Chapters
Reminders: light
speed of light in a vacuum
A brief historical reminder of the speed of light
Invariance of the speed of light in a vacuum
Influence of the propagation medium
Speed or celerity?
Speed, distance traveled, and duration
Relations including the speed of light
Faster than light?
Speed of light: did you know?
Reminders: light
Light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of a magnetic field and an electric field oscillating perpendicular to each other in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the light wave. In a vacuum, light travels in a straight line at the speed of light noted c.
speed of light in a vacuum
Exact value
The exact value of the speed of light was fixed in 1983 by the Bureau of Weights and Measures at c = 299 792 458 m/s or c = 2.99792458 x 10 8 m/s, using the units of the international system. It can also be expressed in kilometers per hour by multiplying the value in m/s by 3.6: c = 1,079,252,848.8 km/h or c = 1.0792528488 x 10 9 km/h. This value, which represents a fundamental constant of physics, can be used for calculations requiring great precision. It is also used to define the meter in the international system of units: one meter corresponds to the length traveled in a vacuum by light for a duration of 1/299,792,458 seconds.
A brief historical reminder of the speed of light
The first conception concerning light suppose that it can be either present in a space, or absent: the light would therefore be instantaneous. The Arab scholar Alhazen (965-1039) was interested in optics and wrote reference treatises. He is the first to have the intuition that the appearance of light is not instantaneous, that it has a speed of propagation, but he cannot prove it.
Galileo (1564-1039) tries to measure the propagation time of light between two hills using two people a few kilometers apart and equipped with clocks. He fails to measure the speed of light (which, in the context of this experiment, takes 10 -5 seconds to travel the previously defined distance, not measurable for the time) and deduces from the failure of this experiment that the speed of propagation of light is very high.
Cassini (1625-1712) speculated that the irregularity in the movement of Io, a satellite of Jupiter, could come from a delay in the arrival of light from the satellite, "such that it takes 10 or 11 minutes for it travels a distance equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit". Römer (1644-1710) explains the discrepancy between the eclipses of Io (a satellite of Jupiter) and Cassini's predictions by assuming that light has a speed of propagation. It is the first to give an order of magnitude of the speed of light.
Bradley (1693-1762) confirms Römer's hypothesis and proposes a first estimate of the speed of light at approximately 10188 times that of the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, the latter being however poorly known. His discovery is linked to the aberration of light,
Telescope history
&facts,
Light travels at 300,000 km/s. It has properties of both waves and particles. Spectral lines identify elements in stars - each element produces a unique set of lines. Astronomers use spectral lines and Wien's and Stefan-Boltzmann laws to determine surface temperatures of stars and planets from their emitted light.
Light is an electromagnetic wave that exhibits properties of both waves and particles. As a wave, it propagates at a constant speed of about 3x108 m/s in a vacuum. It has characteristics such as wavelength, frequency, and amplitude. Light also behaves as discrete particles called photons, with energy levels dependent on frequency. The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation including visible light, which humans can see. Refractive index is the ratio of light's speed in a vacuum to its speed in a material, and determines how much its path is bent upon entering the material.
The document discusses three main ways that energy can be transferred: conduction, convection, and radiation. Radiation is the only form that can occur in a vacuum and is therefore important for remote sensing. Electromagnetic radiation consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling at the speed of light. Remote sensing uses EMR from an energy source like the sun to illuminate targets. EMR interacts with and is affected by the atmosphere and earth's surface in complex ways like absorption, scattering, and reflection before being detected by sensors.
This document summarizes the history of experiments measuring the speed of light. Key findings include:
- Early Greek philosophers theorized light had a finite speed, while Aristotle believed it was instantaneous.
- Muslims in the 5th century calculated the speed of light to be within 0.01% of the accepted value using lunar orbits.
- Galileo's first experiment in 1638 could only measure human reaction time, finding light was faster than sound.
- Roemer measured the speed at 200,000,000 m/s in 1676 using Jupiter's moons.
- Bradley achieved a measurement within 1% in 1725 using stellar aberration.
- Later experiments used rotating wheels and
Optics tutorial 1st year physics classes 2013-2014 { Problems n Solutions}QahtannRose
1. This document discusses several optics concepts including: the behavior of light passing through openings of different diameters, how light travels from distant galaxies, calculating the speed and wavelength of light in different media using Snell's law and the refractive index, calculating angles of reflection and refraction, types of waves, and more. Maxwell's equations predict electromagnetic waves that propagate through space at the speed of light.
Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity in 1905, which established two postulates - the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames, and the speed of light has the same value in all reference frames. This challenged the prevailing notion of Galilean relativity and the existence of the luminiferous ether, and led to predictions such as time dilation and length contraction that have since been widely verified.
Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity in 1905, which established two postulates - the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames, and the speed of light has the same value in all reference frames. This challenged the prevailing Newtonian mechanics and the concept of the luminiferous ether. Experiments like the Michelson-Morley experiment found no evidence of the ether or different light speeds. Relativity led to phenomena like time dilation, where clocks in motion run slower, and length contraction, where objects appear shorter along the direction of motion.
This document discusses key concepts from special relativity. It begins with an example of measuring the rate of dripping water from a pot on a moving train from the perspective of an observer on the train (Ali) and an observer on the ground (Baba). It notes that both measurements are equally valid and can be related using Lorentz transformations. It then discusses that events can be considered from any reference frame, with no frame being superior, and that the choice of reference frame is a matter of convenience. It also explains that accurately locating events requires accounting for the finite speed of light to avoid simultaneity issues. Overall, the document introduces the idea that the laws of physics must appear the same in all reference frames according to Einstein's principle
Light travels at 300,000 km/s. It has properties of both waves and particles. Spectral lines identify elements in stars - each element produces a unique set of lines. Astronomers use spectral lines and Wien's and Stefan-Boltzmann laws to determine surface temperatures of stars and planets from their emitted light.
Light is an electromagnetic wave that exhibits properties of both waves and particles. As a wave, it propagates at a constant speed of about 3x108 m/s in a vacuum. It has characteristics such as wavelength, frequency, and amplitude. Light also behaves as discrete particles called photons, with energy levels dependent on frequency. The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation including visible light, which humans can see. Refractive index is the ratio of light's speed in a vacuum to its speed in a material, and determines how much its path is bent upon entering the material.
The document discusses three main ways that energy can be transferred: conduction, convection, and radiation. Radiation is the only form that can occur in a vacuum and is therefore important for remote sensing. Electromagnetic radiation consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling at the speed of light. Remote sensing uses EMR from an energy source like the sun to illuminate targets. EMR interacts with and is affected by the atmosphere and earth's surface in complex ways like absorption, scattering, and reflection before being detected by sensors.
This document summarizes the history of experiments measuring the speed of light. Key findings include:
- Early Greek philosophers theorized light had a finite speed, while Aristotle believed it was instantaneous.
- Muslims in the 5th century calculated the speed of light to be within 0.01% of the accepted value using lunar orbits.
- Galileo's first experiment in 1638 could only measure human reaction time, finding light was faster than sound.
- Roemer measured the speed at 200,000,000 m/s in 1676 using Jupiter's moons.
- Bradley achieved a measurement within 1% in 1725 using stellar aberration.
- Later experiments used rotating wheels and
Optics tutorial 1st year physics classes 2013-2014 { Problems n Solutions}QahtannRose
1. This document discusses several optics concepts including: the behavior of light passing through openings of different diameters, how light travels from distant galaxies, calculating the speed and wavelength of light in different media using Snell's law and the refractive index, calculating angles of reflection and refraction, types of waves, and more. Maxwell's equations predict electromagnetic waves that propagate through space at the speed of light.
Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity in 1905, which established two postulates - the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames, and the speed of light has the same value in all reference frames. This challenged the prevailing notion of Galilean relativity and the existence of the luminiferous ether, and led to predictions such as time dilation and length contraction that have since been widely verified.
Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity in 1905, which established two postulates - the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames, and the speed of light has the same value in all reference frames. This challenged the prevailing Newtonian mechanics and the concept of the luminiferous ether. Experiments like the Michelson-Morley experiment found no evidence of the ether or different light speeds. Relativity led to phenomena like time dilation, where clocks in motion run slower, and length contraction, where objects appear shorter along the direction of motion.
This document discusses key concepts from special relativity. It begins with an example of measuring the rate of dripping water from a pot on a moving train from the perspective of an observer on the train (Ali) and an observer on the ground (Baba). It notes that both measurements are equally valid and can be related using Lorentz transformations. It then discusses that events can be considered from any reference frame, with no frame being superior, and that the choice of reference frame is a matter of convenience. It also explains that accurately locating events requires accounting for the finite speed of light to avoid simultaneity issues. Overall, the document introduces the idea that the laws of physics must appear the same in all reference frames according to Einstein's principle
The document provides background information on Einstein's special theory of relativity. It discusses the two postulates of special relativity: 1) the principle of relativity, and 2) the constancy of the speed of light. It then summarizes some key consequences of special relativity, including time dilation, length contraction, relativistic Doppler effect, relativistic mass, mass-energy equivalence, and Lorentz transformations. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculations for these various consequences.
The document summarizes the observation of gravitational waves from a binary black hole merger detected by the LIGO detectors on September 14, 2015. The key points are:
1) LIGO detected a transient gravitational-wave signal that matches predictions from general relativity for the inspiral and merger of two black holes.
