1 (around 1990) to Top Gun Maverick (2022)
How did the IT management evolve since 1990? When were key standards and practices introduced?
The IT management market has significantly evolved over the last few years e.g. introducing DevOps, Continuous Delivery, Agile Development, SRE and IT4IT. Managing this new multi-vendor ecosystem consisting of cloud, containers and micro-services.
Managing this new digital reality requires you to combine various practices into one integrated Digital Operating Model, to optimize end-to-end IT value streams.
This document discusses platform decomposition diagrams as part of phase D of the technology architecture. Platform decomposition diagrams break down a system into its constituent platform components and interfaces to depict the major technical building blocks and how they relate to each other at a high level. The document focuses on creating platform decomposition diagrams.
It is well known that an effective PMO is key to successful and efficient program and project execution. In other words, doing things “right”. Enterprise Architecture is the discipline that plans and monitors enterprise transformation and aligns the business strategy with information technology capabilities. In other words, doing the “right things” to support the business.
Why is it organizations despite having both of these disciplines still struggle with effective enterprise transformation? What can we done to use these disciplines more effectively to effect better business outcomes? What are the roles of each discipline and how do they work together to create business value?
In this presentation, Riaz will address these questions and will provide real life examples that can help build a strong relationship between the PMO and Enterprise Architecture.
Learning Objectives:
• How to build a strong relationship between the PMO and Enterprise Architecture (EA) to deliver positive outcomes for your organization
• Identify the different roles and functions of the PMO and EA as well as their similarities
This document discusses the similarities between data architecture and the Zachman Framework. The Zachman Framework is a matrix that describes an enterprise's information architecture, with the data column representing data architecture. Data architecture and each row of the Zachman Framework's data column correspond to different levels of data modeling, from a list of important business data to physical storage design. Both aim to define how data is stored, managed, and used within a system.
Real-World DG Webinar: A Data Governance Framework for Success DATAVERSITY
A Data Governance Framework must include best practices, a practical set of roles & responsibilities for Data Governance built specifically for your organization, a plan for communicating with the entire organization and an action plan for applying governance in effective and measurable ways.
Join Bob Seiner for this Real-World Data Governance webinar as he discusses how to stay practical and work within the culture of your organization to develop and deliver a Data Governance Framework to meet your specifications and the business’ expectations.
This session will focus on:
Defining a Non-Invasive Operating Model of Roles & Responsibilities
Clearly Stating the Difference between Executive, Strategic, Tactical, Operational & Supporting Roles
Defining Data Stewards, Data Stewardship and How to Steward the Data
Recognizing & Identifying People into Roles Rather than Handing them to People as New Responsibilities
Leveraging the Framework to Implement a Successful Data Governance Program
Using togaf™ in government_enterprise_architecture_to_describe_the_it_archite...johnpolgreen
The document discusses using The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) in conjunction with the United States Government's Federal Enterprise Architecture (FEA) and Federal Segment Architecture Methodology (FSAM) to describe the IT architecture for a government agency. It maps the phases of the TOGAF Architecture Development Method (ADM) to the FEA reference models and FSAM steps. Case studies are presented on how TOGAF was used successfully with the FEA for IT architecture projects at the US Department of Agriculture and in the UK government.
ITIL 4 service value chain data flows (input and outputs)Rob Akershoek
This document provides an overview of the inputs and outputs between activities in the IT service value chain. It shows that all activities engage with external parties, obtain new resources, plan, and improve. Key inputs include requirements, requests, incidents and feedback from customers and users. Outputs include improvement initiatives, status reports, and delivered services and components. The value chain aims to design, deliver, and support products and services based on strategic plans and customer needs.
The document provides an overview of The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF), including:
- TOGAF is an enterprise architecture standard used by leading organizations to improve business efficiency.
- Version 9.1 was released in 2011 as an evolution of TOGAF 9 to address feedback and include over 450 changes.
- The core of TOGAF is the Architecture Development Method, an iterative process for developing architectures in phases from developing business to technology architectures.
IT4IT - Manage the Digital Enterprise.pdfitSMF Belgium
The document discusses managing the digital ecosystem using the IT4IT standard version 3.0. It highlights key challenges in managing today's complex IT landscape with many tools, technologies, vendors and silos. The IT4IT standard addresses these challenges by providing an integrated digital management system and capabilities to manage the full digital lifecycle from strategy to operations. It aims to optimize value streams, automate workflows, and provide transparency across the multi-vendor ecosystem.
Becoming Secure By Design: Questions You Should Ask Your Software VendorsSolarWinds
The next cyberattack is always around the corner, but you can use every minor incident to help you prepare for major ones. Designing your environment with security in mind at every step will help you better prepare, and you must make sure all those who contribute to your environment are equally secure, including your software partners.
This document provides an overview of TOGAF 9.1, including:
- TOGAF is an enterprise architecture framework developed by The Open Group to help design, plan, implement, and govern an enterprise information technology architecture.
- The key component of TOGAF is the Architecture Development Method (ADM), which provides a process for developing enterprise architectures in a standardized and systematic way.
- The ADM supports iteration across its nine phases: preliminary, architecture vision, business architecture, data architecture, application architecture, technology architecture, opportunities & solutions, migration planning, and implementation governance.
Digital Transformation And Solution ArchitectureAlan McSweeney
Digital strategy is a statement about the organisation’s digital positioning, competitors and customer and collaborator needs and behaviour to achieve a direction for innovation, communication, transaction and promotion. Digital strategy needs to be defined in the same framework structure as the proposed digital architecture platform.
Achieving the target digital organisation means deploying solutions that enable the digital architecture. Solution architecture needs to design solutions that fit into the target digital architecture framework. This requires:
• Solution architecture team operating in an integrated manner designing solutions to a set of common standards and that run on the platform
• Solution architecture team leadership ensuring solutions conform to the common standards
• Solution architecture technical leadership to develop and maintain common solution design standards
• Solution architecture updates the digital reference architecture based on solution design experience
Digital solution design requires greater discipline to create an integrated set solutions that operate within the rigour of the digital architecture framework. The solution architecture function must interact with other IT architecture disciplines to ensure the set of solutions that implement the digital framework operate together. This requires greater solution architecture team leadership. This needs to be supplemented and supported by a well-defined set of digital solution design standards.
This follows-on from the previous presentation: Digital Transformation And Enterprise Architecture
https://www.slideshare.net/alanmcsweeney/digital-transformation-and-enterprise-architecture.
enhanced Telecommunication Operating Model (e-TOM) is part of TM Frameworx. The eTOM is a comprehensive standard business processes framework. It is industry standard best practices and recommends for all business processes and or rules to support Business Support Systems (BSS) /Operation Support Systems (OSS) for communications Service providers (CSP) space. Please visit the TM Forum site for details:
https://www.tmforum.org/business-process-framework/
"Unleash the potential of Platforms for your business"
ServiceNow technology has the potential to radically change the way IT departments work, by optimally matching their services to the needs of their customers. ServiceNow makes application development possible in which the platform offers standard functional blocks with shared infrastructures, data and interfaces.
We assists companies to get from expectation to result. We do this by providing a complete set of services from strategic advice, implementation of platforms to the development of platform applications.
What is the Value of Mature Enterprise Architecture TOGAFxavblai
This document summarizes the key points made by Judith Jones, CEO of Architecting the Enterprise, in her presentation at the Telelogic Conference on November 4th 2008 about the value of mature enterprise architecture. She discusses how enterprise architecture exists within every organization and affects its efficiency and effectiveness. It is not optional. She outlines TOGAF as the industry standard architecture framework and how it provides best practices and professionalism. Mature enterprise architecture helps organizations get work done quicker, reduce risks, and lower running costs, demonstrating its business value.
Data governance Program PowerPoint Presentation Slides SlideTeam
The document discusses the need for data governance programs in companies. It outlines why companies suffer without effective data governance, such as applications being unable to communicate and inconsistencies in data leading to increased costs. The document then compares manual and automated approaches to data governance. It provides details on key aspects of building a data governance program, including establishing a framework, defining roles and responsibilities, and outlining a roadmap for improving data governance over time.
