1. Jonathan R. White
www.cengage.com/cj/white
Chapter 4:
Public Perceptions:
Terrorism and Media
Rosemary Arway
Hodges University

2. The Media and
Social Construction of Images
 Ross:
o Reporting is a part of the social construction of
terrorism.
o Terrorists are aware of the power of media.
o The media enhances the power of terrorism, but does
not cause it.
o Terrorist will increasingly use the internet.
 Terrorism is a message generator.
 Communication develops in three primary manners:
o Reporting of terrorist events
o Creating social definition of terrorism
o Propaganda and communication through the World
Wide Web

3. Popular Media Misconceptions
 The myths circulated by television news shape
the world view of consumers.
 If social constructs are created by collective
definitions, the power of the media helps to
define the boundaries of those constructs.
 Thussu: The media’s view of terrorism is
dominated by several simplified stories
presented on 24-hour news cable news
networks.
o Leads to misconceptions and falsehoods
concerning terrorism

4. Tension between Security Forces
and the Media
 Scholars believe media favors governments.
 Police and security forces at odd ends with the
media power.
o Media social constructions often run counter to
government objectives and policies.
▪ Compete for favorable media coverage
▪ Exhibit distain for the press
o Government seeks to harness power of the media for
social control.
▪ Hostage situations
 Police and military frequently try to take advantage
of the media’s ability to define social reality.

5. Media as a Weapon
 Clutterbuck:
o Media were similar to a loaded weapon
lying in the middle of a street. The first
person to pick it up got to use it.
 Ayman al Zawahiri: Views media as one
of al Qaeda’s arsenal.
o Struggle dramatization
o Sub-organizations devoted to public
relations
o Personal writings on the victimization of
Muslims throughout the world
o Internet use

6. Media as a Weapon
 Literature from violent extremists reveals
important information concerning
organizations and strategies.
 Jihadists are aware of media’s ability to
influence social construction of reality.
o Jihadists media strategies:
▪ Legitimacy for their movement
▪ Proliferation of their message
▪ Increased sympathy
▪ Opponents are targeted for intimidation

7. News Frames and Presentations
 Levin: Reporting patterns packaged in
segments called news frames.
 News frames create a pattern surrounding an
event.
o Symbolic representation of an event
o ‘Meditization’ = shaping the way an event is
communicated
 Reporting frame
o The classic approach
o Designed to provide the latest information
o Usually short

8. News Frames and Presentations
 Type of frames
o Dominant frame – presents a story from a
single viewpoint
o Conflict frame – presents a story with two views
o Contention frame – summarizes a variety of
views
o Investigative frames – champion role of the
press as protectors of democracy
o Mythic frame – depicts those people who have
sacrificed their lives for a cause

9. Ambiguous Stories and News Frames
 News frames give stories structured meaning; however,
stories may defy structure.
 Media reports terrorist events within well defined frame.
 Ambiguity destroys the ability to create a sustainable
news frame.
o If terrorism is reported in well defined news frames, both
the media and the consumer will assume that there is a
political beginning, a violent process, and a logical end.
o If there is ambiguity about the story, the method by which
reporters gather the story and present it becomes the story
because there is no logical conclusion.
 News frame is centered on:
o Getting viewer’s attention
o Presenting information
o Revealing the results
 TWA Flight 800

10. Beating the War Drum
 Kellner: After September 11 American
television beat the war drum.
o Called in a variety of exports reflecting a
single view
o Radio engaged in sensationalistic
propaganda
 Process went beyond news reporting
o Patriot war movies
 News frames simplified the cause
o Pointed war as the only logical solution

11. Terrorism and Television
 Barber: coined the phrase the Infotainment
Telesector
o Twenty-four hour news networks
o Designed to create revenue
o “News” becomes banter between news anchor and
the guest
o Debates ensue
o Issues are rarely discussed
o Negative effect of Infotainment Telesector
▪ Documents are leaked
▪ Confidential plans unveiled
▪ Vulnerabilities exposed

12. Terrorism and Television
 The drama pattern is designed to keep the viewer
tuned to the station.
 The overriding message of the drama is “stay tuned.”
 Drama pattern of the media no longer a Western
monopoly.
 Al Jazeera and al Arabia challenged Western hold on
international news.
 Localized networks present other perspectives and
definitions of terrorism.
 The growth of media outlets and competing
perspectives has had a huge impact on the way the
United States is viewed around the world.

13. The Internet and Terrorism
 The Internet often exceeds the ability of established
media to report an event.
 Internet used as:
o Communication
o Propaganda
o Reporting tool
o Recruiting tool
o Training tool
o Target selection
o Reconnaissance
o Tactical weapon
▪ Either side has ability to data mine and gather
intelligence
▪ Tool to support an attack

14. The Internet and Terrorism
 Hinnen: Internet used as communication device
o Non-secure e-mail most common form
 Terrorists understand power of the Internet.
o Run their own websites
o Hack into existing sites to broadcast propaganda
videos
o Enhance power of terrorist groups
 Purchasing equipment
 Fraud
 Internet’s communication capabilities present
terrorists with the opportunity to attack the global
community.
o Liff and Laegren: Cybercafes enhance Internet’s
striking power.