2) Analysis of the signal determines that the initial black hole masses were about 36 and 29 solar masses, which merged into a final black hole of about 62 solar masses over 0.2 seconds.
3) This is the first direct detection of gravitational waves as well as the first observation of a binary black hole merger, confirming predictions from Einstein's theory of general relativity.
Observation of gravitational waves from a binary black hole mergerSérgio Sacani
On September 14, 2015 at 09:50:45 UTC the two detectors of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave
Observatory simultaneously observed a transient gravitational-wave signal. The signal sweeps upwards in
frequency from 35 to 250 Hz with a peak gravitational-wave strain of 1.0 × 10−21. It matches the waveform
predicted by general relativity for the inspiral and merger of a pair of black holes and the ringdown of the
resulting single black hole. The signal was observed with a matched-filter signal-to-noise ratio of 24 and a
false alarm rate estimated to be less than 1 event per 203 000 years, equivalent to a significance greater
than 5.1σ. The source lies at a luminosity distance of 410þ160
−180 Mpc corresponding to a redshift z ¼ 0.09þ0.03 −0.04 .
In the source frame, the initial black hole masses are 36þ5
−4M⊙ and 29þ4
−4M⊙, and the final black hole mass is
62þ4
−4M⊙, with 3.0þ0.5 −0.5M⊙c2 radiated in gravitational waves. All uncertainties define 90% credible intervals.
These observations demonstrate the existence of binary stellar-mass black hole systems. This is the first direct
detection of gravitational waves and the first observation of a binary black hole merger
This document provides a summary of Einstein's theory of relativity including:
- A brief history of developments leading up to Einstein's theories, including experiments by Michelson-Morley and proposals by FitzGerald and Lorentz.
- Key aspects of special relativity including the relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, and relativistic momentum.
- Examples applying the formulas for time dilation, length contraction, and relativistic momentum.
- An introduction to general relativity and its concept of gravity as the curving of spacetime.
- Famous physicists who contributed to the development of relativity theory such as Einstein, Huygens, and Lorentz.
This document discusses the phenomenon of diffraction, which refers to the bending of waves around obstacles. It provides explanations of diffraction from both classical physics and quantum mechanics perspectives. Examples of diffraction effects in everyday life are given, such as the rainbow pattern seen on CDs/DVDs. The document also covers the history of diffraction studies, analytical models used to calculate diffraction, and the role of coherence in diffraction.
This document discusses the properties and uses of telescopes. It begins by explaining that telescopes collect and focus light to observe astronomical objects using electromagnetic radiation across the spectrum. It then discusses key topics like the nature of light as waves, the development of reflecting telescopes, and factors that influence a telescope's capabilities such as light gathering power and resolution. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts and the limitations of different telescope designs.
Electro magnetic radiation principles.pdfssusera1eccd
The document discusses principles of electromagnetic radiation relevant to remote sensing. It describes how energy from the sun interacts with the atmosphere and earth's surface, and is then detected by remote sensors. It explains that electromagnetic radiation can be modeled as waves or particles. The wave model describes properties like wavelength and frequency, while the particle model describes radiation as photons with energy proportional to frequency. The document also outlines the electromagnetic spectrum and different processes involved in electromagnetic radiation like reflection, refraction, and scattering in the atmosphere.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE OF QUARTER 2 WEEK 4.pptxZayraAtrero2
The document describes various characteristics and properties of waves, including:
1. Crests and troughs define the highest and lowest points of a wave, with the distance between crests or troughs defining the wavelength. Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
2. Shorter wavelengths correspond to higher energy waves, while longer wavelengths are lower energy.
3. Early attempts to measure the speed of light by Galileo and Roemer were unsuccessful or yielded finite but inaccurate values, until Roemer used observations of Jupiter's moon Io to estimate the speed of light at 2.25 x 10^8 m/s.
4. The nature of light was debated as either waves or
This document provides an introduction to photometry and radiometry, which are the sciences of measuring light. It defines key concepts including:
- Radiant energy, which is the total amount of electromagnetic energy.
- Radiant flux (radiant power), which is the time rate of flow of radiant energy and is measured in watts.
- Radiant flux density, which is the radiant flux per unit area. When the flux is arriving at a surface it is called irradiance, and when leaving a surface it is called radiant exitance.
- Radiance, which is the amount of radiant flux in an elemental cone and provides a measure of the apparent brightness of a surface
This document discusses the concept of 4-dimensional resonance of space-time. It provides examples of calculating the curvature and resonance parameters of various objects and finding that they relate to integer values. This suggests natural objects form as resonance processes in an aether determined by the parameters of their planet. It also discusses how 4-dimensional holograms could store information over time intervals and how longitudinal waves in the aether could allow information exchange like in DNA molecules.