Application rationalization- Invest today to save tomorrow!Vivek Mishra
The document discusses application rationalization and provides guidance on conducting the process. It outlines six key steps: 1) strategic alignment to define objectives and scope, 2) creating an application inventory, 3) assessing value and scoring applications, 4) designing the future state, 5) developing a rationalization roadmap, and 6) managing changes. Critical success factors include top management commitment, clear objectives, stakeholder participation, and robust application health analysis. Application rationalization is presented as a precursor to modernization efforts like cloud migration and helps optimize costs by eliminating redundant applications.
Este documento habla sobre Spark, un framework para procesar grandes cantidades de datos. Spark permite procesar datos en tiempo real de manera más rápida que Hadoop. Se recomienda usar Spark para explorar grandes conjuntos de datos, crear modelos y sistemas de producción que procesen grandes cantidades de eventos en tiempo real. Empresas como Netflix y IBM usan Spark para procesar billones de eventos diarios.
History of IT Service Management Practices and StandardsRob Akershoek
Evolution of IT service management practices and standards from Top Gun 1 (around 1990) to Top Gun Maverick (2022)
How did the IT management evolve since 1990? When were key standards and practices introduced?
The IT management market has significantly evolved over the last few years e.g. introducing DevOps, Continuous Delivery, Agile Development, SRE and IT4IT. Managing this new multi-vendor ecosystem consisting of cloud, containers and micro-services.
Managing this new digital reality requires you to combine various practices into one integrated Digital Operating Model, to optimize end-to-end IT value streams.
This document discusses platform decomposition diagrams as part of phase D of the technology architecture. Platform decomposition diagrams break down a system into its constituent platform components and interfaces to depict the major technical building blocks and how they relate to each other at a high level. The document focuses on creating platform decomposition diagrams.
It is well known that an effective PMO is key to successful and efficient program and project execution. In other words, doing things “right”. Enterprise Architecture is the discipline that plans and monitors enterprise transformation and aligns the business strategy with information technology capabilities. In other words, doing the “right things” to support the business.
Why is it organizations despite having both of these disciplines still struggle with effective enterprise transformation? What can we done to use these disciplines more effectively to effect better business outcomes? What are the roles of each discipline and how do they work together to create business value?
In this presentation, Riaz will address these questions and will provide real life examples that can help build a strong relationship between the PMO and Enterprise Architecture.
Learning Objectives:
• How to build a strong relationship between the PMO and Enterprise Architecture (EA) to deliver positive outcomes for your organization
• Identify the different roles and functions of the PMO and EA as well as their similarities
This document discusses the similarities between data architecture and the Zachman Framework. The Zachman Framework is a matrix that describes an enterprise's information architecture, with the data column representing data architecture. Data architecture and each row of the Zachman Framework's data column correspond to different levels of data modeling, from a list of important business data to physical storage design. Both aim to define how data is stored, managed, and used within a system.
Real-World DG Webinar: A Data Governance Framework for Success DATAVERSITY
A Data Governance Framework must include best practices, a practical set of roles & responsibilities for Data Governance built specifically for your organization, a plan for communicating with the entire organization and an action plan for applying governance in effective and measurable ways.
Join Bob Seiner for this Real-World Data Governance webinar as he discusses how to stay practical and work within the culture of your organization to develop and deliver a Data Governance Framework to meet your specifications and the business’ expectations.
This session will focus on:
Defining a Non-Invasive Operating Model of Roles & Responsibilities
Clearly Stating the Difference between Executive, Strategic, Tactical, Operational & Supporting Roles
Defining Data Stewards, Data Stewardship and How to Steward the Data
Recognizing & Identifying People into Roles Rather than Handing them to People as New Responsibilities
Leveraging the Framework to Implement a Successful Data Governance Program
Using togaf™ in government_enterprise_architecture_to_describe_the_it_archite...johnpolgreen
The document discusses using The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) in conjunction with the United States Government's Federal Enterprise Architecture (FEA) and Federal Segment Architecture Methodology (FSAM) to describe the IT architecture for a government agency. It maps the phases of the TOGAF Architecture Development Method (ADM) to the FEA reference models and FSAM steps. Case studies are presented on how TOGAF was used successfully with the FEA for IT architecture projects at the US Department of Agriculture and in the UK government.
ITIL 4 service value chain data flows (input and outputs)Rob Akershoek
This document provides an overview of the inputs and outputs between activities in the IT service value chain. It shows that all activities engage with external parties, obtain new resources, plan, and improve. Key inputs include requirements, requests, incidents and feedback from customers and users. Outputs include improvement initiatives, status reports, and delivered services and components. The value chain aims to design, deliver, and support products and services based on strategic plans and customer needs.
The document provides an overview of The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF), including:
- TOGAF is an enterprise architecture standard used by leading organizations to improve business efficiency.
- Version 9.1 was released in 2011 as an evolution of TOGAF 9 to address feedback and include over 450 changes.
- The core of TOGAF is the Architecture Development Method, an iterative process for developing architectures in phases from developing business to technology architectures.
IT4IT - Manage the Digital Enterprise.pdfitSMF Belgium
The document discusses managing the digital ecosystem using the IT4IT standard version 3.0. It highlights key challenges in managing today's complex IT landscape with many tools, technologies, vendors and silos. The IT4IT standard addresses these challenges by providing an integrated digital management system and capabilities to manage the full digital lifecycle from strategy to operations. It aims to optimize value streams, automate workflows, and provide transparency across the multi-vendor ecosystem.
Becoming Secure By Design: Questions You Should Ask Your Software VendorsSolarWinds
The next cyberattack is always around the corner, but you can use every minor incident to help you prepare for major ones. Designing your environment with security in mind at every step will help you better prepare, and you must make sure all those who contribute to your environment are equally secure, including your software partners.
This document provides an overview of TOGAF 9.1, including:
- TOGAF is an enterprise architecture framework developed by The Open Group to help design, plan, implement, and govern an enterprise information technology architecture.
- The key component of TOGAF is the Architecture Development Method (ADM), which provides a process for developing enterprise architectures in a standardized and systematic way.
- The ADM supports iteration across its nine phases: preliminary, architecture vision, business architecture, data architecture, application architecture, technology architecture, opportunities & solutions, migration planning, and implementation governance.
Digital Transformation And Solution ArchitectureAlan McSweeney
Digital strategy is a statement about the organisation’s digital positioning, competitors and customer and collaborator needs and behaviour to achieve a direction for innovation, communication, transaction and promotion. Digital strategy needs to be defined in the same framework structure as the proposed digital architecture platform.
Achieving the target digital organisation means deploying solutions that enable the digital architecture. Solution architecture needs to design solutions that fit into the target digital architecture framework. This requires:
• Solution architecture team operating in an integrated manner designing solutions to a set of common standards and that run on the platform
• Solution architecture team leadership ensuring solutions conform to the common standards
• Solution architecture technical leadership to develop and maintain common solution design standards
• Solution architecture updates the digital reference architecture based on solution design experience
Digital solution design requires greater discipline to create an integrated set solutions that operate within the rigour of the digital architecture framework. The solution architecture function must interact with other IT architecture disciplines to ensure the set of solutions that implement the digital framework operate together. This requires greater solution architecture team leadership. This needs to be supplemented and supported by a well-defined set of digital solution design standards.
This follows-on from the previous presentation: Digital Transformation And Enterprise Architecture
https://www.slideshare.net/alanmcsweeney/digital-transformation-and-enterprise-architecture.
enhanced Telecommunication Operating Model (e-TOM) is part of TM Frameworx. The eTOM is a comprehensive standard business processes framework. It is industry standard best practices and recommends for all business processes and or rules to support Business Support Systems (BSS) /Operation Support Systems (OSS) for communications Service providers (CSP) space. Please visit the TM Forum site for details:
https://www.tmforum.org/business-process-framework/
2. Podatkovna baza / SUPB / Aplikacija
(Database / DBMS / Application)
• Podatkovna baza je zbirka medsebojno logično povezanih podatkov
(in opisov podatkov), ki zadovoljuje informacijske potrebe
organizacije in njenih poslovnih procesov. Relacijska podatkovna
baza je podatkovna baza, v kateri so podatki organizirani v množici
relacij.
