Week 2 AssignmentApplication Measures of Central Tendency a.docx

Week 2 Assignment
Application: Measures of Central Tendency and Variability
While researchers typically show frequency distributions in a
table as a way to organize large amounts of data, you may have
also seen frequency distributions displayed graphically, using
histograms or smooth curves. Consider the bell curve, or normal
distribution, and remember the first time you saw one. What can
the frequency of occurrence tell us about a characteristic or
phenomenon? Can it tell you how much better or worse you
performed on a test when compared to the scores of your
classmates? Imagine that you collected those test scores and
created a frequency distribution. There might be, for example,
many scores clustered around the 90% mark and no scores in the
0% to 60% range. Refer to the following graphic for more
information. If your frequency histogram only included the
range of observed scores (60% to 100%) instead of the entire
range of possible scores (0% to 100%), it might appear that you
had a normal distribution when really there was a negative
skew. What other factors can you consider when planning how
to interpret data?
 
Frequency distributions, particularly the normal curve, are an
ongoing concept in this class. The normal distribution is very
common in behavioral research. When you describe data with
many different scores, you will understand more about them if
you know the resulting distribution type. For example, if you
notice a test score frequency distribution in the shape of two
equal humps, or in a bimodal distribution, you can say with
some certainty that scores fell into two ranges showing two
discrete groupings of students’ scores. This Assignment focuses
on your ability to understand and distinguish among the
different types of frequency distributions, measures of central

tendency, and measures of variability and understand what they
mean in relation to a sample.
To prepare for this Assignment, review mean, median, and mode
as well as the different types of distributions in your textbook.
Note: As you move forward through the course, you will see
terms that you focused on in previous chapters. Each time you
practice, you should know how to state hypotheses and be able
to identify your independent and dependent variables. Each
Assignment will contribute to your depth of knowledge so that
you can understand more and more about conducting research
studies.
Scenario:
Recall that for this week’s Discussion you considered data
related to opening or attracting a new restaurant. Now consider
that you ask 20 participants to estimate how many times a
month they go out to dinner and you receive these responses:
1, 2, 5, 8, 2, 4, 8, 4, 2, 3, 6, 8, 7, 5, 8, 4, 0, 7, 6, and 18.
Assignment:
To complete this Assignment, submit by Day 7 calculations of
the following measures of central tendency and variability using
the data set provided. Include an explanation of how you
calculated each measure and what information each measure
gives you about the dining behavior of the sample. Finally,
create a data file in SPSS and run analyses to find the mean and
standard deviation. Note: Your hand-calculated mean and
standard deviation will differ somewhat from the calculations in
SPSS due to rounding.
Hand-calculated mean:
SPSS mean:
Median:
Mode:
Range:
Deviation of the highest score from the mean:
Hand-calculated standard deviation (Please also state the hand-
calculated values for ∑X2and(∑X)2.):
SPSS standard deviation:

Explain how the standard deviation (SD) and the deviation of a
single score differ in the information they provide. Explain how
each measure (mean, median, mode, deviation of the highest
score from the mean, and standard deviation) would change if
the score of 18 was eliminated from the data set.
Explain the type of distribution (positive skew, negative skew,
bimodal distribution, or normal distribution) your data create.
Explain how you know the type of distribution and what the
data tells you about your sample.
Submit three documents for grading: your text (Word) document
with your answers and explanations to the application questions,
your SPSS Data file, and your SPSS Output file. Week 2
Learning Resources
This page contains the Learning Resources for this week. Be
sure to scroll down the page to see all of this week's assigned
Learning Resources.
Required Resources Readings
· Heiman, G. (2015). Behavioral sciences STAT 2 (2nd
ed). Stamford, CT: Cengage.
· Review Section 2-3 “Types of Frequency Distributions”
(pp.25-28)
· Chapter 3, “Summarizing Scores with Measures of Central
Tendency” (pp.36-49)
· Chapter 4, “Summarizing Scores with Measure of Variability”
(pp.52-65)
· Chapter 1 Review Card (p. 1.4)
· Chapter 3 Review Card (p. 3.4)Media
· Walden University. (n.d.). Research resources: SPSS.
Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/researchcenter/resources/SP
SS
· Khan Academy. (2013b). Statistics: Standard deviation [Video
file]. Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/probability/descriptive-
statistics/variance_std_deviation/v/statistics--standard-deviation
Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 13 minutes.
This media resource explains how to calculate the standard
deviation for populations and samples.
· Ludwig, T. E. (n.d.b). Descriptive statistics [Interactive
media]. Retrieved June 6, 2013, from
http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/gray/content/psychsim5/Descript
ive%20Statistics/PsychSim_Shell.html
This resource offers an interactive tutorial on basic descriptive
statistics concepts and calculations.
· StatsLectures. (2011b). SPSS – Descriptive statistics [Video
file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YjqThWATgh4
Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 3 minutes.
This resource looks at entering data into SPSS, including
entering variables. It also reviews frequency distributions and
calculations of measures of central tendency and variability in
SPSS.
Optional Resources
· Texas A & M University. (n.d.d). Standard deviation.
http://www.stat.tamu.edu/~west/ph/stddev.html
Note: This page utilizes multiple applets, which may increase
page loading time.
· Texas A & M University. (n.d.b). Normal demonstration.
http://www.stat.tamu.edu/~west/applets/normaldemo1.html
· Texas A & M University. (n.d.a). Mean versus median applet.

http://www.stat.tamu.edu/~west/applets/box.html
17
The Five Minds for the Future
HOWARD GARDNER
Graduate School of Education, Harvard University
At the start of the third millennium, we are well attuned to
considerations
of “the future.” In conceptualizing the future, I refer to trends
whose
existence is widely acknowledged: the increasing power of
science and
technology; the interconnectedness of the world in economic,
cultural, and
social terms; and the incessant circulation and intermingling of
human
beings of diverse backgrounds and aspirations.
As one who has witnessed discussions of the future all over the
world,
I can attest that belief in the power of education—for good or
for ill—is
ubiquitous. We have little difficulty in seeing education as an
enterprise—
indeed, the enterprise—for shaping the mind of the future.
What kind of minds should we be cultivating for the future?
Five types
stand out to me as being particularly urgent at the present time.

One by
one, let me bring them onto center stage.
I. The Disciplined Mind
In English, the word “discipline” has two distinct connotations.
First, we
speak of the mind as having mastered one or more disciplines—
arts, crafts,
professions, scholarly pursuits. By rough estimates, it takes
approximately
a decade for an individual to learn a discipline well enough so
that he or
she can be considered an expert or master. Perhaps at one time,
an individual
could rest on her laurels once such disciplinary mastery has
been initially
achieved. No longer! Disciplines themselves change, ambient
conditions
change, as do the demands on individuals who have achieved
initial mastery.
One must continue to educate oneself and others over
succeeding decades.
Such hewing of expertise can only be done if an individual
possesses dis-
Schools: Studies in Education, vol. 5, nos. 1/2 (Spring/Fall
2008).
� 2008 by Howard Gardner. Reprinted by permission of the
author.
18 Schools, Spring/Fall 2008