This document discusses the concept of 4-dimensional resonance of space-time. It provides examples of calculating the curvature and resonance parameters of various objects and finds they relate to integer values. This suggests natural objects form as resonance processes in an aether determined by the planet they exist on. The document also discusses longitudinal waves in the aether, their relation to time, and their potential role in DNA communication and 4-dimensional holograms.
Special theory of -Relativity presentation.pptdeoeo112
Special Relativity addresses limitations of classical Newtonian mechanics at high speeds approaching the speed of light. Key points:
- Michelson-Morley experiment found the speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames, contradicting Galilean transformations.
- Einstein postulated (1) laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames and (2) the speed of light is constant.
- Simultaneity and time intervals are relative concepts depending on the observer's frame of reference, challenging notions of absolute time.
- Time dilation occurs such that moving clocks measure time intervals as longer than stationary observers, demonstrated by the train experiment.
1) The document discusses remote sensing and provides definitions and explanations of key concepts such as the electromagnetic spectrum, atmospheric interaction with electromagnetic waves, and atmospheric windows.
2) It describes the seven elements of remote sensing including the energy source, interaction with the atmosphere and target, sensor recording, processing, interpretation, and application.
3) The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into regions including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, and others. Certain regions have high atmospheric transmittance and are considered atmospheric windows for remote sensing.
1. The document discusses principles of quantum chemistry including classical mechanics and its inadequacies in explaining phenomena at the atomic level, Planck's quantum theory, and properties of electromagnetic radiation.
2. Key concepts covered include de Broglie's equation describing the wave-like nature of matter, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, explanations of photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation.
3. The document also introduces quantum numbers, Hund's rule, Pauli's exclusion principle, and Aufbau's principle, which describe allowable electron configurations in atoms and molecules.
This dissertation project examines the oscillation properties of coronal streamers after collisions with shock waves from coronal mass ejections (CMEs). The author developed an IDL program to calculate properties like wave speed, Alfvén speed, magnetic field, and magnetic tension force using electron density data from two CME/streamer collision events observed by the LASCO C2 coronagraph on SOHO. Results showed wave speed and Alfvén speed increased with height while density, magnetic field, and tension decreased with height. The study aimed to provide a method for calculating streamer wave properties to further understanding of coronal structures.
The Significance of the Speed of Light relating to EinsteinKenny Hansen
This document discusses Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity and how it relates to the universal constant speed of light. It explores how light can behave as both a particle and wave, and how its speed is directly linked to concepts like mass, time, and energy. The speed of light is fundamental to our understanding of physics and the nature of the universe according to Einstein's theory.
1. Special relativity describes the laws of physics in different inertial reference frames where the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. It includes time dilation and length contraction effects at relativistic speeds.
2. General relativity describes gravity as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass/energy. It predicts phenomena like gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, and the bending of light by massive objects.
3. Both theories have been validated experimentally through observations of subatomic particles, GPS satellites, and images of distant galaxies. They form the basis of modern physics.
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM THEORY LIGHT AND ITS PRINCIPLES
The General Characteristics, Properties and Classification of Wave, The Nature of Light (Is that
wave? Or particle? Or Both?), Classical and Quantum Theory of Light
THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
Huygens’s wave theory of light, Young’s Double Slits Experiment, and Electromagnetic waves
(Maxwell’s Electromagnetic theory of light)
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT
Newton’s corpuscular theory of light and Black Body radiation, Photoelectric Effect, The
Compton Scattering Effect, X-ray and X-ray Diffraction, and The Davinson-Germer Electron
Diffraction Experiment
WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
De-Broglie Wave length, Electron Double Slits Diffraction Experiment, and Electron
Microscope
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD
CLASS XI AND XII
PHYSICS
CHAPTER 7
WAVE OPTICS
CONTENT:
Huygen's principle.
Huygen's principles & proof of laws of reflection/refraction.
Condition for construction & destruction of coherent waves.
Young's double slit experiment.
Modified Young's double slit experiment.
Intensity of light in Y.D.S.E.
Diffraction due to single slit.
Polarisation & doppler effect.
1) The document outlines key concepts from Einstein's theory of special relativity including reference frames, the Michelson-Morley experiment, postulates of relativity, Lorentz transformations, length contraction and time dilation.
2) It discusses experimental evidence for concepts like time dilation from observations of muon decay lifetimes and provides equations for length contraction, time dilation, velocity addition and relativistic mass.
3) The twin paradox is introduced as a thought experiment exploring time dilation between twins where one takes a high speed journey into space and back while the other remains on Earth. Accelerations are identified as the resolution for why the traveling twin ages less.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
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The document provides background information on Einstein's special theory of relativity. It discusses the two postulates of special relativity: 1) the principle of relativity, and 2) the constancy of the speed of light. It then summarizes some key consequences of special relativity, including time dilation, length contraction, relativistic Doppler effect, relativistic mass, mass-energy equivalence, and Lorentz transformations. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculations for these various consequences.