• SUPB je skupek programske opreme, ki omogoča kreiranje,
vzdrževanje in nadzor nad dostopom do podatkov v podatkovni
bazi.
• Aplikacija je program, ki v okviru informacijskega sistema delno ali v
celoti podpira enega ali več poslovnih procesov in za shranjevanje
podatkov uporablja podatkovno bazo.
2
3. SUPB
• Sistem za upravljanje s podatkovnimi zbirkami (SUPB) je množica programov,
namenjenih ustvarjanju, vzdrževanju in nadzoru dostopa do podatkov v
podatkovnih zbirkah.
• Nadzor nad dostopom do podatkov obsega več področij:
– Sistem varnosti: dostop do podatkov v skladu z avtorizacijo
– Sistem nadzora integritete: zagotavlja integriteto (smiselno vsebino, konsistenco) podatkov
– Sistem nadzora sočasnega dostopa
– Sistem obnove podatkovne baze (recovery)
– Sistemski katalog (data dictionary)
• Kreiranje podatkovnih struktur je omogočeno s pomočjo DDL (Data Definition
Language).
• Manipulacija podatkov (Insert, Update, Delete) je omogočeno s pomočjo DML
(Data Manipulation Language).
• Poizvedovanje (Select)
• Modeli SUPB
– Prva generacija (Hierarhični model, Mrežni model)
– Druga generacija (Relacijski model)
– Tretja generacija (Objektno-relacijski model, Objektni model)
3
4. Relacijski model
• (Prvoten) model je last osebe E. F. Codd, ki je bil raziskovalec v IBM-u. Codd velja za
izumitelja modela.
• Dandanes je model rezultat prizadevanja širše skupnosti.
• Prvoten model tvorijo tri komponente:
– Structure (Relation, Type, Attribute, Key)
– Integrity
• The entity integrity rule (Primarni ključi ne dovoljujejo NULL.)
• The referential integrity rule (Vrednosti v FK se morajo ujemati.)
– Manipulation
• Relational Algebra (Restrict, Project, Product, Intersect, Union, Difference, Join)
• Relational Assignment (r1 MINUS r2)
• Relacijski model temelji na matematični teoriji množic.
• Osnovni cilj relacijskega modela je zagotoviti visoko stopnjo neodvisnosti podatkov.
• Značilnosti relacijskega modela
– Podatki se združujejo v relacijah
– Relacije so medsebojno logično povezane
– Povezovanje tabel je izvedeno s pomočjo enakih atributov
4
5. Množica (Set)
• Množica je skupina natančno definiranih elementov.
• Množice spadajo med osnovna področja v matematiki
in predstavljajo osnovo nekaterim drugim področjem.
• Tipične operacije nad množico so presek, unija, razlika,
podmnožica.
5
7. Principi, ne produkti
• Namen predavanj je spoznati principe v teoriji in
ne posameznih produktov SUPB (npr. MS Access).
• Princip je nekaj, kar je osnova - teoretična
resnica. Ta je začetek in osnova nadaljevanja.
• Practice should always be based on a sound
knowledge of theory (Da Vinci, 1452-1519).
7
8. Model / Implementacija
• Model (podatkovni model) je abstraktna in logična
definicija podatkovnih struktur, operatorjev in vsega
drugega, ki skupaj tvorijo abstrakten sistem.
• Implementacija je fizična realizacija abstraktnega
sistema na dejanskem - računalniškem sistemu s
pripadajočimi komponentami.
• Razlike:
– Model je tisto, kar uporabniki morajo vedeti. Model je
vmesnik. Implementacija je tisto, kar uporabnikom ni treba
vedeti.
– Model je en sam, implementacij pa je več!
8
9. Načrtovanje podatkovne baze
• Splošni cilj razvijalcev informacijskih sistemov je razvoj aplikacij, ki
bodo podpirale dana opravila v realnem svetu.
• Načrtovanje podatkovne baze je postopek opredelitve in razvoja
strukture PB.
• V času načrtovanja podatkovne baze naredimo formalni model
nekaterih vidikov realnega sveta – problemske domene.
• Mera za pravilnost načrtovane sheme PB je realni svet. Od tod sledi,
da vsebina PB mora odražati podatke, pravila in izjeme iz realnega
sveta.
• Postopek načrtovanja in izdelave PB poteka po fazah.
9
11. Postopek izdelave relacijskega diagrama
1. Opis problema v naravnem jeziku
2. Iskanje relacij (učitelj, študent, fakulteta itd.)
3. Iskanje razmerij med relacijami
4. Narisati osnovni relacijski model
5. Opredelitev karinalnosti (števnosti) razmerij
6. Dodajanje atributov
7. Opredelitev ključev
8. Verifikacija in validacija
9. Izbira ciljnega SUPB
10. Priprava skript za kreiranje relacijskega diagrama v izbranem SUPB
11. Zagon skript
11
12. Načrtovanje ali modeliranje (Design)
• Konceptualni model (Conceptual design)
– Je grafična predstavitev zamisli
– Pomembno je KAJ
• Logični model (Logical design)
– Kako je videti podatkovna baza za uporabnika?
– Struktura podatkov relacijskega modela
– Nima nič skupnega s performansami
– Pomembno je KAKO
• Fizični model (Physical design)
– Kako se logični model udejanji na fizični prostor?
– Pomembno še diskovje, RAM, optimizacija, razvrščanje, itd.
– Pomembno je KAKO (glede na izbrani SUPB)
12
13. Problemi pri načrtovanju
• Nepoznavanje področja
– Načrtovalec problemskega področja načeloma ne pozna. Zato se mora najprej seznaniti in
podrobno spoznati domeno problema in domeno bodoče aplikacije.
• Pravila in izjeme
– Poleg pravil v realnem svetu obstaja tudi veliko izjem.
– Načrtovalec pri svojem delu mora upoštevati pravila in tudi vse izjeme.
– Hkrati mora narediti sistem dovolj fleksibilen, ki bo odporen na bodoče spremembe.
• Velikost
– Načrti PB so pogosto zelo kompleksni. Zato so za načrtovalca težko obvladljivi.
• Sodelovanje
– Ključ uspeha je v sodelovanju z uporabniki.
– Pri sodelovanju morajo načrtovalci PB in uporabniki govoriti skupen jezik, sicer pride do večjih
razhajanj med dejanskimi in realiziranimi nalogami.
13
14. Dve past pri povezovanju
1. Fan trap (Dvoumnost modela se izkaže pri poizvedbi v katerem oddelku
dela Miha Novak?)
2. Chasm trap (kateri učbeniki obstajajo za kateri predmet?)
14
15. Strukturiranost podatkov
• Glede na strukturiranost so podatki:
– Strukturirani (relacijske tabele, xls, csv, tabele/stolpci)
– Delno strukturirani (dokumenti, Email, doc, beležnice)
– Nestrukturirani (vse ostalo, npr. slike, audio, video)
• Principi Big Data, Advanced Analytics
• 95 % podatkov v neposlovnem svetu
• 80 % podatkov v poslovnem svetu
15
17. Podatkovni tip (Data Type)
• Podatkovni tip
– Ima ime in predstavlja vrsto podatka – končno množico vrednosti
skupne vrste.
– Ima ime in predstavlja končno množico vseh vrednosti, ki ustrezajo
omejitvi tega tipa.
– Nekateri podatkovni tipi so:
• BOOLEAN
• CHARACTER (n)
• CHARACTER VARYING (n)
• FLOAT (p)
• NUMERIC (p,q)
• INTEGER
• SMALLINT
• DATE
• TIME
• TIMESTAMP
• INTERVAL
17
18. Relacija (Relation)
• Relacija je množica zapisov (set of tuples).
• Vsaka relacija ima glavo (heading) in telo (body). Glavo
imenujemo relacijska shema, telo pa predstavljajo
vrednosti atributov.
• Relacijska shema je množica atributov, kjer je vsak atribut
opredeljen z enoličnim imenom ter podatkovnim tipom.