cipline—in the second sense of the word. That is, one needs
continually to
practice in a disciplined way if one is to remain at the top of
one’s game.
We first acquire a “disciplined mind” in school, though
relatively few of
us go on to become academic disciplinarians. The rest of us
master dis-
ciplines that are not, strictly speaking, “scholarly,” yet the need
to master
a “way of thinking” applies to the entire range of workers—
whether it be
lawyers, engineers, crafts persons, or business professionals
involved with
personnel, marketing, sales, or management. Such education
may take in
formal classes or on the job, explicitly or implicitly. In the end,
a form
of mastery will be achieved, one that must continue to be
refined over
the years.
Nowadays, the mastery of more than one discipline is at a
premium.
We value those who are interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, or
transdisci-
plinary. But these claims must be cashed in. We would not
value a bilingual
person unless he or she can speak more than one language. By
the same
token, the claim of pluridisciplinarity (if you’ll excuse the
neologism) only
makes sense if a person has genuinely mastered more than one
discipline
and can integrate them. For most of us, the attainment of

multiple per-
spectives is a more reasonable goal.
II. The Synthesizing Mind
Nobel laureate in physics Murray Gell-Mann, an avowed
multidiscipli-
narian, has made an intriguing claim about our times. He asserts
that, in
the twenty-first century, the most valued mind will be the
synthesizing
mind: the mind that can survey a wide range of sources, decide
what is
important and worth paying attention to, and then put this
information
together in ways that make sense to oneself and, ultimately, to
others as
well.
Gell-Mann is on to something important. Information has never
been
in short supply. But with the advent of new technologies and
media, most
notably the Internet, vast, seemingly indigestible amounts of
information
now deluge us around the clock. Shrewd triage becomes an
imperative.
Those who can synthesize well for themselves will rise to the
top of their
pack, and those whose syntheses make sense to others will be
invaluable
teachers, communicators, and leaders.
Let’s take an example from business. Suppose that you are an
executive
and your firm is considering the acquisition of a new company

in an area
that seems important but about which you and your immediate
associates
know little. Your goal is to acquire enough information so that
you and
Howard Gardner 19
your board can make a judicious decision, and you need to do so
in the
next two months. The place to begin is with any existing
synthesis: fetch
it, devour it, evaluate it. If none exists, you turn to the most
knowledgeable
individuals and ask them to provide the basic information
requisite to
synthesis. Given this initial input, you then decide what
information seems
adequate and where important additional data are required.
At the same time, you need to decide on the form and format of
the
ultimate synthesis: a written narrative, an oral presentation, a
set of scenarios,
a set of charts and graphs, perhaps a discussion of pros and cons
leading
to a final judgment. At last, the actual work of synthesis begins
in earnest.
New information must be acquired, probed, evaluated, followed
up, or
sidelined. The new information needs to be fit, if possible, into
the initial
synthesis, and where fit is lacking, mutual adjustments must be
made.

Constant reflection is the order of the day.
At some point before the final synthesis is due, a protosynthesis
should
be developed. This interim version needs to be tested with the
most knowl-
edgeable audience of associates, preferably an audience that is
critical and
constructive. To the extent that time and resources are
available, more than
one trial run is desirable. But ultimately there arrives a moment
of truth,
at which point the best possible synthesis must suffice.
What kind of mind is needed to guide the synthesis? Clearly,
though
he should have a home area of expertise, the synthesizer cannot
conceivably
be an expert of every relevant discipline. As compensation, the
synthesizer
must know enough about the requisite disciplines to be able to
make
judgments about whom and what to trust—or to identify
individuals who
can help make that determination. The synthesizer must also
have a sense
of the relevant forms and formats for the synthesis, being
prepared to alter
when possible, or advisable, but to make a final commitment as
the deadline
approaches.
The synthesizer must always keep his eyes on the big picture,
while
making sure that adequate details are secured and arranged in
useful ways.

This is a tall order, but it is quite possible that certain
individuals are blessed
with a “searchlight intelligence”—the capacity to look widely
and to mon-
itor constantly, thus making sure that nothing vital is missing
and that they
also have the capacity to value the complementary “laser
intelligence” that
has fully mastered a specific discipline. Such individuals should
be identified
and cherished. It is crucial that we determine how to nurture
synthesizing
capacities more widely, since they are likely to remain at a
premium in the
coming era.
III. The Creating Mind
In our time, nearly every practice that is well understood will be
automated.
Mastery of existing disciplines will be necessary but not
sufficient. The
creating mind forges new ground. In our society we have come
to value
those individuals who keep casting about for new ideas and
practices,
monitoring their successes, and so on. And we give special
honor to those
rare individuals whose innovations actually change the practices
of their
peers—in my trade, we call these individuals “Big C” creators.

As a student of creativity, I had long assumed that creating was
primarily
a cognitive feat—having the requisite knowledge and the
apposite cognitive
processes. But I have come to believe that personality and
temperament
are equally, and perhaps even more, important for the would-be
creator.
More than willing, the creator must be eager to take chances, to
venture
into the unknown, to fall flat on her face, and then, smiling,
pick herself
up and once more throw herself into the fray. Even when
successful, the
creator does not rest on her laurels. She is motivated again to
venture into
the unknown and to risk failure, buoyed by the hope that
another break-
through may be in the offing.
It is important to ascertain the relation among the three kinds of
minds
introduced thus far. Clearly, synthesizing is not possible
without some
mastery of constituent disciplines—and perhaps there is, or will
be, a dis-
cipline of synthesizing, quite apart from such established
disciplines as
mathematics, mime, or management. I would suggest that
creation is un-
likely to emerge in the absence of some disciplinary mastery,
and, perhaps,
some capacity to synthesize as well.
IV. The Respectful Mind

Almost from the start, infants are alert to other human beings.
The at-
tachment link between parent (typically mother) and child is
predisposed
to develop throughout the early months of life, and the nature
and strength
of that bond in turn determines much about the capacity of
individuals
to form relationships with others throughout life.
Of equal potency is the young human’s capacity to distinguish
among
individuals and among groups of individuals. We are wired to
make such
distinctions readily; indeed, our survival depends upon our
ability to dis-
tinguish among those who would help and nourish us and those
who might
do us harm. But the messages in our particular environment
determine
how we will label particular individuals or groups. Our own
experiences,
Howard Gardner 21
and the attitudes displayed by the peers and elders to whom we
are closest,
determine whether we like, admire, or respect certain
individuals and
groups or whether, on the contrary, we come to shun, fear, or
even hate
these individuals.
We live in an era when nearly every individual is likely to

encounter
thousands of individuals personally and when billions of people
have the
option of traveling abroad or of encountering individuals from
remote
cultures through visual or digital media. A person possessed of
a respectful
mind welcomes this exposure to diverse persons and groups. A
truly cos-
mopolitan individual gives others the benefit of doubt, displays
initial trust,
tries to form links, avoids prejudicial judgments.
The threats to respect are intolerance and prejudice, what in the
worst
case forms into individual, state, or stateless terrorism. A
prejudiced person
has preconceived ideas about individuals and groups and resists
bracketing
those preconceptions. An intolerant person has a very low
threshold for
unfamiliarity; the default assumption is that “strange is bad.” It
is not easy
to come to respect others whom you have feared, distrusted, or
disliked.
Yet, in an interconnected world, such a potential for growth, for
freshly
forged or freshly renewed respect, is crucial.
V. The Ethical Mind
An ethical stance is in no way antithetical to a respectful one,
but it involves
a much more sophisticated stance toward individuals and
groups. A person
possessed of an ethical mind is able to think of himself