The document summarizes the observation of gravitational waves from a binary black hole merger detected by the LIGO detectors on September 14, 2015. The key points are:
1) LIGO detected a transient gravitational-wave signal that matches predictions from general relativity for the inspiral and merger of two black holes.
2) Analysis of the signal determines that the initial black hole masses were about 36 and 29 solar masses, which merged into a final black hole of about 62 solar masses over 0.2 seconds.
3) This is the first direct detection of gravitational waves as well as the first observation of a binary black hole merger, confirming predictions from Einstein's theory of general relativity.
Observation of gravitational waves from a binary black hole mergerSérgio Sacani
On September 14, 2015 at 09:50:45 UTC the two detectors of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave
Observatory simultaneously observed a transient gravitational-wave signal. The signal sweeps upwards in
frequency from 35 to 250 Hz with a peak gravitational-wave strain of 1.0 × 10−21. It matches the waveform
predicted by general relativity for the inspiral and merger of a pair of black holes and the ringdown of the
resulting single black hole. The signal was observed with a matched-filter signal-to-noise ratio of 24 and a
false alarm rate estimated to be less than 1 event per 203 000 years, equivalent to a significance greater
than 5.1σ. The source lies at a luminosity distance of 410þ160
−180 Mpc corresponding to a redshift z ¼ 0.09þ0.03 −0.04 .
In the source frame, the initial black hole masses are 36þ5
−4M⊙ and 29þ4
−4M⊙, and the final black hole mass is
62þ4
−4M⊙, with 3.0þ0.5 −0.5M⊙c2 radiated in gravitational waves. All uncertainties define 90% credible intervals.
These observations demonstrate the existence of binary stellar-mass black hole systems. This is the first direct
detection of gravitational waves and the first observation of a binary black hole merger
This document provides a summary of Einstein's theory of relativity including:
- A brief history of developments leading up to Einstein's theories, including experiments by Michelson-Morley and proposals by FitzGerald and Lorentz.
- Key aspects of special relativity including the relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, and relativistic momentum.
- Examples applying the formulas for time dilation, length contraction, and relativistic momentum.
- An introduction to general relativity and its concept of gravity as the curving of spacetime.
- Famous physicists who contributed to the development of relativity theory such as Einstein, Huygens, and Lorentz.
This document discusses the phenomenon of diffraction, which refers to the bending of waves around obstacles. It provides explanations of diffraction from both classical physics and quantum mechanics perspectives. Examples of diffraction effects in everyday life are given, such as the rainbow pattern seen on CDs/DVDs. The document also covers the history of diffraction studies, analytical models used to calculate diffraction, and the role of coherence in diffraction.
This document discusses the properties and uses of telescopes. It begins by explaining that telescopes collect and focus light to observe astronomical objects using electromagnetic radiation across the spectrum. It then discusses key topics like the nature of light as waves, the development of reflecting telescopes, and factors that influence a telescope's capabilities such as light gathering power and resolution. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts and the limitations of different telescope designs.
Electro magnetic radiation principles.pdfssusera1eccd
The document discusses principles of electromagnetic radiation relevant to remote sensing. It describes how energy from the sun interacts with the atmosphere and earth's surface, and is then detected by remote sensors. It explains that electromagnetic radiation can be modeled as waves or particles. The wave model describes properties like wavelength and frequency, while the particle model describes radiation as photons with energy proportional to frequency. The document also outlines the electromagnetic spectrum and different processes involved in electromagnetic radiation like reflection, refraction, and scattering in the atmosphere.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE OF QUARTER 2 WEEK 4.pptxZayraAtrero2
The document describes various characteristics and properties of waves, including:
1. Crests and troughs define the highest and lowest points of a wave, with the distance between crests or troughs defining the wavelength. Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
2. Shorter wavelengths correspond to higher energy waves, while longer wavelengths are lower energy.
3. Early attempts to measure the speed of light by Galileo and Roemer were unsuccessful or yielded finite but inaccurate values, until Roemer used observations of Jupiter's moon Io to estimate the speed of light at 2.25 x 10^8 m/s.
4. The nature of light was debated as either waves or
This document provides an introduction to photometry and radiometry, which are the sciences of measuring light. It defines key concepts including:
- Radiant energy, which is the total amount of electromagnetic energy.
- Radiant flux (radiant power), which is the time rate of flow of radiant energy and is measured in watts.
- Radiant flux density, which is the radiant flux per unit area. When the flux is arriving at a surface it is called irradiance, and when leaving a surface it is called radiant exitance.
