The greatest challenge for newly independent Latin American nations in establishing their national cultures was political instability. After independence, the nations lacked experience with democracy and constitutions. This led to a period of around 50 years of instability. Often, military leaders became political leaders due to the power vacuum, but they lacked the skills for civil leadership and governance. As a result, Latin America experienced the rise of caudillos, or strongman dictators. Establishing stable governments and democratic institutions was the biggest hurdle for these new nations in defining their cultures after independence from European rule.

1. What do you think was the greatest challenge for newly
What do you think was the greatest challenge for newly independent Latin American
nations in establishing their national cultures? Use examples from the learning materials to
support your response. Submit a well-composed response by writing in the “Reply” section
directly below this prompt. If you would like to reply to other people, write in the “Reply”
section below their post. Protocols:Produce a substantial response to the given prompt
(about 200 words – remember, your post should be detailed and specific enough to
demonstrate that you have a thorough understanding of the learning materials, Proofread
your work. Submit college-level writing. What Led to the Struggle for
Independence?Overview:By the early 1800s, Spain and Portugal controlled all the lands of
Latin America except for a few scattered settlements. They had controlled these colonies for
nearly 300 years. Beginning in the late 1700s, discontent with European rule began to grow,
and by 1824, most of the colonies had fought wars that freed them from Spanish and
Portuguese rule. What led to this quest for independence? Consider:Secularization & Creole
IdentityEnlightenment philosophies of the 1700s in Europe and America questioned
conservatism epitomized by colonial rule, the divine right of kings, and the closely
interrelated institutions of Church and State. The Enlightenment stressed reason, study and
analysis, and natural rights. It emphasized the need to know and understand the natural,
physical, economic, and political world here on earth more than metaphysical and religious
abstractions of what might lie beyond life on earth. The emphasis on science and nature
coincided with a growing appreciation of the wealth and natural wonders of the new world,
and how they had for centuries been exploited and pillaged to serve the empires of the Old
World.Plaza de Armas luego de la firma de la declaratoria de la independencia el 15 de
septiembre de 1821 by Rafael Beltranena, 1910After two hundred years of living in the new
world and intermixing with its original inhabitants, the European descendants (or criollos)
began to form societies of people who, although they shared a common language with their
European ancestors, were becoming increasingly distinct from them. These emerging
societies became more autonomous linguistically, economically , and socially; creating their
own sense of reality which did not necessarily coincide with that prevalent in Europe. This
feeling of pride in one’s American land and roots grew into regional pride and a nativism
that reinforced the notion that Americans (and especially the creoles) were just as good, if
not better, than the Europeans.Nativism & LiberalismAfter 300 years of life in the Americas,
criollos considered themselves “Americans” and not European. Generations of European
descendants had been born and raised in the Americas without any relationship to their