15. The Internet and Terrorism
 Steganography
o One of the Internet’s greatest vulnerabilities to criminal
and terrorist communication.
o Process of embedding hidden information in a picture,
message, or other piece of information.
o There are two positions on the steganographic threat to
the United States:
▪ used by terrorist groups to communicate and launch cyber-
attacks
▪ used in denial of service attacks or to deface websites
o In the areas of propaganda, reporting, and public
relations, the Internet has been a boon.
• It allows terrorist groups to present messages and portray
images that will not appear in mainstream media.

16. Issues in the Media
 Media claim to be objective when
presenting information about terrorism.
 Critics claim that media has a liberal
bias.
o Tim Groseclose and Jeffrey Milyo:
 The American media has a liberal bias
 The news media cited the think tanks
referenced by liberal members of
Congress more than conservative ones.

17. Issues in the Media
 Sutter: No incentive for liberal or conservative
bias
o As profit-making entities, news organizations have
incentive to attract largest possible audience.
o If the entire media where to exhibit a bias, some owner
would need to have a monopoly on all media outlets.
o Journalism is a profession.
o As news organizations expand, there will be pressures
for bias to develop special audiences among liberals
and conservatives.
o News organizations are increasingly led by boards and
groups of owners driven by the desire to make money.

18. Issues in the Media
 Barron: Bias appears on two levels
o Individual discretion of the reporter
o Public’s desire to read or watch the most
captivating story
▪ Reporters’ individual bias may slip into the story –
corporation presenting the news will ultimately
limit the bias

19. Issues in the Media
 Slisli: Use of pejorative labels introduces
bias into the news.
o American media is full of stereotypes and
over-simplifications.
o Media plays to lowest level of understanding.
o Targeting the most simplistic viewers.
o Terms such as fanatic, fundamentalist, and
terrorists sensationalize reports.
 Levin:
o The news is aimed at particular audiences.
o Different organizations approach audiences in
a variety of ways.

20. Issues in the Media
 Miniter:
o Media has shifted toward liberalism
o Media are blamed for spreading incorrect
information
o Twenty-two misconceptions about terrorism
accepted as truth
o Myths come from variety of sources to include:
 Honest mistakes in reporting
 American and foreign government disinformation
 Contrived leaks
 Disagreement of Miniter’s findings by other
investigative journalists.

21. Issues in the Media
 Fraley and Roushanzamir:
o Sub-national and supra-national violence is
shifting and distorting all media presentations
of violence, including terrorism.
o The mass media is spreading more
propaganda than news in a world dominated by
media corporations.
o The flow and amount of information, however,
could serve to raise the awareness of news
consumers, creating a new critical media
consciousness.

22. The Contagion Effect
 Effects of media are complex
o Media images produce some types of behavior
o Many researchers believe fear generated by media is
contagious
 Effects are not totally clear
o Bomb threats in nuclear industry
 Bassiouni found media coverage had several
contagious effects:
o Promoted fear and magnified threats
o Spread fear
o Influenced how terrorists select targets
o Spread violence
o Selected targets for maximum publicity

23. The Contagion Effect
 Other findings demonstrate that:
o Media reports might inspire a person to engage in
terrorism, but so do stories from friends and families.
o There may be a contagious relationship between a
terrorist event and the level of violence in later events.
 Some researchers believe that:
o if a contagion effect exists, it might be used to counter
terrorism
 While a model linking media violence to social
aggression and violent behavior may be acceptable to
policy makers, Barrie Gunter argues that it is not
demonstrated to the level of certainty that social
scientists seek.

24. Censorship Debate
 Debates surrounding censorship are always
present during time of national crisis.
 Arguments concerning censorship are heated and
central to democracy.
o Does free speech automatically allow media access to
information?
▪ Media: Public has a right to know
▪ Critics: Free speech does not equal unlimited access to
information
▪ Right to know v. Right to speak
 Wilkinson reports that the government faces three
choices in regard to the media and terrorism:
o Laissez faire attitude
o Government agency veto power over news reports
o Self regulation

25. Censorship Debate
 Graber reports several arguments to support
censorship:
o National security
o Public wants information withheld
o Americans should behave patriotically
 Terrorism is essentially a war of information
o Supporters:
▪ National security demands censorship
o Opponents:
▪ Censorship hides government mistakes and public must
have information to make informed decisions
▪ Terrorism is a war of information
▪ Every government camp downcast officials in a bad light