- Radiance, which is the amount of radiant flux in an elemental cone and provides a measure of the apparent brightness of a surface
This document discusses the concept of 4-dimensional resonance of space-time. It provides examples of calculating the curvature and resonance parameters of various objects and finding that they relate to integer values. This suggests natural objects form as resonance processes in an aether determined by the parameters of their planet. It also discusses how 4-dimensional holograms could store information over time intervals and how longitudinal waves in the aether could allow information exchange like in DNA molecules.
This document discusses the concept of 4-dimensional resonance of space-time. It provides examples of calculating the curvature and resonance parameters of various objects and finds they relate to integer values. This suggests natural objects form as resonance processes in an aether determined by the planet they exist on. The document also discusses longitudinal waves in the aether, their relation to time, and their potential role in DNA communication and 4-dimensional holograms.
Special theory of -Relativity presentation.pptdeoeo112
Special Relativity addresses limitations of classical Newtonian mechanics at high speeds approaching the speed of light. Key points:
- Michelson-Morley experiment found the speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames, contradicting Galilean transformations.
- Einstein postulated (1) laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames and (2) the speed of light is constant.
- Simultaneity and time intervals are relative concepts depending on the observer's frame of reference, challenging notions of absolute time.
- Time dilation occurs such that moving clocks measure time intervals as longer than stationary observers, demonstrated by the train experiment.
1) The document discusses remote sensing and provides definitions and explanations of key concepts such as the electromagnetic spectrum, atmospheric interaction with electromagnetic waves, and atmospheric windows.
2) It describes the seven elements of remote sensing including the energy source, interaction with the atmosphere and target, sensor recording, processing, interpretation, and application.
3) The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into regions including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, and others. Certain regions have high atmospheric transmittance and are considered atmospheric windows for remote sensing.
1. The document discusses principles of quantum chemistry including classical mechanics and its inadequacies in explaining phenomena at the atomic level, Planck's quantum theory, and properties of electromagnetic radiation.
2. Key concepts covered include de Broglie's equation describing the wave-like nature of matter, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, explanations of photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation.
3. The document also introduces quantum numbers, Hund's rule, Pauli's exclusion principle, and Aufbau's principle, which describe allowable electron configurations in atoms and molecules.
This dissertation project examines the oscillation properties of coronal streamers after collisions with shock waves from coronal mass ejections (CMEs). The author developed an IDL program to calculate properties like wave speed, Alfvén speed, magnetic field, and magnetic tension force using electron density data from two CME/streamer collision events observed by the LASCO C2 coronagraph on SOHO. Results showed wave speed and Alfvén speed increased with height while density, magnetic field, and tension decreased with height. The study aimed to provide a method for calculating streamer wave properties to further understanding of coronal structures.
The Significance of the Speed of Light relating to EinsteinKenny Hansen
This document discusses Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity and how it relates to the universal constant speed of light. It explores how light can behave as both a particle and wave, and how its speed is directly linked to concepts like mass, time, and energy. The speed of light is fundamental to our understanding of physics and the nature of the universe according to Einstein's theory.
1. Special relativity describes the laws of physics in different inertial reference frames where the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. It includes time dilation and length contraction effects at relativistic speeds.
2. General relativity describes gravity as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass/energy. It predicts phenomena like gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, and the bending of light by massive objects.
3. Both theories have been validated experimentally through observations of subatomic particles, GPS satellites, and images of distant galaxies. They form the basis of modern physics.
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM THEORY LIGHT AND ITS PRINCIPLES
The General Characteristics, Properties and Classification of Wave, The Nature of Light (Is that
wave? Or particle? Or Both?), Classical and Quantum Theory of Light
THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
Huygens’s wave theory of light, Young’s Double Slits Experiment, and Electromagnetic waves
(Maxwell’s Electromagnetic theory of light)
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT
Newton’s corpuscular theory of light and Black Body radiation, Photoelectric Effect, The
Compton Scattering Effect, X-ray and X-ray Diffraction, and The Davinson-Germer Electron
Diffraction Experiment
WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
De-Broglie Wave length, Electron Double Slits Diffraction Experiment, and Electron
Microscope
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD
CLASS XI AND XII
PHYSICS
CHAPTER 7
WAVE OPTICS
CONTENT:
Huygen's principle.
Huygen's principles & proof of laws of reflection/refraction.
Condition for construction & destruction of coherent waves.
Young's double slit experiment.
Modified Young's double slit experiment.
Intensity of light in Y.D.S.E.
Diffraction due to single slit.
Polarisation & doppler effect.
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তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
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2. 1. Reminders: light
2. speed of light in a vacuum
3. A brief historical reminder of the speed of light
4. Invariance of the speed of light in a vacuum
5. Influence of the propagation medium
6. Speed
or celerity?
7. Speed, distance traveled, and duration
8. Relations including the speed of light
9. Faster than light?
10. Speed
of light: did you know?