abstractly: he is
able to ask, “What kind of a person do I want to be? What kind
of a
worker do I want to be? What kind of a citizen do I want to be?”
Going beyond the posing of such questions, the person is able to
think
about himself in a universalistic manner: “What would the
world be like,
if all persons behaved the way that I do, if all workers in my
profession
took the stance that I have, if all citizens in my region or my
world carried
out their roles in the way that I do?” Such conceptualization
involves a
recognition of rights and responsibilities attendant to each role.
And cru-
cially, the ethical individual behaves in accordance with the
answers that
he has forged, even when such behaviors clash with his own self
interest.
My own insights into the ethical mind come from a dozen years
of study
of professionals who are seeking to do good work—work that is
excellent,
engaging, and ethical (see http://www.goodworkproject.org).
Determining
what is ethical is not always easy and can prove especially
challenging during
times, like our own, when conditions are changing very quickly
and when

market forces are powerful and unmitigated. Even when one has
determined
the proper course, it is not always easy to behave in an ethical
manner,
and that is particularly so when one is highly ambitious, when
others appear
to be cutting corners, when different interest groups demand
contradictory
things from workers, when the ethical course is less clear than
one might
like, and when such a course runs against one’s immediate self
interest.
It is so much easier, so much more natural, to develop an ethical
mind
when one inhabits an ethical environment. But such an
environment is
neither necessary nor sufficient. Crucial contributions are made
by the
atmosphere at one’s first places of work: how do the adults in
power behave;
what are the beliefs and behaviors of one’s peers; and, perhaps
above all,
what happens when there are clear ethical deviations and—more
happily
if less frequently—when an individual or a group behaves in an
ethically
exemplary fashion? Education in ethics may not begin as early
as education
for respect, but neither “curriculum” ever ends.
Given the high standards necessary for an ethical mind,
examples of
failures abound. It is not difficult to recognize behaviors that
are strictly

illegal—like theft or fraud—or behaviors that are obviously
unethical—the
journalist who publishes a story that he knows is not true, the
geneticist
who overlooks data that run counter to her hypothesis. In each
case, the
ethical mind must go through the exercise of identifying the
kind of in-
dividual one wants to be. And when one’s own words and
behaviors run
counter to that idealization, one must take corrective action. I
would add
that as one gets older, it does not suffice simply to keep one’s
own ethical
house in order. One acquires a responsibility over the broader
realm of
which one is a member. And so, for example, an individual
journalist or
geneticist may behave in an ethical manner; but if her peers are
failing to
do so, the aging worker should assume responsibility for the
health of the
domain. I denote such individuals as “trustees”: veterans who
are widely
respected, deemed to be disinterested, and dedicated to the
health of the
domain. As the French playwright Jean-Baptiste Molière once
remarked,
“We are responsible not only for what we do but for what we
don’t do.”
VI. Tensions Between and Among These Minds
Of the five minds, the ones most likely to be confused with one
another
are the respectful mind and the ethical mind. In part, this is

because of
ordinary language: we consider respect and ethics to be virtues,
and we assume
that one cannot have one without the other. Moreover, very
often they are
correlated; persons who are ethical are also respectful and vice
versa.
Howard Gardner 23
However, as indicated, I see these as developmentally discrete
accom-
plishments. One can be respectful from early childhood, even
without
having a deep understanding of the reasons for respect. In
contrast, ethical
conceptions and behaviors presuppose an abstract, self-
conscious attitude,
a capacity to step away from the details of daily life and to
think of oneself
as a worker or as a citizen.
Whistle-blowers are a good example. Many individuals observe
wrong-
doing at high levels in their company and remain silent. They
may want
to keep their jobs, but they also want to respect their leaders. It
takes both
courage and a mental leap to think of oneself not as an
acquaintance of
one’s supervisor but rather as a member of an institution or
profession,
with certain obligations attendant thereto. The whistle-blower
assumes an

ethical stance, at the cost of a respectful relation to his
supervisor.
Sometimes, respect may trump ethics. Initially, I believed that
the French
government was correct in banning Muslim women from
wearing scarves
at school. By the same token, I defended the right of Danish
newspapers
to publish cartoons that poked fun at Islamic fundamentalism.
In both
cases, I was taking the American Bill of Rights at face value—
no state religion,
guaranteed freedom of expression. But I eventually came to the
conclusion
that this ethical stance needed to be weighed against the costs of
disre-
specting the sincere and strongly held religious beliefs of
others. The costs
of honoring the Islamic preferences seem less than those of
honoring an
abstract principle. Of course, I make no claim that I did the
right thing—
only that the tension between respect and ethics can be resolved
in con-
trasting ways.
VII. In Closing
There is no strict hierarchy among the minds, such that one
should be
cultivated before the others. Yet, a certain rhythm does exist.
One needs a
certain amount of discipline—in both senses of the term—
before one can
undertake a reasonable synthesis, and if the synthesis involves

more than
one discipline, then each of the constituent disciplines needs to
be cultivated.
By the same token, any genuinely creative activity presupposes
a certain
discipline mastery. And while prowess at synthesizing may be
unnecessary,
nearly all creative breakthroughs—whether in the arts, politics,
scholarship,
or corporate life—are to some extent dependent on provisional
syntheses.
Still, too much discipline clashes with creativity, and those who
excel at
syntheses are less likely to affect the most radical creative
breakthroughs.
In the end it is desirable for each person to have achieved
aspects of all
five minds for the future. Such a personal integration is most
likely to occur
if individuals are raised in environments where all five kinds of
minds are
exhibited and valued. So much the better, if there are role
models—parents,
teachers, masters, supervisors—who display aspects of
discipline, synthesis,
creation, respect, and ethics on a regular basis. In addition to
embodying
these kinds of minds, the best educators at school or work can
provide
support, advice, and coaching that will help to inculcate

discipline, en-
courage synthesis, prod creativity, foster respect, and encourage
an ethical
stance.
No one can compel the cultivation and integration of the five
minds.
The individual human being must come to believe that the
minds are
important, merit the investment of significant amounts of time
and re-
sources, and are worthy of continuing nurturance, even when
external
supports have faded. The individual must reflect on the role of
each of
these minds at work, in a favored avocation, at home, in the
community,
and in the wider world. The individual must be aware that
sometimes these
minds will find themselves in tension with one another and that
any res-
olution will be purchased at some cost. In the future, the form
of mind
that is likely to be at greatest premium is the synthesizing mind.
And so
it is perhaps fitting that the melding of the minds within an
individual’s
skin is the ultimate challenge of personal synthesis.
5 2 L E A D E R T O L E A D E R

W
e live in a time of massive institutional fail-
ure, collectively creating results that no-
body wants. Climate change. AIDS.
Hunger. Poverty. Violence. Terrorism. The foundations
of our social, economic, ecological, and spiritual well-
being are in peril.
Why do our attempts to deal with the challenges of our
time so often fail? The cause of our collective failure is
that we are blind to the deeper dimension of leadership
and transformational change. This “blind spot” exists
not only in our collective leadership but also in our
everyday social interactions. We are blind to the source
dimension from which effective leadership and social ac-
tion come into being.
We know a great deal about what leaders do and how
they do it. But we know very little about the inner place,
the source from which they operate.
Successful leadership depends on the quality of attention
and intention that the leader brings to any situation. Two
leaders in the same circumstances doing the same thing
can bring about completely different outcomes, depend-
ing on the inner place from which each operates. I
learned this from the late Bill O’Brien, who’d served as
CEO of Hanover Insurance. When I asked him to sum
up his most important learning experience in leading pro-
found change, he responded, “The success of an inter-
vention depends on the interior condition of the
intervenor.” The nature of this inner place in leaders is
something of a mystery to us. Studies of athletes’ minds
and imaginations as they prepare for a competitive event

have led to practices designed to enhance athletic perfor-
mance “from the inside out,” so to speak. Deep states of
attention and awareness are well known by top athletes in
sports. For example, Bill Russell, the key player on the
most successful basketball team ever (the Boston Celtics,
who won 11 championships in 13 years), described his
experience of playing in the zone as follows:
Every so often a Celtics game would heat up so that it be-
came more than a physical or even mental game, and
E X E C U T I V E F O R U M
UNCOVERING THE
BLIND SPOT
OF
LEADERSHIP
C. Otto Scharmer
W I N T E R 2 0 0 8 5 3
would be magical. That feeling is difficult to describe, and
I certainly never talked about it when I was playing. When
it happened, I could feel my play rise to a new level. It
came rarely, and would last anywhere from five minutes to
a whole quarter, or more. . . .