• Telo relacije je množica zapisov, ki pripadajo relacijski
shemi.
• Stopnja relacije (degree) je enaka številu atributov.
• Števnost relacije (cardinality) je enaka številu zapisov.
• Relacijo „predstavljamo kot 2D-list z vrsticami in stolpci“.
Velja za logično strukturo podatkovne baze in ne za fizično.
18
20. Relacija in relacijska shema – definicija
• Naj bo o element iz množice O, 𝑜 ∈ O ter naj bodo 𝐴𝑖, 1 ≤ 𝑖 < 𝑛, njegove lastnosti,
imenovane atributi. 𝐴𝑖: O → 𝑇𝐴𝑖
, kjer je 𝑇𝐴𝑖
podatkovni tip atributa 𝐴𝑖. Vsakemu
elementu 𝑜 ∈ O pripada zapis
𝑧0 = 𝐴1 𝑜 , 𝐴2 𝑜 , … , 𝐴𝑛 𝑜 .
• Relacija r je formalno definirana kot preslikava, ki slika iz kartezijskega produkta
vrednostnih množic atributov v binarno množico ⫟, ⫠ . Pripadajoč zapis je v
relaciji, kadar velja 𝑟 𝑧0 =⫟. V nasprotnem primeru objekt ni v relaciji. Relacijo r
pa lahko definiramo tudi kot množico zapisov, ki pripadajo relaciji.
{𝑧0|𝑜 ∈ O ∧ 𝑟 𝑧0 =⫟}.
• Imena atributov ter podatkovne tipe relacije imenujemo relacijska shema.
Relacijska shema R predstavlja semantično komponento relacije r in je definirana
kot
𝐴1: 𝑇1, 𝐴2: 𝑇2, … , 𝐴𝑛: 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑅 𝐴1, 𝐴2, … , 𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴1, 𝐴2, … , 𝐴𝑛.
• Vsaki relaciji pripada natačno ena relacijska shema, medtem ko relacijski shemi
lahko pripada več relacij. Sh je funkcija, ki relaciji priredi pripadajočo relacijsko
shemo 𝑆ℎ: 𝑟 → {𝑅}. Tabela vsebuje vrstice, medtem ko relacija vsebuje zapise!
20
21. Lastnosti relacije
• Relacija je model nekega stanja na nekem področju, zato njena
vsebina ne more biti poljubna.
• Relacija nikoli ne vsebuje dveh enakih zapisov oz. duplikatov
(TRUE of TRUE is a nonsense!)
• Vrstni red zapisov je nepomemben.
– ORDER BY ni relacijski operator!
• Vrstni red atributov je nepomemben.
21
SNO CITY
S1 London
S2 Paris
CITY SNO
London S1
Paris S2
SNO CITY
S1 London
S2 Paris
SNO CITY
S2 Paris
S1 London
22. Lastnosti relacije
• Lastnosti relacije so:
– Ime relacije je enolično.
– Ime atributa v relaciji je enolično.
– Relacija ne vsebuje duplikatov zapisov.
– Vrstni red atributov relacije ne obstaja.
– Relacije nikoli ne vsebujejo NULL.
– Podmnožica relacije je ponovno relacija.
– Relacije ne vsebujejo skritih komponent (npr. RowID,
ObjectID, Timestamp).
– Velja princip Closed World Assumption (resnične
vrednosti - TRUE).
22
23. Lastnosti relacije
• Relacije so vselej normalizirane (vsaj 1NO).
• Prva normalna oblika (1NO)
– Relacija vsebuje zapise, kjer vsaka od njih vsebuje
natanko eno vrednost pripadajočega podatkovnega
tipa za posamičen atribut.
• Relacije nikoli ne vsebujejo NULL.
• All logical differences are big differences.
23
24. Operacije relacijske algebre
• Osnovne
– Selekcija
– Projekcija
– Kartezijski produkt
– Unija
– Razlika
• Izpeljane
– Stik
– Presek
– Količnik
24
27. Stiki (Joins)
• Cross join (Cartesian product)
• Inner join
• Full outer join
• Left outer join
• Right outer join
• Self join
27
28. Domena tipa
28
• Domena je lastnost tipa.
• Predstavlja nabor vrednosti v tipu, med katerimi lahko izbiramo
vrednosti za dejanske atribute, ki imajo definiran ta tip.
• Pri definiciji tipa določimo domeno (npr. definiramo tip
HUMAN_LIFE_NUMBER, kjer je 0<domena<120. Atribut Starost (v
letih) ima definiran tip HUMAN_LIFE_NUMBER, s čimer so vrednosti
avtomatično omejene.)
29. Zapis
• Zapis je opredeljen s skupino tipov Ti i = 1,2, … , n , n ≥ 0, za katere ni
nujno, da so vsi enaki. Zapis je skupina n urejenih trojčkov oblike
Ai, Ti, vi , kjer je Ai ime atributa v relaciji, Ti ime tipa in vi vrednost od
tipa Ti.
• Duplikat zapisov
– Duplikat sta dva enaka zapisa, ki imata iste atribute, istega tipa in istih
vrednosti.
– t1 in t2 sta duplikata, če vključujeta natančno enake atribute A1, A2, … , An, za
vse i (i = 1, 2, … , n), vrednost za Ai v t1 pa je enaka vrednosti Ai v t2.
• Lastnosti zapisov so:
– Vsak zapis v relaciji je enoličen.
– Zapis vsebuje natanko eno vrednost pripadajočega tipa za vsak atribut.
– Vrstni red zapisov ne obstaja.
– Podmnožica zapisa je ponovno zapis.
29
32. Značilnosti ključev
• V relacijski bazi se posamezni zapisi med seboj
ločijo po vrednostih atributov.
• V kolikor bi bila dva zapisa popolnoma enaka, ju
na logičnem nivoju ne bi mogli več ločiti -
dostopati do posameznega. Takšen scenarij ni
mogoč!
• Vsaka relacija mora imeti ključ, ki je identifikator.
• Kot ključ lahko služi tudi kombinacija več
atributov. V tem primeru je to sestavljeni ključ.
32
33. Ključ – definicija
• Naj bo X podmnožica atributov relacijske sheme R, 𝑋 ⊆
𝑅. Atributi X so ključ relacijske sheme R, če sta
izpolnjena naslednja dva pogoja:
– atributi X funkcionalno določajo vse atribute R in
– ne obstaja podmnožica 𝑋′ ⊂ 𝑋, ki prav tako določa vse
atribute R. To pomeni
¬∃𝑋′
(𝑋′
⊂ 𝑋 ∧ 𝑋′
→ 𝑅).
• Prvi pogoj predstavlja lastnost edinstvenosti, drugi
pogoj pa lastnost neločljivosti, nedeljivosti.
• Relacijska shema lahko ima več ključev. V praksi se
izbere eden od njih in ta se imenuje primarni ključ,
ostali pa so nadomestni ključi!
33
34. Tuj ključ in Referenčna integriteta
• Tuj ključ je množica atributov v relacijski spremenljivki, katerega vrednosti
se morajo ujemati z vrednostmi kandidatnega ključa v neki drugi (ali pa
isti) relacijski spremenljivki.
• Podatkovna baza ne sme vsebovati ne-ujemajočih vrednosti tujega ključa
(No database is ever allowed to contains any unmatched foreign key
values). Pravilo se imenuje REFERENČNA INTEGRITETA.
• V relacijskem modelu se relacije med sabo povezujejo s ključi.
34
35. Ključi v relacijski teoriji
• Super-ključ (Superkey)
– Enolično opredeljuje zapis.
– Lahko jih je več.
– Vsi so enako pomembni.
• Kandidatni ključ (Candidate key or Minimale superkey)
– Minimalen super-ključ.
– Vsak kandidatni ključ je hkrati super-ključ.
– V relacijski teoriji poimenovan preprosto ključ!
– Lahko jih je več.
– Vsi so enako pomembni.