Reminders: light
Light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of a magnetic field and an electric field oscillating
perpendicular to each other in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the light wave.
In a vacuum, light travels in a straight line at the speed of light noted c.
speed of light in a vacuum
Exact value
The exact value of the speed of light was fixed in 1983 by the Bureau of Weights and Measures at: c
= 299 792 458 m/s or c = 2.99792458 x 10 8 m/s, using the units of the international system. It can
also be expressed in kilometers per hour by multiplying the value in m/s by 3.6: c = 1,079,252,848.8
km/h or c = 1.0792528488 x 10 9 km/h. This value, which represents a fundamental constant of
physics, can be used for calculations requiring great precision. It is also used to define the meter in
the international system of units: one meter corresponds to the length traveled in a vacuum by light
for a duration of 1/299,792,458 seconds.
A brief historical reminder of the speed of light
The first conception concerning light suppose that it can be either present in a space, or absent: the
light would therefore be instantaneous.
3. Galileo not only ruled on the shape of planet Earth! The notion of propagation in space, and
therefore of speed, is then not present.
The Arab scholar Alhazen (965-1039) was interested in optics and wrote reference treatises. He is
the first to have the intuition that the appearance of light is not instantaneous, that it has a speed of
propagation, but he cannot prove it.
Galileo (1564-1039) tries to measure the propagation time of light between two hills using two
people a few kilometers apart and equipped with clocks. He fails to measure the speed of light
(which, in the context of this experiment, takes 10 -5 seconds to travel the previously defined
4. distance, not measurable for the time) and deduces from the failure of this experiment that the speed
of propagation of light is very high.
Cassini (1625-1712) speculated that the irregularity in the movement of Io, a satellite of Jupiter,
could come from a delay in the arrival of light from the satellite, "such that it takes 10 or 11 minutes
for it travels a distance equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit". Römer (1644-1710) explains the
discrepancy between the eclipses of Io (a satellite of Jupiter) and Cassini's predictions by assuming
that light has a speed of propagation. It is the first to give an order of magnitude of the speed of light.
Bradley (1693-1762) confirms Römer's hypothesis and proposes a first estimate of the speed of
light at approximately 10188 times that of the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, the latter being
however poorly known. His discovery is linked to the aberration of light, an optical phenomenon that
results in the fact that the apparent direction of a light source depends on the speed of the person
observing it.
Fizeau (1819-1896) developed a device that allowed him to assess the speed of light. It sends a
beam of light between the town of Suresnes (Hauts-de-Seine, 92) and Montmartre (Paris). The light
passes through a toothed wheel, is reflected by a mirror, goes back through the wheel, and finally
arrives on a screen. Depending on the speed of the wheel, the light may or may not be obscured.
This last parameter is known, as well as the interval between two teeth and the exact distance
traveled by light, Fizeau manages to estimate the speed of light at 3.15 x 10 5 km/s.
Cornu (1841-1902): he perfected Fizeau's device and found a value of 3.004 X 10 5 km/s The
measurements were carried out later (by Michelson, Newcomb, and Perrotint) made it possible to
obtain increasingly precise values, in order to arrive at the one used today.
● Telescope history
● Telegraph Machine history
Invariance of the speed of light in a vacuum
In classical mechanics, any speed depends on the chosen frame of reference. However, this is not the
case for light (and electromagnetic radiation in general): its speed is invariant. This means that light
5. propagates at the same speed (c in vacuum) for a stationary observer relative to its source or for a
moving observer. On the contrary, the speed of a sound wave measured by an observer depends on
the speed at which the latter moves relative to the source of the sound. A modern test of the
invariance of the speed of light was carried out in 1964 by the team of Alväger, a Swedish physicist,
within the Proton Synchrotron of CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research). This test,
based on the time-of-flight technique, consisted in measuring the speed of γ rays coming from the
disintegration of particles called neutral pions π 0, which produce photons while degrading. The
invariance of the speed of light constitutes the basic postulate of special relativity established by
Albert Einstein at the beginning of the 20th century. The speed of propagation of light in a vacuum is
invariable whatever the frequency of the light wave and whatever the Galilean frame of reference
considered.
Influence of the propagation medium
speed of light in the matter
In most transparent material media, light propagates at a speed slower than that of a vacuum: its
speed then depends on the chemical nature of the medium, its density, its concentration (for
solutions), but also on certain quantities physical such as:
● temperature,
● pressure
● or the wavelength of the radiation under consideration.