At that special level, all sorts of odd things happened: The
game would be in the white heat of competition, and yet
somehow I wouldn’t feel competitive, which is a miracle in
itself. I’d be putting out the maximum effort, straining,
coughing up parts of my lungs as we ran, and yet I never
felt the pain. The game would move so quickly that every
fake, cut, and pass would be surprising, and yet nothing
could surprise me. It was almost as if we were playing in
slow motion. During those spells, I could almost sense
how the next play would develop and where the next shot
would be taken. . . . My premonitions would be consis-
tently correct, and I always felt then that I not only knew
all the Celtics by heart, but also all the opposing players,
and that they all knew me. There have been many times in
my career when I felt moved or joyful, but these were the
moments when I had chills pulsing up and down my spine
[William F. Russell, Second Wind: The Memoirs of an
Opinionated Man, 1979].

But in the arena of management and leading transfor-
mational change, we know very little about this inner
dimension, and very seldom are specific techniques ap-
plied to enhance management performance from the
inside out. This lack of knowledge constitutes a blind
spot in our approach to leadership and management
(Figure 1).
Slowing Down to Understand
At its core, leadership is about shaping and shifting how
individuals and groups attend to and subsequently re-
spond to a situation. But most leaders are unable to rec-
ognize, let alone change, the structural habits of
attention used in their organizations.
Learning to recognize the habits of attention in a busi-
ness culture requires, among other things, a particular
kind of listening. Over more than a decade of observing
people’s interactions in organizations, I have noted four
different types of listening: downloading, factual listen-
ing, empathic listening, and generative listening.
Listening 1: Downloading
“Yeah, I know that already.” I call this type of listening
downloading—listening by reconfirming habitual judg-
ments. When everything you hear confirms what you
already know, you are listening by downloading.
Listening 2: Factual
“Ooh, look at that!” This type of listening is factual or
object-focused: listening by paying attention to facts
and to novel or disconfirming data. You switch off your
inner voice of judgment and focus on what differs from

what you already know. Factual listening is the basic
mode of good science. You let the data talk to you. You
ask questions, and you pay careful attention to the re-
sponses you get.
We are blind to the deeper
dimension of leadership
and transformational
change.
FIGURE 1. T H E B L I N D S P O T O F L E A D E R S H I
P
Listening 3: Empathic
“Oh, yes, I know exactly how you feel.” This deeper
level of listening is empathic listening. When we are en-
gaged in real dialogue and paying careful attention, we
can become aware of a profound shift in the place from
which our listening originates. We move from seeing
the objective world of things, figures, and facts (the “it-
world”) to listening to the story of a living and evolving
self (the “you-world”). Sometimes, when we say “I know
how you feel,” our emphasis is on a kind of mental or
abstract knowing. But it requires an open heart to really
feel how another feels. An open heart gives us the em-
pathic capacity to connect directly with another person
from within. When that happens, we enter new terri-
tory in the relationship; we forget about our own agenda

and begin to see how the world appears through some-
one else’s eyes.
Listening 4: Generative
“I can’t express what I experience in words. My whole
being has slowed down. I feel more quiet and present
and more my real self. I am connected to something
larger than myself.” This type of listening connects us to
an even deeper realm of emergence. I call this level of lis-
tening “generative listening,” or listening from the
emerging field of future possibility. This level of listen-
ing requires us to access our open will—our capacity to
connect to the highest future possibility that can
emerge. We no longer look for something outside. We
no longer empathize with someone in front of us.
“Communion” or “grace” is maybe the word that comes
closest to the texture of this experience.
When you operate from Listening 1 (downloading), the
conversation reconfirms what you already knew. You
reconfirm your habits of thought: “ There he goes
again!” When you operate from Listening 2 (factual lis-
tening), you disconfirm what you already know and no-
tice what is new out there: “Boy, this looks so different
today!” When you operate from Listening 3 (empathic
listening), your perspective is redirected to seeing the sit-
uation through the eyes of another: “Boy, yes, now I
really understand how you feel about it. I can sense it
now too.” And finally, when you operate from Listen-
ing 4 (generative listening), you have gone through a
subtle but profound change that has connected you to
a deeper source of knowing, including the knowledge
of your best future possibility and self.

Deep Attention and
Awareness
To be effective leaders, we must first understand the
field, or inner space, from which we are operating. In
my book, Theory U: Leading from the Future as It
Emerges, I identify four such “field structures of atten-
tion,” which result in four different ways of operating.
These differing structures affect not only the way we
listen but also how group members communicate with
We forget about our own
agenda and begin to see
how the world appears
through someone else’s eyes.
Most leaders are unable to
recognize, let alone change,
the structural habits of
attention used in their
organizations.
W I N T E R 2 0 0 8 5 5
one another, and how institutions form their geome-
tries of power.
The four columns of Figure 2 depict four fundamental

meta-processes of the social field that people usually take
for granted:
• Thinking (individual)
• Conversing (group)
• Structuring (institutions)
• Ecosystem coordination (global systems)
Albert Einstein famously noted that problems cannot
be resolved by the same level of consciousness that cre-
ated them. If we address our 21st-century challenges
with reactive mind-sets that mostly reflect the realities
of the 19th and 20th centuries (Field 1 and Field 2),
we will increase frustration, cynicism, and anger.
The way we pay attention to a situation, individually
and collectively, determines the path the system takes
and how it emerges. On all four levels—personal,
group, institutional, and global—shifting from reactive
responses and quick fixes on a symptoms level (Fields 1
and 2) to generative responses that address the systemic
root issues (Fields 3 and 4) is the single most important
leadership challenge of our time. (In this article, I dis-
cuss individual leadership. For a brief introduction to
group and institutional leadership as they relate to The-
ory U, please download the executive summary of The-
ory U from www.theoryu.com.)
The U: One Process, Three
Movements
To move from a reactive Field 1 or 2 to a generative
Field 3 or 4 response, we must embark on a journey.