• Tuj ključ (Foreign key)
• Lastnosti ključa K sta:
– Edinstvenost (relacija ne vsebuje dveh zapisov z isto vrednostjo za K)
– Neločljivost (nobena podmnožica od K je enolična)
• Ključ je po številu atributov lahko:
– Enostaven - tvori ga en atribut
– Sestavljen - tvori ga več atributov
– Trivialen - tvorijo ga vsi atributi relacije
35
36. Ključi v SUPB
• Vrste ključev v SUPB
– Primarni ključ (Primary key)
• Običajno eden izmed kandidatnih ključev.
• Lahko tudi dodaten stolpec tabele.
– Nadomestni ključ (Alternate key)
• Vsi kandidatni ključi razen tistega, ki je izbran kot primarni.
– Tuj ključ (Foreign key)
• Ključ je po vrednostih lahko:
– Naraven – tvorijo ga vrednosti atributov
– Umeten – surogaten – npr. zaporedne vrednosti (1, 2, …)
• Priporočila za ključe
– Za ključ ni priporočljivo izbrati atributa z nekim vsebinskim pomenom (govoreč
ključ).
– Vrednost, ki odraža pomen, je namreč potrebno včasih spremeniti. Tu so izjema
atributi, za katere vemo, da se ne bodo nikoli spremenili, npr. davčna številka ali
EMŠO.
– Ključi nastopijo v povezavah med relacijami, zato se njihove vrednosti ne smejo
spreminjati.
36
37. Vaja
• Relacijska spremenljivka R ima dve vrednosti
(r1 in r2).
• Kateri so kandidatni ključi za R?
• ODG:
– Superključi za r1
– Superključi za r2
– Superključi za R
– Kandidatni ključi za R
37
38. Primer izpitne naloge
• Podana je relacijska spremenljivka.
• Kateri ključ predstavljajo:
– {B}
– {A, B}
– {C, E}
38
A: NUMBER B: NUMBER C: CHAR D: DATE E: BOOLEAN
1 5 S1 16.03.2012 TRUE
5 2 S1 07.02.2012 FALSE
2 4 S3 06.01.2011 FALSE
4 1 S2 08.05.2012 TRUE
40. Relacijsko razmerje (Relationship)
• Naj bosta množici A in B ter elementi a (od A) in elementi b
(od B). Relacijsko razmerje od A do B je pravilo ujemanja a z
b.
• Relacijsko razmerje velja „od A do B“ in ne „med A in B“!
• Za določen a je lahko največ en b, točno en b, najmanj en b
ali pa več b-jev.
• Za določen b je lahko največ en a, točno en a, najmanj en a
ali pa več a-jev.
• Vseh kombinacij je 16 (4*4), različnih pa 10.
• Vnos vrednosti je:
– mandatoren (Mandatory); npr. 1
– opcionalen (Optional); npr. 0..1
40
41. Števnost / Večkratnost (Cardinality / Multiplicity)
• Števnost relacije je enaka številu zapisov.
• Večkratnost (npr. 1, 1..M) je definicija območja števnosti.
41
Notacija Pomen
1 Natančno ena
* Več
0..1 Nič ali ena
0..* 0 ali več
1..* Ena ali več
42. Vrste relacijskih razmerij
• 1.1 Mož - Žena
• 1.2 Zaposlenec vodja -
Oddelek
• 1.3 Zaposlenec - Oddelek
• 1.4 Zaposlenec - Oddelek
• 2.1 Enako kot 1.2
• 2.2 Pošiljka - Račun
• 2.3 Zaposlenec - Oddelek
• 2.4 Otrok - Mati
42
43. Vrste relacijskih razmerij
• 3.1 Enako kot 1.3
• 3.2 Enako kot 2.3
• 3.3 Knjiga - Avtor
• 3.4 Športni dogodek -
Oseba
• 4.1 Enako kot 1.4
• 4.2 Enako kot 2.4
• 4.3 Enako kot 3.4
• 4.4 Dobavitelj - Material
43
45. Odvisnosti (Dependencies)
• Funkcionalna odvisnost (Functional Dependency)
• Večvrednostna odvisnost (Multivalued
Dependency)
• Stična odvisnost (Join Dependency)
• Fokus je na funkcionalnih ter stičnih odvisnostih
45
46. Funkcionalna odvisnost
• Predpostavimo, da obstaja relacija R z množico atributov, katere
podmnožici sta X in Y.
– V relaciji R velja X → Y (X funkcionalno določa Y oz. Y je funkcionalno
odvisen od X), če v relaciji ne obstajata dva zapisa, ki bi se ujemala v
vrednostih podmnožice atributov X, a se ne bi ujemala v vrednostih
podmnožice atributov Y.
• Funkcionalne odvisnosti so značilne za relacije 1NO, 2NO, 3NO in
BCNO.
• Definicija – naj bosta X in Y neprazni podmnožici atributov relacijske
sheme R. 𝑋, 𝑌 ⊆ 𝑅, 𝑋, 𝑌 ≠ 0. Atributi X funkcionalno določajo
atribute Y (𝑋 → 𝑌), če v nobeni relaciji s shemo R ne moreta obstajati
dva zapisa, ki bi se ujemala v vrednostih atributov X, a se ne bi
ujemala v vrednostih atributov Y.
𝑋 → 𝑌 ∈ 𝐹𝑅 ⇔ ∀𝑟(𝑆ℎ 𝑟 = 𝑅 ⇒ ∀𝑧1∀𝑧2( 𝑧1 ∈ 𝑟 ∧ 𝑧2 ∈ 𝑟 ⇒ (𝑧1. 𝑋 = 𝑧2. 𝑋 ⇒ 𝑧1. 𝑌 = 𝑧2. 𝑌)))
46
47. Funkcionalna odvisnost - primer
• Imamo relacijo Izpit( VpŠt, Priimek, Ime, ŠifraPredmeta, DatumIzpita,
OcenaPisno, OcenaUstno) z naslednjim pomenom:
– Študent z vpisno številko VpŠt ter priimkom Priimek in imenom Ime je na
DatumIzpita opravljal izpit iz predmeta s šifro ŠifraPredmeta. Dobil je oceno
OcenaPisno in oceno OcenaUstno.
– Funkcionalne odvisnosti relacijske sheme Izpit so: F ≡ { VpŠt → (Priimek, Ime),
(VpŠt, ŠifraPredmeta, DatumIzpita) → (OcenaPisno, OcenaUstno)}
• Netrivialna funkcionalna odvisnost
– Netrivialna (nontrivial) funkcionalna odvisnost X→Y, kjer je Y podmnožica X.
– V nasprotnem primeru nastopi trivialna (trivial) funkcionalna odvisnost.
47
49. Vaja
• Določite odvisnosti, ki evidentirajo vozila, model vozila in
kapaciteto motorjev. Upoštevajte naslednji pravili:
– Vsako vozilo ima unikatno številko vozila (USV).
– Vsako vozilo je en sam model (MV) in ima natanko eno kapaciteto
motorja (KM).
• Kaj je prav?
– USVKM
– KMUSV
– USVKMMV
– USVMVKM
– MVUSV
49
50. Stična odvisnost
• Naj bodo A, B, …, C podmnožice relacije R. Stična odvisnost ∗{A, B,
…, C} pomeni, da je relacijo R možno dobiti s stikom projekcij A, B,
…, C.
• Dekompozicija brez izgub nad relacijo R v projekcije A, B, …, C je
možna, če velja ∗{A, B, …, C}.
• Vsaka funkcionalna odvisnost je hkrati stična odvisnost. V kolikor
relacija R vsebuje funkcionalno odvisnost, je možna dekompozicija
(brez izgub) relacije R v njene projekcije.
• Stična odvisnost je trivialna, če je katerakoli od projekcij (projekcije
so tudi relacije) A, B, …, C, enaka R. Pomembna je netrivialna stična
odvisnost.
• Heath-ov teorem: Če R(A, B, C) izpolnjuje A→B, je R enak stiku
projekcij R1(A, B) in R2(A, C).
• Stična odvisnost, ki ni posledica funkcionalne odvisnosti, je v all-key
relacijah.
50
51. Stična odvisnost - definicija
• V stični odvisnosti so relacijska razmerja med
seboj neodvisna.