2. “European cousins.” That is not to say that the criollos had much in common with
indigenous, African or mixed raced people of the Americas either. But in a sense, they
played second fiddle to the Peninsulares, a term given to those born on the Iberian
Peninsula, and so stood to gain from independence. The Peninsulares were not truly
interested in helping the masses economically or in terms of equality, so instead, the criollos
would now rule Latin America themselves. By stressing birthplace, however, it created a
unifying cause. This nativism then was married with liberalism, or rule by the people, to
appeal to the masses.In general, independence movements did little to change the lives of
the masses. In a sense it was the “same bus with just a different driver.” Now the criollos
ruled in the same way the Peninsulares had for three centuries. However, the seed had been
planted for social change.Post-Independence ChallengesPolitical Instability & The
CaudilloEvents in Europe at the turn of the 19th century greatly influenced events in Latin
America. Thanks to Carlos IV, who was basically an absentee ruler, Spain was almost
bankrupt in the late 1700s. This led to higher taxes and corruption. The war with England
was a further strain on Spain’s economy. As well, The French Revolution of the 1790s
inspired many around the world to question the divine right of kings and rule by kings who
were in power only because of their pedigree. The battle cry was popular sovereignty. Once
obtained, independence unfortunately did not match the promises of popular governance.
Old hierarchical structures remained in place. The language and laws of the Iberian
colonizers became those of the new nations, and those at the bottom were essentially the
labor force for those economically empowered as was the case prior to
independence.Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna by Carlos Paris, 19th Century, Mexican caudillo,
CC Wikimedia CommonsThe new question facing Latin America was what kind of political
system were the new nations going to put in place. The new nations had little or no
experience with democracy prior to independence. Political theorists and lawyers had read
a lot about the French and U.S. revolutions and would attempt to put similar constitutions in
place. However, they had very little knowledge about how they worked. This led to a period
of instability lasting about 50 years.In the power vacuum that had been created, often times
military leaders became political leaders. Unfortunately, military skills were often quite
different from skills needed by the new constitutions and political theories. These leaders
often ruled with a heavy authoritarian hand, and this begins Latin America’s long
experience with the caudillo, the strongman who frequently governed like a dictator. The
caudillos allied themselves with the landowners and with the Church. For many years, this
alliance ruled Latin American politics.Devastated EconomiesAs with most war-torn nations,
independence struggles had devastating effects on Latin America’s infrastructure and
economy. Many industries were destroyed and European moneylenders were busy with
other European countries and the United States, making money scarce in the newly
independent nations. In addition, there was no transportation infrastructure to handle the
high volume of trading that would now be needed. Prior to independence, trade had been
on a much smaller scale. Moving products on a large scale from the interior to the coasts for
shipping would become a challenge.The Spanish-Caribbean Remains Spanish Much
LongerSpain did not lose full control over its remaining Caribbean colonies until the end of
the 1800s. The Dominican Republic did not fully cut ties with Spain until its second war for

3. independence in 1865. After a few attempts at liberation, both Cuba and Puerto Rico
received U.S. intervention in the Spanish-American war of 1898, resulting in Cuba becoming
a U.S. protectorate until its full independence in 1902. Puerto Rico remains a U.S. territory
today. Considering Cuba and Puerto Rico, revolutionary literature is quite popular with
writers during the independence and post-independence eras as you will see in some
examples in this and the next module. One writer, the poet Lola Rodríguez de Tió (who we
will further discuss in this module), wrote the poem “To Cuba” in 1893 to express the
solidarity between the two islands–their shared culture and their longing for freedom:“To
Cuba”Cuba y Puerto Rico sonde un pájaro las dos alas,reciben flores o balassobre el mismo
corazón …—Cuba and Puerto Rico areAs two wings of the same bird,They receive flowers or
bulletsInto the same heart … Arts and IndependenceJust as Latin American colonies were
trying to exert their autonomy and unique identities through revolutions for independence,
the cultural expressions during this time reflected these themes as well. We will now
explore a few examples from the arts and literature, starting with the visual arts.Visual Arts
in the 19th CenturyAt the beginning of the century formats and functions were purely
European. Paintings were created using oils on canvases and were displayed in frames;
work of this type had of course existed in Latin America since the Spanish Conquest. By the
end of the nineteenth century religious art of the type made for churches had almost died
out, and paintings were made just as they were in Europe: either as collectors’ pieces or
large scale for display in museums and official buildings of various types. Sculpture was
devoted to the commemoration of significant national events and the personification of civic
virtues or served as a memorial to national heroes or to civic or military leaders. Often these
functions overlapped.In the mid-19th century, Mexico expressed itself in art through works
such as The Tlaxcotlan General Tlahuitcole doing Battle at the Gladiator’s Stone of Sacrifice,
a sculpture by the Catalan immigrant Manuel Vilar (1812-59) and The Discovery of Pulque,
an historical composition by the Mexican painter Jose Obregon (1832-1902). Both show
inspiration of European ideals, particularly Romanticism, adapted to suit American
historical themes.