This document discusses women in the workforce in the United States from 1900 to present. It notes that while women now make up over half the workforce, they continue to face inequities such as earning less than men for the same work and encountering glass ceilings. Specific groups like women with disabilities or older women face additional barriers. The document examines historical factors, differences in unemployment and education rates by gender, common occupations, and issues such as childcare, unequal pay, and balancing work and family responsibilities.

1. Chapter 15
Women in the
Workforce

2. Introduction
Women in the Labor Force
Year % of Women in the Workforce
1900 18.3%
1950 29.6%
2001 46.6%
2018 56.8%

3. Gender and Income
Figure 15.1 Women’s earnings as a percent of men’s,
median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and
salary workers, by age, 1979–2012 annual averages.
Data from US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Earnings. (2019, April 29). Retrieved from
https://www.bls.gov/cps/earnings.htm

4. Workplace Inequities
• Sexism and discrimination
• Income gaps
• Glass ceiling remains
• “Double duty” with kids,
home, and parents
• Workplace environmental
exposures
• Tough job market Although women make up half of
the workforce, they continue to earn
less than their male counterparts
for the same responsibilities.
© Lev Kropotov/Shutterstock

5. Historical Issues
• Colonial times
• Industrial Revolution
• The New York Married Women’s Property Act
(1848)
• World War II era—“Rosie the Riveter”
• Post–World War II era
• 1974: Equal Credit Opportunity Act

6. Unemployment Rates by Age
and Sex, 2019
Figure 15.2 Unemployment rates by age
and sex, January 2019.
Data from U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2019). Labor
force statistics.

7. Education and Employment
Figure 15.3 Percentage of working men
and women by age, 2016 averages and
2024 projections.
Data from U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2016 Current
Population Survey and 2024 employment Projections.

8. Occupations and Gender

9. Special Populations (1 of 2)
• Women with disabilities confront many barriers in
the workplace.
– Lack of opportunities or appropriate jobs
– Inaccessible work environments, parking, or
public transportation
– Discouragement by family and friends
– Fear of losing health insurance or Medicaid
– Parking and public transportation challenges
• Women with disabilities are more likely than other
women to be unemployed, especially when
disabilities are severe.

10. Special Populations (2 of 2)
• Older women also confront many barriers in the
workplace.
– Recent economic recession
– People living longer and healthier lives
– Insufficient retirement savings
Older workers may have additional
needs in their workplaces.
© Steve Mason/Photodisc/Getty Images

11. Socioeconomic Issues
• Many unique challenges for low-income women
– Low-wage workers are disproportionately
women and minorities with family
responsibilities.
– Childcare costs can exceed wages.
– Few or no benefits
– More likely to have children with special
needs

12. Unequal Pay for Equal Work
(1 of 2)
Women make about
82 cents for every
dollar men make,
but disparities vary
by age, education
level, occupation,
and other factors.

13. Unequal Pay for Equal Work
(2 of 2)
Women are caught
between the “glass
ceiling” and the
“sticky floor.”
Long-term exposure to work-
related stress can lead to
higher levels of depression,
anxiety, and other illnesses.
© Keith Brofsky/Photodisc/Getty Images

14. Workplace Realities for Women
• 97% of women are worried about healthcare costs.
• 88% do not have retirement benefits.
• 78% are concerned about lack of job benefits.
• 57% do not have equal pay for equal work.
• 39% do not have affordable health insurance.
• 29% do not have paid sick leave.
• 24% do not have paid vacation time.
– AFL-CIO Survey, 2006
While women overall are more likely than men to be among the
working poor, African American and Hispanic women are
two to three times more likely than White women to be
members of the working poor.

15. Achieving Equal Pay
• Education is key
• Understand what is fair and equitable pay
for job position
• Understand wage discrimination laws

16. Work-Life Balance
• Job, household,
family and extended
family duties
• Multiple roles =
stress and
satisfaction
• Balance is essential.
Many women who have entered
the workforce continue to work on
household chores and childcare
when they return home from work.

17. Day Care
• Women are usually assigned responsibility for
finding and keeping up with day care.
• For parents of children between ages 3 and 5,
childcare is the biggest expense after housing
and food.
• Finding good childcare is very difficult.
• Even if you do find it and can afford it, it’s still
stressful!

18. Childcare
Men and women are
redefining traditional roles
and responsibilities for
their families.
© Dhannte/Shutterstock
• 90% of Americans
describe it as
“difficult”
• Affects workplace
performance

19. Current Situation: Employers
• Even when benefits are present, they are often
not available to employees with the greatest
need.
• When services are available to lower-paid
employees, the fees are usually too high for
their earnings.

20. Health and Safety
Class discussion
– What are some factors that contribute to
work-related stress for women?
– What are some jobs where women have little
control over events?
– What are some factors that impact safe work
environments for women?

21. Gender Differences: Workplace
Safety
• Men more likely to be injured than women,
except in some fields
• Women more likely to have musculoskeletal
injuries

22. Occupational Exposures
Class discussion
• What are some high risk industries for
occupational exposures, especially for women
and minorities?
• What are some unique hazards faced by workers
in healthcare facilities?

23. Occupational Concerns:
Reproductive Health
• 75% of all reproductive-age
women are in the workforce.
• More than 50% of babies are
born to working mothers.
Needlestick injuries and latex allergies are two
hazards faced by women working in health care.
© Keith Brofsky/Photodisc/Getty Images

24. Other Workplace Health
Concerns
Class discussion
• What are some special health concerns of:
– Seasonal or domestic workers?
– Youth workers?
– Pregnant and lactating women?

25. Global Dimensions
• Gender gaps improving
• Women still face discrimination, lower pay and
fewer opportunities.
• Women still spend at least twice as much time
as men doing unpaid household work.
• Working women are essential for national
economies.

26. Global Look at Paid Family
Leave
Class discussion
• The United States, Swaziland, and Papua New
Guinea are the only three countries in the world
that do not guarantee women any paid family
leave. What do other countries offer and why is
the U.S. behind?

27. Family and Medical Leave Act
• Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA)
– Provides 12 weeks of unpaid, job-
guaranteed leave
– Covers half of working U.S. population