• Definicija: naj bo R relacijska shema in R1, R2,
…, Rn naj bodo dekompozicije od R. Relacija
r(R) zadošča stični odvisnosti * (R1, R2, …, Rn),
če velja
• V kolikor je katera od Ri enaka R, je stična
odvisnost trivialna.
51
52. Stična odvisnost - primer
Poišči stično odvisnost za relacijo Seznam_naročil = {naročilo, stranka, hrana, raznašalec}
Najprej poiščemo funkcionalne odvisnosti. Te so:
naročilostranka
naročilohrana
naročiloraznašalec
Funkcionalne odvisnosti načrtujemo kot ločene relacije, morebiten ostanek relacije pa pustimo v
prvotni relaciji.
Vsi atributi so del ene od funkcionalnih odvisnosti, ostanka ni. Relacijo Seznam_naročil nadomestimo z
množico relacij
Stranka = {naročilo, stranka}
Hrana = {naročilo, hrana}
Raznašalec = {naročilo, raznašalec}
Ker je po definiciji vsaka FD tudi JD, velja stična odvisnost
*((naročilo, stranka), (naročilo, hrana), (naročilo, raznašalec))
Stična odvisnost navedenih treh projekcij omogoča rekonstrukcijo relacije Seznam_naročil.
52
53. Iskanje super ključev ter
kandidatnih ključev - primer
Book ID Name Author
B1 XYZ A1
B2 ABC A1
B3 XYZ A2
B4 PQR A3
B5 LSP A1
B6 ABC A3
53
• Superključi: (Name, Author), (Book ID), (Book ID,
Name, Author), (Book ID, Author), (Book ID,
Name)
• Kandidatni ključi: (Name, Author), (Book ID)
54. Iskanje kandidatnih ključev - vaja
• R (A, B, C, D, E, F)
• A → C
• C → D
• D → B
• E → F
• Rešitev: Kandidatni ključ: AE (ni determiniran na desni strani)
• R (A, B, C, D, E)
• A → C
• C → B
• D → E
• Rešitev: Kandidatni ključ: AD
54
56. Atomarnost podatkov
• Codd-ova definicija: Atomaren podatek je tisti, ki ne more biti deljen na manjše
enote v SUPB .
• Kaj pa:
– String? LIKE, SUBSTR (substring), || (concatenate) itd. Ali so ti stringi atomarni?
– Ulomki? Celo število + ostanek
– Datum? 01.01.2012 Leto=2012
• Atomarnost podatkov ni absoluten pojem.
• Izraz izhaja iz grške besede Atomos (nedeljiv). Toda tudi atomi v fiziki niso nedeljivi.
Tvorijo jih protoni, nevtroni in elektroni. A tudi ti niso nedeljivi. Protone in
nevtrone tvorijo kvarki! Kaj pa Higsov bozon? Najmanjši delec materije je…?
56
SNO PNO
S2 P1
S2 P2
S3 P2
S4 P2
S4 P4
S4 P5
SNO PNO
S2 P1, P2
S3 P2
S4 P2, P4, P5
SNO PNO
S2 {P1, P2}
S3 {P2}
S4 {P2, P4, P5}
58. Anomalije podatkov
• Pri manipulaciji podatkov prihaja do težav:
– Anomalije večkratnih vrednosti
– Anomalije pri dodajanju (npr. nov dobavitelj brez izdelka)
– Anomalije pri posodabljanju (npr. telefon za Plezalke d.o.o.)
– Anomalije pri brisanju (npr. izdelki, ki niso več v prodaji,
brišejo podatke o partnerjih itd.)
58
Ime izdelka Latinsko ime Prodajalec Ime dobavitelja Telefon dobavitelja Cena
Brstična lilija Lycoris squamigera Kete Čebulnice, d.o.o. (01)555 01 35 31,60
Jesenski žafran Colchicum Ekart Čebulnice, d.o.o. (01)555 01 35 17,24
Forzicija Forsythia suspensa Gorjanc Klub grmičarjev, d.o.o. (01)555 01 21 17,04
Koristne trihine Neoplectana carpocapsae Kete Škodljivci STOP, d.o.o. (01)555 01 23 18,44
Grašica Coronilla varia Ekart Plezalke, d.o.o. (07)555 01 24 15,12
Angleški bršljan Hedera helix Gorjanc Plezalke, d.o.o. (07)555 01 24 12,46
59. Teorija načrtovanja (Design Theory)
• Teorija načrtovanja ne sporoča „kako načrtovati“,
temveč „kaj gre lahko narobe, če ne upoštevaš pravil“.
• Teorijo predstavljajo normalne oblike, ki so koraki v
procesu normalizacije.
• Višja kot je normalna oblika, boljše je iz stališča teorije
načrtovanja.
59
60. Normalizacija
• Je proces zagotavljanja učinkovite strukture podatkov.
• Neupoštevanje normalizacije je rezultat slabe
strukture. Ta vodi v nekonsistentnost, napake, težave
pri vzdrževanju in redundanco podatkov.
• Prednosti normalizacije:
– Hitrejši popravki in lažje dodajanje podatkov
– Večja konsistentnost in manj anomalij
– Jasna relacijska razmerja
– Fleksibilna struktura
– Manj zasedenega prostora
• Proces predstavlja več t.i. normalnih oblik, ki jih je
potrebno doseči.
60
62. Uvod v normalizacijo
• Obstaja več normalnih oblik (1NO, 2NO, …)
• V kolikor dosežemo (n+1)NO, dosežemo hkrati nNO.
• Za relacijo je možno, da je v nNO, a ne v (n+1)NO.
• Višja kot je NO, boljše je.
• Teorija načrtovanja predstavlja „zdravo pamet“, a
hkrati tudi „formalizirano zdravo pamet“.
• Normalizacija je zdravilo, a ne „zdravilo za vse
bolezni“.
62
63. Prva normalna oblika (1NO)
• Prvotna definicija: Relacija je v 1NO, ko vsak zapis vsebuje natanko
eno atomarno vrednost v vsaki poziciji atributa.
• Relacija je v 1NO (1971), ko vsak zapis vsebuje natanko eno
vrednost pripadajočega podatkovnega tipa za posamičen atribut.
• Ključ je definiran, NULL ne obstaja.
• Primer normalizacije v relacijo 1NO.
63
SNO PNO
S2 P1
S2 P2
S3 P2
S4 P2
S4 P4
S4 P5
SNO PNO
S2 P1, P2
S3 P2
S4 P2, P4, P5
S3 P2
64. 1NO – primer
• Uredi, da bo tabela Customer ustrezala relaciji 1NO!
64
65. Druga normalna oblika (2NO)
• Relacija je v 2NO (1971), če je v 1NO, hkrati pa so vsi
atributi, ki niso del ključa, odvisni od celotnega ključa in
to kateregakoli ključa!
• V kolikor je ključ enostaven (za razliko od sestavljenega)
in je en sam, je relacija avtomatično v 2NO.
• Lahko nastopijo anomalije pri spreminjanju podatkov:
npr. ukaz UPDATE.
65
66. 2NO – primer
• Slika kaže primer relacije, ki ima več ključev (npr. {Model Full
Name}, {Manufacturer, Model})
• Funkcionalna odvisnost: Manufacturer → Manufacturer Country
• Relacija še ni v 2NO.
66
67. Tretja normalna oblika (3NO)
• 3NO (1971) je v Computer Database Science običajna NO, ki
se koristi pri procesu normalizacije.
• Relacija je v 3NO, če je v 2NO, hkrati pa so vsi atributi, ki
niso del ključa, odvisni direktno od celotnega ključa relacije
in to kateregakoli ključa!
• V tem primeru ni tranzitivne odvisnosti.
• „Every non-key attribute must provide a fact about the key,
the whole key, and nothing but the key.“… „so help me
Codd.“
• Pri 3NO so anomalije glede UPDATE, INSERT in DELETE
večinoma odpravljene.
• Relacije z enim atributom, ki ni del ključa, so avtomatično v
3NO.