Several years ago, during an interview project designed
to promote profound innovation and change, I heard
FIGURE 2. H O W T H E S T R U C T U R E O F AT T E N
T I O N ( F I E L D S 1 – 4 )
D E T E R M I N E S T H E PAT H O F S O C I A L E M E
R G E N C E
many practitioners and thought leaders describe the core
elements of this journey. Brian Arthur, the founding
head of the economics group at the Santa Fe Institute,
explained to my colleague Joseph Jaworski and me that,
for him, there are two fundamentally different sources
of cognition. One is the application of existing frame-
works (downloading) and the other is accessing one’s
inner knowing. All true innovation in science, business,
and society is based on the latter, not on “download-
ing.” So we asked him, “How do you do that? If I want
to learn that as an organization or as an individual, what
do I have to do?” In his response he walked us through
a sequence of three movements.
The first movement he called “observe, observe, ob-
serve.” It means to stop downloading and start listening.
It means to abandon our habitual ways of operating and
immerse ourselves in the places of most potential for
the situation we are dealing with.
Arthur referred to the second movement as “retreat and
reflect: allow the inner knowing to emerge.” This re-
quires going to the inner place of stillness where know-
ing comes to the surface. We listen to everything we

learned while “observing,” and we attend to what wants
to emerge. We pay particular attention to our own role
and journey.
The third movement, according to Brian Arthur, is
about “acting in an instant.” This means to prototype
the new in order to explore the future by doing, to cre-
ate a little landing strip of the future that allows for
hands-on testing and experimentation.
I call that whole process—observe, observe; access your
sources of stillness and knowing; and act in an instant—
the U process, because it can be depicted and understood
as a U-shaped journey.
A New Social Technology:
Seven Leadership Capacities
But why is the U the road less traveled in institutions?
Because it requires an inner journey and hard work. The
ability to move through the U as a team or an organi-
zation or a system requires a new social technology. As
illustrated in Figure 3, this social technology is based
on seven essential leadership capacities that a core group
must cultivate:
• Holding the space
• Observing
• Sensing
• Presencing
• Crystallizing
• Prototyping

• Performing
1. Holding the Space: Listen to What
Life Calls You to Do
Leaders must create or “hold” a space that invites oth-
ers in. The key to holding a space is listening: to your-
self (to what life calls you to do), to others (particularly
others who may be related to that call), and to that
which emerges from the collective that you convene.
But it also requires a good deal of intention. You must
keep your attention focused on the highest future pos-
sibility of the group.
2. Observing: Attend with Your Mind
Wide Open
Observe with an open mind by suspending your voice of
judgment ( VOJ). Suspending your VOJ means shut-
ting down the habit of judging based on past experi-
ence. Suspending your VOJ means opening up a new
space of inquiry and wonder. Without suspending that
VOJ, attempts to get inside the places of most potential
will be futile.
Example: In 1981, an engineering team from Ford
Motor Company visited Toyota plants operating on the
“lean” Toyota production system. Although the Ford
Stop downloading and
start listening.

W I N T E R 2 0 0 8 5 7
engineers had firsthand access to the revolutionary new
production system, they were unable to “see” or recog-
nize what was in front of them and claimed that they
had been taken on a staged tour; because they had seen
no inventory, they assumed they had not seen a “real”
plant. The reaction of the engineers reminds us how
difficult it is to let go of existing ideas and beliefs.
3. Sensing: Connect with Your Heart
Connect to the deeper forces of change by opening your
heart. I once asked a successful top executive at Nokia
to share her most important leadership practices. Time
and time again, her team was able to anticipate changes
in technology and context. Time and again, they were
ahead of the curve. Her answer? “I facilitate the open-
ing process.” This is the essence of what moving down
the left side of the U is all about—facilitating an open-
ing process. The process involves the tuning of three in-
struments: the open mind, the open heart, and the open
will. While the open mind is familiar to most of us, the
other two capacities draw us into less familiar territory.
To understand more about that territory, I interviewed
psychologist Eleanor Rosch of the University of Cali-
fornia at Berkeley. She explained the difference by
comparing two types of cognition. The first is the an-
alytical knowledge upon which all conventional cogni-
tive science is based. The other type of knowledge, the
one that relates to the open heart and open will, is
“open, rather than determinate; and a sense of uncon-
ditional value, rather than conditional usefulness, is
an inherent part of the act of knowing itself.” Action

resulting from that type of awareness, Rosch said, “is
claimed to be spontaneous, rather than the result of
decision making; it is compassionate, since it is based
on wholes larger than the self; and it can be shock-
ingly effective.”
Suspending your voice of
judgment means opening
up a new space of inquiry
and wonder.
FIGURE 3. S E V E N L E A D E R S H I P C A PA C I T I E
S
4. Presencing: Connect to the Deepest
Source of Your Self and Will
While an open heart allows us to see a situation from
the whole, the open will enables us to begin to act from
the emerging whole.
Danish sculptor and management consultant Erik Lem-
cke described to me his experience of this process: “After
having worked with a particular sculpture for some time,
there comes a certain moment when things are changing.
When this moment of change comes, it is no longer me,
alone, who is creating. I feel connected to something far
deeper and my hands are co-creating with this power.
At the same time, I feel that I am being filled with love

and care as my perception is widening. I sense things in
another way. It is a love for the world and for what is
coming. I then intuitively know what I must do. My
hands know if I must add or remove something. My
hands know how the form should manifest. In one way,
it is easy to create with this guidance. In those moments
I have a strong feeling of gratitude and humility.”
5. Crystallizing: Access the Power of
Intention
The backstories of successful and inspiring projects, re-
gardless of size, often have a similar story line—a very
small group of key persons commits itself to the pur-
pose and outcomes of the project. That committed core
group then goes out into the world with its intention
and creates an energy field that begins to attract peo-
ple, opportunities, and resources that make things hap-
pen. Momentum builds. The core group functions as a
vehicle for the whole to manifest.
In an interview, Nick Hanauer, the founder of half a
dozen highly successful companies, told Joseph Jaworski
and me: “One of my favorite sayings, attributed to Mar-
garet Mead, has always been ‘Never doubt that a small
group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the
world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.’. . .
With only one person, it’s hard—but when you put that
one person with four or five more, you have a force to
contend with. All of a sudden, you have enough mo-
mentum to make almost anything that’s immanent or
within reach actually real.”
6. Prototyping: Integrating Head,
Heart, and Hand

Learn the prototyping skill of integrating head, heart,
and hand. When helping a golfer who has lost his
swing, the master coach in the novel and film The Leg-
end of Bagger Vance advises, “Seek it with your hands—
don’t think about it, feel it. The wisdom in your hands
is greater than the wisdom of your head will ever be.”
That piece of advice articulates a key principle about
how to operate on the right side of the U. Moving down
the left side of the U is about opening up and dealing
with the resistance of thought, emotion, and will; mov-
ing up the right side is about intentionally reintegrating
the intelligence of the head, the heart, and the hand in
the context of practical applications. Just as the inner
enemies on the way down the U represent the VOJ
When you put one person
with four or five more, you
have a force to contend
with.
“The wisdom in your
hands is greater than the
wisdom of your head will
ever be.”
W I N T E R 2 0 0 8 5 9

(voice of judgment), the VOC (voice of cynicism), and
the VOF (voice of fear), the enemies on the way up the
U are the three old methods of operating: executing
without improvisation and mindfulness (reactive ac-
tion); endless reflection without a will to act (analysis
paralysis); and talking without a connection to source
and action (blah-blah-blah). These three enemies share
the same structural feature. Instead of balancing the in-
telligence of the head, heart, and hand, one of the three
dominates—the hand in mindless action, the head in
endless reflection, the heart in endless networking.
Connecting to one’s best future possibility and creating
powerful breakthrough ideas requires learning to access
the intelligence of the heart and the hand—not just the
intelligence of the head.
7. Performing: Playing the Macro
Violin
When I asked the violinist Miha Pogacnik to describe
key moments from his music experience, he told me
about his first concert in Chartres. “I felt that the cathe-
dral almost kicked me out. ‘Get out with you!’ she said.
For I was young and I tried to perform as I always did:
by just playing my violin. But then I realized that in
Chartres you actually cannot play your small violin, but
you have to play the ‘macro violin.’ The small violin is
the instrument that is in your hands. The macro violin
is the whole cathedral that surrounds you. The cathedral
of Chartres is built entirely according to musical prin-
ciples. Playing the macro violin requires you to listen
and to play from another place, from the periphery. You
have to move your listening and playing from within
to beyond yourself.”