The different transparent media are characterized by their refractive index (noted n). This index
without unit is always higher than 1, because it is considered that for the vacuum n=1, and makes it
possible to find at which speed the light propagates in a given medium. Indeed, the refractive index
(n) of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of propagation of light in vacuum (c) by the
speed of propagation in this medium (v) i.e.:
[n=frac{c}{v}] So [v=frac{C}{n}]
Some examples :
6. Environment Air Water Glass Diamond
Refractive index (n) 1.00 1.33 1.50 2.42
Speed
(c) 3.00 x 10^8 m/s
2.25 x 10^8
m/s
2.00 x 10^8 m/s
1.24 x 10^8
m/s
This passage of light from one medium to another is at the origin of the notions of refraction and reflection of
light.
Speed
or celerity?
The letter “c” used to express the speed of light derives from the term “celerity”. This term generally
refers to the propagation speed of waves and can be used for light since it is an electromagnetic
wave. It involves the transmission of a variation in a physical parameter (such as electromagnetic
fields, pressure, elongation, etc.), whereas "speed" rather designates a movement of matter. It is,
therefore, more accurate to use the term “celerity” than that of “speed”, unless it is specified that it is
a “speed of propagation”. The term "speed" nevertheless remains in more common use.
Speed, distance traveled, and duration
Like all speeds, the speed of light (c) is defined as the ratio of the distance traveled noted d (the
distance over which there was propagation) by the duration of propagation noted Δt which can be
translated by the relationship :
[c=frac{d}{triangle t}]
The speed of light is already known, but this relation does not present any real practical utility.
However, it is possible to use this relationship to express either distance or duration.
● Distance traveled by light:
[d=ctimestriangle t]
7. ● Spread time:
[triangle t=frac{c}{d}]
Relations including the speed of light
The speed of light in vacuum (c) is involved in many relationships:
● Einstein's mass-energy equivalence:
[E=mc^{2}]
● Relationship between frequency (ν) and wavelength (λ) of an electromagnetic wave:
[lambda=frac{c}{nu}]
● Relationship between a measured duration (ΔT m ) and a proper duration (ΔT 0 ):
[triangle T_{m}=frac{triangle T_{0}}{sqrt{1-frac{c^{2}}{v^{2}}}}]
Note: the speed of light is involved in most of the physical quantities expressed in the context of relativistic
physics.
Faster than light?
Einstein's theory of relativity assumes that no object can reach a speed greater than c in a vacuum.
However, it is possible for an object or particle to exceed the speed of light in a medium other than a
vacuum. In this case, the particle produces an intense blue light when it moves at the speed of light,
then forms the tip of a "cone" of blue light when this speed is exceeded: this is called l Cherenkov
effect, named after the researcher who discovered it, which won him a Nobel Prize in 1958. It is this
effect that produces the characteristic blue color of the cooling pools of nuclear power plants.
8. The blue light from nuclear power plants is caused by the Cherenkov effect (because no, water is
not naturally blue!)Although this phenomenon is for the moment limited to particles, it is not impossible
that humans can one day also move at the speed of light, like the Enterprise from Star Trek!
Speed
of light: did you know?
A little sound delay...
You can see lightning before you hear it! This is explained by the difference between the speed of
light and the speed of sound: the latter has an approximate value of 340 m/s, against 3 x 10 8 m/s
for light. Since sound is therefore much slower than light, it is common to observe the lightning
9. before hearing the thunder: the moment when the lightning is visible is therefore really the moment
when the lightning crosses the sky, but the moment where thunder is heard may have a lag. The
further the lightning strike point is from the observation point, the greater this offset will be. It is also
possible to estimate the distance separating us from this flash, by counting the difference between
light and sound:3 seconds of offset is approximately equivalent to 1 km distance. It is, therefore,
necessary to divide by 3 the offset counted in order to obtain an estimate in km. Attention, it is
important to remember that sound does not propagate in a vacuum, because it is a mechanical
wave, and not electromagnetic like light. It, therefore, needs a medium to propagate. All the sounds
produced in space that can therefore be observed in films are false!
Information at the speed of light!
Many internet service providers offer fiber-optic offers. Unlike satellite, based on a wireless network,
or ADSL, based on a network of copper wires, optical fiber is a method of transmitting information
based on the refraction and reflection of light within a glass or plastic thread. The core of the fiber
has a higher refractive index than the sheath that surrounds it, the light signal is trapped and will be
reflected multiple times all along with the fiber thanks to the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
The signal, emitted by an LED or lasers, translates the information by modulating its intensity and
will be transmitted without loss to the end of the fiber by taking a zigzag path. Currently, the speed
of information transmission through fiber optics (not to be confused with throughput) currently
reaches 70% to 75% of the speed of light. However, there are experimental fibers whose speed can
reach 99%.
Light and health
Electromagnetic waves are widely used in medical imaging because visible and infrared radiation is
less dangerous than X-rays from radios or MRIs. They carry less energy. Optical fibers are notably
used in medical imaging. We can take the example of the fiberscope, a type of endoscope allowing
for visualize previously inaccessible areas of the human body.