67
68. 3NO – primer
• (Tournament, Year) → Winner Birth → Winner
68
Tournament Year Winner Winner Birth
Indiana 1998 Al Fredrickson 21.7.2975
Cleveland 1999 Bob Albertson 28.9.1969
Bonn 1999 Al Fredrickson 21.7.1975
Indiana 1999 Chip Masterson 14.3.1977
Tournament Year Winner
Indiana 1998 Al Fredrickson
Cleveland 1999 Bob Albertson
Bonn 1999 Al Fredrickson
Indiana 1999 Chip Masterson
Winner Winner Birth
Al Fredrickson 21.7.2975
Bob Albertson 28.9.1969
Chip Masterson 14.3.1977
69. 3NO – vaja
• Podana je relacija R1 in odvisnosti. Pretvori v 3NO.
– R1 (A, B, C, D, E)
• A → BCDE
• BC → ADE
• D → E
• Postopek:
1. Poiščemo ključ(e) relacije: A, BC
2. Razdelimo atribute na ključne in neključne
• Ključni atributi: A, B, C
• Neključni atributi: D, E
3. Preverimo pravilo za 2NO (problem bi bil, če obstaja B → D,E oz. C → D,E), takšne funkc.
odvisnosti ni, zato R1 ustreza 2NO.
4. Preverimo pravilo za 3NO (problem bi bil, če obstaja D → E oz. E → D), 3NO ni izpolnjena, ker
obstaja D → E.
5. Normalizacija v 3NO: R1 načrtujemo kot R11 in R12. R11 (D, E) in R12 (A, B, C, D)
• Podana je relacija R2 in odvisnosti. Pretvori v 3NO.
– R2 (A, B)
• A → B
• Relacija je v 3NO
69
70. Boyce-Codd normalna oblika (BCNO ali 3.5NO)
• Relacija je v BCNO, če je v 3NO, hkrati pa je za
vse netrivialne funkcionalne odvisnosti (X→Y),
X superključ.
• Rešuje anomalije, ki jih dopušča 3NO.
• Definirana 1974, 3 leta po 3NO. BCNO bi bila
lahko poimenovana po avtorju Ian Heath
(1971).
70
72. BCNO – primer (nadaljevanje)
• 2NO ne dovoljuje delne funkcionalne odvisnosti neključnih atributov in to
kateregakoli (kandidatnega) ključa. 3NO ne dovoljuje tranzitivne odvisnosti
neključnih atributov in to kateregakoli (kandidatnega) ključa.
• V tem primeru neključni atributi sploh ne obstajajo! Vsi atributi so namreč del
nekega (kandidatnega) ključa.
• Relacija ustreza 2NO in 3NO.
• Relacija ne ustreza BCNO, ker obstaja funkcionalna odvisnost F ≡ {RateType →
Court}, kjer RateType ni superključ.
• (Kandidatni) ključi za Rate Types so {Rate Type} in {Court, Member Flag}.
(Kandidatni) ključi za Today's Bookings so {Rate Type, Start Time} and {Rate Type,
End Time}. Obe relaciji sta v BCNO.
• Anomalija enega Rate Type za dva Courts zdaj ni več možna.
72
73. BCNO – vaja
• Podana je relacija R(A, B, C, D) in funkcijske
odvisnosti:
a. C → D, C → A, B → C
b. B → C, D → A
c. ABC → D, D → A
d. A → B, BC → D, A → C
e. AB → C, AB → D, C → A, D → B
Za vsako ugotovi, v kateri normalni obliki je R, in jo
pretvori v BCNO.
73
74. Peta normalna oblika (5NO)
• Relacija je v 5NO, če je v 4NO ter je vsaka netrivialna
stična odvisnost od R, predstavljena s superključom
relacije R.
• To pomeni, da sta v *{A,B}, A in B superključa relacije R.
• 5NO je izpolnjena kadar:
– Obstaja 4NO
– Če JD ne obstaja > 5NO
– Če JD obstaja
• Če je trivialna > 5NO
• Če je netrivialna
– Vsi Ri so super ključi > 5NO
– Drugače je 4NO
74
75. 5NO – primer
75
S IME STATUS MESTO
1 Jones 15 Paris
2 Smith 20 London
3 Jones 10 Paris
4 Luc 15 London
5 Alice 10 Paris
6 Jones 15 London
S IME
1 Jones
2 Smith
3 Jones
4 Luc
5 Alice
6 Jones
S STATUS
1 15
2 20
3 10
4 15
5 10
6 15
S MESTO
1 Paris
2 London
3 Paris
4 London
5 Paris
6 London
77. Šesta normalna oblika (6NO)
• Relacija je v 6NO, če ne obstajajo netrivialne
stične odvisnosti.
• 6NO je uporabljana predvsem v časovnih
bazah.
77
NAROCILO POSTAVKA KOLICINA
1 A 2
1 B 2
2 A 7
2 B 5
3 A 2
78. Postopek normalizacije za relacijo R (A, B, C, D)
• Legenda: FD – funkcionalna odvisnost, MD – večvrednostna odvisnost, JD - stična odvisnost.
• 1NO: Relacija, ki ima vse vrednosti atomarne.
• 2NO: R je v 1NO in
– K = {A, B}
– FD: A → C
– Postopek normalizacije v 2NO: dekompozicija relacije R (A, B, C, D) v R1 (A, C) in R2 (A, B, D).
• 3NO: R je v 2NO in
– K = {A, B}
– FD: C → D
– Postopek normalizacije v 3NO: dekompozicija relacije R (A, B, C, D) v R1 (C, D) in R2 (A, B, C).
• BCNO: R je v 3NO in
– K: {A, B}, {A, C}
– FD: B → D
– Postopek normalizacije v BCNO: dekompozicija relacije R (A, B, C, D) v R1 (B, D) in R2 (A, B, C).
• 4NO: R je v 3.5NO in
– K = {A, B, C}
– MD: {A ↠ B}, {A ↠ C}
– Postopek normalizacije v 4NO: dekompozicija relacije R (A, B, C, D) v R1 (A, B, D) in R2 (A, C) ali v R1 (A, B) in R2 (A, C, D).
– Namig za 4NO: V kolikor je R v 3NO in vsebuje FD-je, kjer vsi temeljijo na SK-ju (to skupaj je 3.5NO) in ima MD-je, kjer vsi temeljijo na SK-ju, je R v 4NO.
• 5NO: R je v 4NO in
– JD: * {(A, B), (C, D)}
– SK: {A, B}
– Postopek normalizacije v 5NO: dekompozicija relacije R (A, B, C, D) v R1 (A, B) in R2 (C, D).
– Namig za 5NO: V kolikor je R v 4NO in vsebuje JD-je, kjer vsi temeljijo na SK-ju, je R v 5NO.
78
79. Vaja
• Preoblikujte v relacijo 3NO!
79
Invoice Customer Name Address Qnt1 Part1 Amt1 Qnt2 Part2 Amt2 Qnt3 Part3 Amt3
1001 43 Jones 121 1st 200 Screw 2 300 Nut 2.25 100 Wash 0.75
1002 55 Smith 222 2nd 1 Motor 52 5 Brace 44.44
1003 66 Marc 333 3rd 10 Saw 121
80. Vaja - rešitev
• Rešitev za 1NO
80
Invoice Line Customer Name Address Qnt Part Amt
1001 1 43 Jones 121 1st 200 Screw 2
1001 2 43 Jones 121 1st 300 Nut 2.25
1001 3 43 Jones 121 1st 100 Wash 0.75
1002 1 55 Smith 222 2nd 1 Motor 52
1002 2 55 Smith 222 2nd 5 Brace 44.44
1003 1 66 Marc 333 3rd 10 Saw 121
81. Vaja - nadaljevanje
81
Invoice Customer Name Address
1001 43 Jones 121 1st
1002 55 Smith 222 2nd
1003 66 Marc 333 3rd
Invoice Line Qnt Part Amt
1001 1 200 Screw 2
1001 2 300 Nut 2.25
1001 3 100 Wash 0.75
1002 4 1 Motor 52
1002 5 5 Brace 44.44
1003 6 10 Saw 121
Invoice Customer
1001 43
1002 55
1003 66
Customer Name Address
43 Jones 121 1st
55 Smith 222 2nd
66 Marc 333 3rd
Invoice Line Qnt Part Amt
1001 1 200 Screw 2
1001 2 300 Nut 2.25
1001 3 100 Wash 0.75
1002 4 1 Motor 52
1002 5 5 Brace 44.44
1003 6 10 Saw 121
• Rešitev za 2NO
• Rešitev za 3NO
82. Grafična podpora kot pomoč pri analizi
funkcionalnih odvisnosti
• Grafična analiza odvisnosti
• Poiščemo atribute, ki niso določljivi (without incoming edge)
• Ti atributi so ti. Essentials atributi in so gotovo del ključa
• V kolikor Essentials ne predstavljajo ključa dodamo sprva en
dodaten atribut in iščemo ključ dalje. Nato dodamo dva dodatna
atributa itd.