Most systems, organizations, and societies today lack
the two essentials that enable us to play the macro vio-
lin: (1) leaders who convene the right sets of players
(frontline people who are connected with one another
through the same value chain), and (2) a social technol-
ogy that allows a multi-stakeholder gathering to shift
from debating to co-creating the new.
In summary, Theory U illuminates a hidden dimension
of leadership—the inner place from which leaders oper-
ate. Profound change today not only requires a shift of
the mind, it requires a shift of will and a shift of the heart.
I have come to refer to this deeper shift as “presencing.”
A blend of the words “presence” and “sensing,” presenc-
ing signifies a heightened state of attention that allows
individuals and groups to operate from a future space of
possibility that they feel wants to emerge. Being able to
facilitate that shift is the essence of leadership today.
C. Otto Scharmer is a senior lecturer at MIT and
the founding chair of ELIAS (Emerging Leaders
Innovate Across Sectors), a program linking
twenty leading global institutions from business,
government, and civil society to prototype pro-
found system innovations for a more sustainable
world. He introduced the theoretical framework
and practice called “presencing” in “Theory U:

Leading from the Future as It Emerges” (2007),
and in “Presence: An Exploration of Profound
Change in People, Organizations, and Society”
(2005), co-authored with Peter Senge, Joseph Ja-
worski, and Betty Sue Flowers. Scharmer has con-
sulted with global companies, international
institutions, and cross-sector change initiatives in
North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. More
information: www.presencing.com.
Responsible Leadership: Pathways to the Future
Nicola M. Pless • Thomas Maak
Published online: 29 November 2011
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract This article maps current thinking in the
emerging field of responsible leadership. Various envi-

ronmental and social forces have triggered interest in both
research and practices of responsible leadership. This
article outlines the main features of the relevant research,
specifies a definition of the concept, and compares this
emergent understanding of responsible leadership with
related leadership theories. Finally, an overview of differ-
ent articles in this special issue sketches some pathways for
ongoing research.
Keywords Responsible leadership � Leadership theories
and responsibility � Research perspectives
Why Responsible Leadership?
The answer to this question is multifold. In the introduc-
tion to their article on an ‘‘alternative perspective of
responsible leadership,’’ Waldman and Galvin (2008)
suggest a response related to the deficiencies of existing
theory and its influence on leadership practice. Specifically,
they propose that responsibility is missing from estab-
lished leadership descriptors, such as transformational,
charismatic, authentic, participative, servant, shared, or

even spiritual and ethical leadership, ‘‘and that it is actually
this element that is at the heart of what effective leadership
is all about. In a nutshell, to not be responsible is not to be
effective as a leader’’ (Waldman and Galvin 2008, p. 327).
Accordingly, we witness a growing discussion about the
appropriateness of current leadership theories to address
pertinent leadership challenges. This discussion often cites
the role and responsibilities of business leaders in society,
frequently in light of social and environmental crises such
as the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska, the Bhopal disaster for
Union Carbide, Shell’s Brent Spar and Nigerian failures,
and Nike’s sweatshops, to name but a few. These incidents
triggered ongoing debate about corporate-level responsi-
bility; more recent discussions of responsible leadership
have been inflamed by business scandals and individual
leadership failures at the start of the millennium—most
prominently the demise of Enron and Arthur Andersen.
Following the fall from grace of the ‘‘smartest guys in the

room’’ (…), new laws and regulation arose, such as the
Sarbanes-Oxley Act, followed by a critical academic
debate about the impact of greed and reckless self-interest
in managerial decision-making. The discussion recognized
‘‘bad management theories [were] destroying good man-
agement practice’’ (Ghoshal 2005) and cited the need for
‘‘managers, not MBAs’’ (Mintzberg 2004), that is, profes-
sionals with higher aims and not just ‘‘hired hands’’
(Khurana 2007). Moreover, a call went out for ‘‘Respon-
sible Global Leadership’’ from the European Foundation of
Management Development, leading to the emergence of
PRME, an educational offshoot of the UN Global Compact
that seeks to incorporate the Compact’s ten principles into
the curricula of business schools worldwide.
Despite the strong push for reforms, irresponsible
leadership was a primary cause of the global economic
N. M. Pless
Department of Social Science, ESADE Business School,

Ramon Llull University, Av. Torreblanca, 59,
08172 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Maak (&)
Department of People Management & Organization, ESADE
Business School, Ramon Llull University, Av. Torreblanca, 59,
08172 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
123
J Bus Ethics (2011) 98:3–13
DOI 10.1007/s10551-011-1114-4
crisis of 2008; thus, it became clear that solving leadership
issues was a long-term endeavor and that responsible
(global) leadership needed to be approached on both indi-
vidual and systemic levels to be effective. As Jeffrey Sachs
(2011, p. 3) argues in a recent book, ‘‘A society of markets,
laws, and elections is not enough if the rich and powerful
fail to behave with respect, honesty, and compassion
toward the rest of society and toward the world…. Without

restoring an ethos of social responsibility, there can be no
meaningful and sustained economic recovery.’’
The quest for responsible leadership is not limited to
scandals and subsequent calls for responsible and ethical
conduct though (Brown and Treviño 2006). It also stems
from the changes in and new demands of business contexts
(e.g., Maak and Pless 2006a; Waldman and Galvin 2008).
One such demand is stakeholders’ expectation that busi-
nesses and their leaders take active roles in fostering
responsible behavior, within and outside the organization,
such as by creating responsible organizational cultures,
pursuing a triple bottom-line (social, environmental, and
economic value) approach, and acting as good citizens
(Maak 2007; Pless 2007).
As a widening array of stakeholders pay increasing
attention to the political role and responsibility of business
leaders in the pursuit of a global common good, they ask
probing questions about business’ role in the fight against

poverty and the pursuit of human rights, whether in con-
nection to human rights abuses or as potential enablers of
human rights, namely, as secondary agents of justice
(Young 2006; Maak 2009). What about business leaders’
role in the establishment of intergenerational justice
(Wade-Benzoni et al. 2010), such that they serve as stew-
ards of trust that has been embedded in them (Maak and
Pless 2006a)? For all parties involved, these are difficult
questions to answer. Yet a common understanding in both
academic and practitioner discourses indicates that busi-
ness leaders must be able to answer them if they are to
contribute to a sustainable future.
All things considered then, responsible leadership is a
multilevel response to deficiencies in existing leadership
frameworks and theories; to high-profile scandals on indi-
vidual, organizational, and systemic levels; and to new and
emerging social, ethical, and environmental challenges in
an increasingly connected world. The scope and com-

plexity of these challenges calls for responsible leadership
and responsible leaders who acknowledge their shared,
significant responsibility (May 1996) in tackling problems
and challenges. That is, they must walk their talk ulti-
mately to rebuild the public trust vested in them.
It should come as no surprise then that business practice
has a notable interest in developing responsible leadership
in organizations and in encouraging new generations of
responsible leaders and academics to understand the
origins and outcomes of responsible leadership as a mul-
tilevel theory and construct. In what follows, this opening
article of the Special Issue seeks to sharpen understanding
of responsible leadership by distinguishing this concept
from other leadership theories. We specify our under-
standing of responsible leadership at the individual level,
provide an overview of the various articles in this special
issue, and offer some tentative pathways for further
research.

What is Responsible Leadership?
A common understanding among researchers in the field
indicates that responsible leadership responds to both
existing gaps in leadership theory and the practical chal-
lenges facing leadership. First, it centers attention firmly on
matters of responsibility, including accountability, appro-
priate moral decision-making, and trust. In other words,
responsible leadership seeks to define what ‘‘responsible’’
means in the context of leadership. Second, being
accountable for actions, answerable for decisions, and
reliable and trusted are not just semantic variations on the
term ‘‘responsibility’’ but rather constitute inherently rela-
tional concepts. By definition then, responsible leadership
is geared toward the concerns of others and asks for what
and to whom leaders are responsible. This comment may
seem to be stating the obvious, but it is arguably one of the
most under researched concepts in this field, as well as one
of the most relevant. At its core, this discussion seeks to

clarify who the ‘‘others’’ are and what responding to their
concerns entails.
Maak and Pless (2006a, p. 103), in one of the first
journal publications on this topic, define responsible lead-
ership as ‘‘a relational and ethical phenomenon, which
occurs in social processes of interaction with those who
affect or are affected by leadership and have a stake in the
purpose and vision of the leadership relationship,’’ thereby
broadening the view from a traditional leader–subordinate
relationship to leader–stakeholder relationships. They shift
the focus to the responsibilities that leaders have in relation
to various stakeholder groups and accordingly contend that
relationships ‘‘are the centre of leadership’’ (Maak and
Pless 2006b, p. 39), such that ‘‘building and cultivating …
ethically sound relations toward different stakeholders is an
important responsibility of leaders in an interconnected
stakeholder society’’ (Maak and Pless 2006a, p. 101). In
this case, ‘‘others’’ are all those with a stake in the lead-
ership project.

The level of regard for others and thus stakeholder
inclusion varies with the nature of the leadership project. In
contrast, the scope of responsibility depends most signifi-
cantly on how leaders think about their responsibilities
4 N. M. Pless, T. Maak
123
toward others, because ‘‘responsible leadership is not the
same concept in the minds of all’’ (Waldman and Galvin
2008, p. 328). Accordingly we identify two important
avenues for research that connect to the very meaning of
responsible leadership: one that seeks to investigate con-
ceptually and empirically what might be described as
responsible leader mindsets, and another that attempts to
clarify who should be included as a relevant other in net-
works of leader–stakeholder relationships. Research in the
former stream can reveal the complexity of responsible
leadership, its quality, and underlying sense-making pro-

cesses; the latter can connect stakeholder theory in general
(Freeman et al. 2010) and stakeholder legitimacy in par-
ticular (e.g., Mitchell et al. 1997) to leadership theory.
Waldman and Galvin’s (2008) differentiation of economic
versus stakeholder perspectives of responsible leadership
suggests a spectrum of mindsets, ranging from low to high
levels of regard for others, depending on how individual-
ized or socialized the concept of leadership is. It is worth
noting that this spectrum may not range from ‘‘lesser’’ to
‘‘more’’ responsibility; rather, the quality of responsibility
and thus responses to stakeholder concerns likely depends
as much on contextual and institutional factors as on
individual and organizational aspects and thus ultimately
determines the appropriate response to any particular
situation.
Responsible leadership is not a preconceived construct
or predefined remedy to leadership failure and corporate
ills. What we see emerging instead is a multilevel theory

that connects individual, organizational, and institutional
factors (Quigley et al. 2005). In this sense, researchers
under the responsible leadership umbrella may deal with
individual factors, such as values, virtues, and ethical
decision-making; just as they can address organizational-
level leadership, including the links among corporate social
responsibility, stakeholder theory, and leadership; and still
consider institutional factors and their influence on
responsible leadership, such as the societal or cultural
context, as defined by factors such as power distance,
collectivism, and humane orientation that indicate the
extent to which social concerns are part of cultural prac-
tices. In both single- and multi-level research, the tentative
answer to the question ‘‘What is responsible leadership?’’
must be ‘‘It depends.’’ Thus, the field is fluid. It also is
reflective of the multiplicity of challenges, questions, and
issues at stake in the domain of responsible leadership as
illustrated by two extant texts. Doh and Stumpf’s (2005)

book focuses predominantly on the link between respon-
sible leadership and governance and thus the steering
function of responsible leadership with respect to certain
issues, industries, and the global common good. The
authors in Maak and Pless’s (2006b) text are mainly con-
cerned with the conceptual foundations of responsible
leadership and seek to contribute to a better understanding
of the foundations of responsible leadership. ‘‘What is
responsible leadership?’’ ‘‘What makes a responsible lea-
der?,’’ and ‘‘How can responsible leadership be devel-
oped?’’ are the guiding questions in the latter.
Whereas the previous volumes broke new ground at the
conceptual forefront of responsible leadership, we now find
a growing number of empirical and descriptive contribu-
tions that investigate phenomena at both individual and
organizational levels, identifying antecedents and out-
comes, examining relationships, and making predictions.
This mix of perspectives is accordingly represented in this

Special Issue. It zooms in on the current state of research
and sets the stage for further research. In particular, five
contributions in this issue (by Cameron Freeman, Auster,
Voegtlin, Waldman, and Groves) place a specific focus on
the individual level of the leader, while three articles (by
Gond et al., Pretorius et al., Doh et al.) examine the key
phenomena at the organizational level. All these authors
emphasize responsible leadership as a relational, values-
centered concept that aims to generate positive outcomes
for followers as stakeholders, as specified further next.
How Does Responsible Leadership Differ from Related
Theories?
We understand responsible leadership as a
values-based and thorough ethical principles-driven
relationship between leaders and stakeholders who
are connected through a sheared sense of meaning
and purpose through which they raise one another to
higher levels of motivation and commitment for

achieving sustainable values creation and social
change (Pless 2007, p. 438).
Concomitantly, we define a responsible leader as a
person who reconciles ‘‘the idea of effectiveness with the
idea of corporate responsibility by being an active citizen
and promoting active citizenship inside and outside the
organization’’ (Pless 2007, p. 450). Responsible leaders
thus build and cultivate ‘‘sustainable relationships with
stakeholders … to achieve mutually shared objectives
based on a vision of business as a force of good for the
many, and not just a few (shareholders, managers)’’ (Maak
2007, p. 331). As such, responsible leadership is an
inherently normative approach to leadership.
To explore this concept, we turn to the broader domain
of other leadership theories and constructs that are relevant
to responsible leadership, and specifically those that are
values-centered, such as ethical, authentic, servant, and
transformational theories of leadership. Through such

a comparison, we can provide snapshots, insights, and
Responsible Leadership 5
123
orientations that help us navigate an increasingly diverse
field, rather than providing a single-focused, in-depth dis-
cussion that would be beyond the scope of this article.
Stakeholder Theory and Responsible Leadership
With the exception of Schneider (2002), to the best of our
knowledge, no one has tried to develop a theory of stake-
holder leadership, notwithstanding Bass and Steidlmeier’s
(1999, p. 200) suggestion to discuss ‘‘leadership in the
context of contemporary stakeholder theory.’’ We assert
that responsible and stakeholder leadership is not just
inextricably linked but that responsible leadership provides
a convincing perspective on how to connect leadership to
stakeholder theory. By making leader–stakeholder rela-
tionships the center of attention, responsible leadership