82
• Essentials:D
• D ne nastopa v nobeni FD
• Iščemo možnosti:
– AD: da
– BD: da
– CD: ne
– DE: da
– DF: da
– DG: ne
– DH: ne
– CDH: ne
– CDG: ne
– DGC: ne
– CDGH: ne
• ODG: 1NO
83. Vaja
• R (A, B, C, D)
• AB → C
• C → D
• Kaj je ključ in katera je normalna oblika?
83
84. Vaja - rešitev
• R (A, B, C, D)
• AB → C
• C → D
• Kaj je ključ in katera je normalna oblika?
• Rešitev naloge:
– Ključ: AB
– 2NO
– Normalizacija v 3NO:
• R1 (A, B, C)
• R2 (C, D)
84
85. Vaja
• R (A, B, C)
• AB → C
• C → B
• Kaj je ključ in katera je normalna oblika?
85
86. Vaja - rešitev
• R (A, B, C)
• AB → C
• C → B
• Kaj je ključ in katera je normalna oblika?
• Rešitev naloge:
– Ključ: AB, AC
– 3NO
– BCNO
• R1 (A, C)
• R2 (C, B)
86
87. Odvisnosti med ključnimi ter neključnimi
atributi, pravila za normalne oblike
• BCNO: α (super-key) → β (prime / non-prime)
• 3NO
– 2NO ter α (prime) → β (non-prime)
– IF α = SK ali K then 3NO else if β = prime then 3NO
else then !3NO
– 3NO ne ustreza v primeru α (non-prime) → β
(non-prime)
• 2NO ne ustreza: α (partial prime) → β (non-
prime)
87
88. Iskanje normalne oblike v
obratnem vrstnem redu
88
• R (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H)
• AB → C
• A → DE
• B → F
• F → GH
• Key: AB
• ODG: 1NO
• R (A, B, C, D, E)
• CE → D
• D → B
• C → A
• Key: CE
• ODG: 1NO
• R (A, B, C, D, E, F)
• AB → C
• DC → AE
• E → F
• Key: ABD, BCD
• ODG: 1NO
• R (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I)
• AB → C
• BD → EF
• AD → GH
• A → I
• Key: ABD
• ODG: 1NO
• R (A, B, C, D, E)
• AB → CD
• D → A
• BC → DE
• Keys: AB, BD, BC
• ODG: 3NO
• R (A, B, C, D, E)
• BC → ADE
• D → B
• Keys: BC, CD
• ODG: 3NO
• R (A, B, C, D, E, F)
• ABC → D
• ABD → E
• CD → F
• CDF → B
• BF → D
• Keys: ABC, ACD
• ODG: 1NO
• R (A, B, C)
• A → B
• B → C
• C → A
• Keys: A, B, C
• ODG: BCNO
89. Vaja
• R (A, B, C, D, E, F)
• C → F
• E → A
• EC → D
• A → B
• Rešitev:
– Ključi: CE
– Normalna oblika: 1NO
• R (A, B, C, D, E, F)
• A → B
• BC → D
• E → C
• D → A
• Rešitev:
– Ključi: AEF, BEF, DEF
– Normalna oblika: 1NO
89
95. Fizični model
• Fizični model mora slediti relacijskemu modelu, ki je
povsem neodvisen od fizičnega modela.
• Relacijski model se osredotoča na „kaj podatki
pomenijo“, fizični model se osredotoča na „kako bodo
podatki uporabljani“.
• Pravilen pristop je oblikovanje logičnega modela, nato pa
podprtje s fizičnimi strukturami izbranega SUPB.
• Najprej definiramo relacijske spremenljivke, funkcionalne
odvisnosti, večvrednostne odvisnosti, stične odvisnosti,
itd.
• Fizični model naj izhaja predvsem iz logičnega modela.
95
96. Načrtovanje fizičnega modela
• Ne gre za direktno preslikavo modela (Direct image style)!
Stroga odvisnost od logičnega modela ni želena.
• V primeru težav s performansami je možna denormalizacija
v fizičnem modelu. Logični model se ne sme spremeniti, ker
nima ničesar skupnega s performansami!
• Želena je avtomatizacija preslikave v fizični model. Upanje
predstavlja tehnologija The TransRelationalTM Model.
96
…Atributi…
Zapis
Zapis
Zapis
Zapis
…Stolpci…
Vrstica
Vrstica
Vrstica
Vrstica
98. Transakcije
• Transakcija je zaporedje ukazov (akcij), ki predstavlja celoto.
• ACID
– Atomarnost (Atomicity)
• Neuspešna transakcija ne sme pustiti stanja delno izvedene transakcije.
– Konsistentnost (Consisteny)
• Podatki, ki so bili konsistentni pred transakcijo, morajo ostati konsistentni tudi
po njej.
– Izoliranost (Isolation)
• Ločena obravnava podatkov
• Konkurenčne akcije v bazi morajo biti izolirane. Na videz izgleda, kot da se izvaja
samo ena transakcija.
– Trajnost (Durability)
• Podatki po zaključeni transakciji morajo biti trajno shranjeni, četudi pride do
izpada sistema.
• Transakcija se zgodi v celoti ali pa se sploh ne (COMMIT / ROLLBACK)
98
99. Transakcije
• Primer transakcije je plačilo z bančno kartico
– Obremenimo račun imetnika kartice
– Dodamo znesek na račun trgovine
– Nesprejemljivo je, da se izvede samo prvi del.
• Če se transakcija iz kakršnega koli razloga prekine tekom izvajanja,
se mora SUPB vrniti na začetno stanje (ROLLBACK).
• Podatke o transakciji je potrebno pisati v nek začasen pomnilnik.
• Po izvršeni transakciji se vpišejo v trajni del baze. Zapisani morajo
biti na disk, da se ne izgubijo.
• Pri upravljanju s transakcijami se moramo zavedati razlik med načini
shranjevanja podatkov: začasno shranjevanje (RAM), trajnejše
shranjevanje (diski, diskovna polja), trajno shranjevanje (arhivi).
99
101. Poizvedovalni jezik SQL
• SQL (Structured Query Language)
• SQL je najbolj razširjen računalniški jezik, ki omogoča kreiranje,
spreminjanje, branje in manipulacijo s podatki, shranjenimi v
relacijski PB.
• Jezik SQL je standardiziran (ANSI / ISO), vendar je upoštevanje
standardov s strani nekaterih proizvajalcev SUPB le delno.
• Čeprav se imenuje „query language“, vsebuje tudi:
– DDL (Data Definition Language) - jezik za definicijo podatkov
– DML (Data Manipulation Language) - jezik za manipulacijo s podatki
– DCL (Data Control Language) – jezik za kontrolo nad podatki
– Zagotavljanje integritete podatkov
– Nadzor nad transakcijami
– Avtorizacijo
– Programske stavke (pogoji, zanke, spremenljivke itd.)
101
102. Nekateri konstrukti v SQL
• SELECT
• FROM
• WHERE
• INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE
• CREATE, ALTER
• IF, FOR, WHILE, CASE WHEN, LIKE
• INNER JOIN, LEFT OUTER JOIN, RIGHT OUTER JOIN
• ORDER BY, GROUP BY, HAVING
• COUNT, SUM, AVG, MIN, MAX, STDEV, VAR, DISTINCT
• AS, =, <, <=, BETWEEN
• TO_CHAR, TO_DATE, TO_NUMBER
102