focuses on the responsibilities that leaders have in relation
to different stakeholder groups. As we have argued else-
where, ‘‘building and cultivating ethically sound relations
toward different stakeholders is an important responsibility
of leaders in an interconnected stakeholder society’’ (Maak
and Pless 2006a, p. 101). In this view, followers become
stakeholders of the leadership project, so responsible
leadership must ask a core question: ‘‘What is the role of
leadership—and of leaders—in a network of stakeholders,
and how can a leader lead responsibly across various,
potentially conflicting needs and interests?’’
Schneider (2002), without explicit reference to matters of
responsibility, makes an important contribution by stressing
that both the context of organizations and the profound
changes in these organizations, as they become flatter, less
bureaucratic, and more dispersed, increase the complexity of
the leadership project and create new implications for what
effective leadership means. Schneider highlights the ‘‘radix

organization,’’ which has a core but otherwise is flexible (and
flat) enough ‘‘to meet the challenges of fluctuating vertical,
lateral, and external demands’’ (Schneider 2002, p. 209). She
also proposes a stakeholder model of organizational lead-
ership and stresses the importance of context, relationships,
leader role-sets, and, to a lesser extent, leader attributes.
These components have significant roles with regard to
conceptualizations of responsible leadership. Yet, while
Schneider’s interest refers to the connection of stakeholder
leadership and effectiveness, responsible leadership broad-
ens the scope of performance to include responsibility,
accountability, legitimacy, and trust.
Ethical Leadership
Ethical leadership represents an individual-level phenom-
enon (Brown and Treviño 2006; Treviño et al. 2003, 2000),
defined as ‘‘the demonstration of normatively appropri-
ate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal
relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to fol-

lowers through two-way communication, reinforcement,
and decision-making’’ (Brown et al. 2005, p. 120). The
purpose of ethical leadership is to influence followers,
generally understood as subordinates in the organization,
by demonstrating ethical conduct, often through transac-
tional mechanisms.
With this theory, responsible leadership shares the idea
of the leader as a positive role model who behaves virtu-
ously, acts according to ethical standards, insures ethical
and pro-social conduct in the workplace, and uses princi-
ples of moral reasoning to make decisions (Treviño et al.
2000, 2003). Yet even as achieving, managing, and safe-
guarding high ethical standards in the workforce are cited
as important aspects, they are not sufficient conditions for
responsible leadership. Responsible leadership goes
beyond ethical perspectives, primarily from a relational
point of view. That is, the former stresses the importance of
a full-range view of leader–stakeholder relationships,

whereas ethical leadership restricts its view to a classical
leadership dyad of leader–subordinate. Furthermore, ethi-
cal leadership seeks to predict outcomes, such as leader
effectiveness, employee job satisfaction, and dedication;
responsible leadership transcends this micro-level per-
spective to focus on multilevel outcomes. In its aspiration
to mobilize followers inside and outside the organization to
engage in responsible leadership practices, such as con-
tributing to social change and sustainable futures, respon-
sible leadership also encompasses a strong transformational
dimension, together with ‘‘vision’’ as an important lead-
ership element. Neither of these elements is part of the
ethical leadership construct (Brown and Treviño 2006).
Finally, whereas ethical leadership theory considers intra-
organizational contextual factors, such as an ethical culture
(Treviño 1990), responsible leadership goes further and
addresses factors from the cultural context, such as power
distance and humane orientation (Pless and Maak 2008).

In summary, the main conceptual differences between
ethical and responsible leadership stem from their different
paradigmatic outlooks: Ethical leadership is concerned with
guidance by leaders in organizations and how leaders can
exploit such guidance to improve their effectiveness;
responsible leadership recognizes effectiveness as an out-
come but mainly seeks to capture the relational nature of the
leader–stakeholder project and its implications for matters of
responsibility. In turn, it acknowledges the latent tension
between ethics and effectiveness and is cautious about
exploiting ethics as a tool to enhance leader effectiveness.
Servant Leadership
The idea of servant leadership, in its current form, was
largely developed by Robert K. Greenleaf (1977), a former
123
AT&T executive, after he read Hermann Hesse’s novel The

Journey to the East, a story of a group of travelers in search
of enlightenment that discovers, only after breaking apart,
that a servant Leo led the group and held it together. Ser-
vant leadership, another individual-level phenomenon,
centers primarily on those whom the leader serves, or the
followers. Do those served grow as persons? If the answer
is yes, the leader was successful and effective. Accord-
ingly, servant leadership is other-directed, rather than ori-
ented toward the leader’s self (Stone et al. 2004). It stands
in stark contrast with many recent self-serving, real-life
leadership episodes, in which leaders first and foremost
thought about themselves and their interests rather than
about their constituencies. Servant leadership is contra-
dictory with this traditional top-down, individualized, self-
centered form of leadership.
Responsible leadership and servant leadership share the
idea that leadership must be mainly about the leader’s
constituencies (followers or stakeholders), such that the

leader’s task is to serve the needs and legitimate interests of
others (Greenleaf 2002). A leader should anticipate a
desirable future, demonstrate genuine care and concern for
others, and bring together service and meaning (Sendjaya
et al. 2008). Moreover, leaders and followers should ‘‘raise
one another to higher levels of motivation and morality’’
(Burns 1978, p. 20) or commitment, in the pursuit of
mutually desirable goals. Both versions seek positive out-
comes and are normative in nature.
However, though responsible leadership shares with
servant leadership the idea of service beyond self-interest,
the responsible leader does not pursue ‘‘self-sacrificial
servanthood’’ (Sendjaya et al. 2008, p. 405), just for the
sake of serving followers and developing their own good.
Service is linked to the organizational purpose and directed
toward fulfilling the needs of stakeholders throughout
business and society. Therefore, the concern of the
responsible leader is to mobilize others to serve, engage in,

and support objectives tied to a mutually desirable social
purpose. That purpose is not limited to helping others grow
or become leaders in their own right; it also entails orga-
nizational and societal levels (including positive outcomes
such as sustainable value creation and social change). The
central motivation therefore is not serving others but rather
responding to others’ interests and needs, including those
of outside stakeholders and society at large.
Furthermore, responsible leadership theory understands
followers as stakeholders, both inside and outside the
organization, not just as followers in the workplace. The
development and mobilization of followers inside and
outside the organization (individual-level outcomes) is the
means by which leadership serves a higher purpose and
achieves social change. Although intrinsically motivated,
responsible leaders are not necessarily driven by
spirituality or an inner calling. Responsible leadership can
reflect spiritual, humanistic, moral, or any other values

rooted in religion, family, tradition, education, and so on.
Or it can stem simply from the recognition that acting with
responsibility is the right thing to do. The key difference
with servant leadership thus pertains to the level of moti-
vation and contextual factors, which generally get neglec-
ted in servant leadership literature.
Authentic Leadership
Authentic leadership described by proponents in the field
as ‘‘perhaps the oldest, oldest, oldest wine in the traditional
leadership bottle’’ (Avolio et al. 2005, p. xxii), continues to
draw research interest. Early research focused more on
inauthentic leadership, that is, on the lack of authenticity.
But current research is more concerned with positive out-
comes and the role of authenticity—which in the most
generic terms refers to being one’s true self or being true to
who you are—in the spirit of positive organizational
scholarship (Cameron et al. 2003). Luthans and Avolio
(2003, p. 243) thereby define authentic leadership as ‘‘a

process that draws from both positive psychological
capacities and a highly developed organizational context.’’
Despite being a multilevel construct (including compo-
nents from organizational, group, and individual levels), it
centers mostly on processes at the individual level. Self-
awareness (i.e., a deep sense of self that provides knowl-
edge about one’s values, identity, emotions, and motives/
goals), self-regulatory processes that align values with
intentions and actions, and positive psychological states all
represent important mechanisms that enable authentic
leaders to influence, energize, and develop followers. In
this case, followers are subordinates, but a core assumption
of authentic leadership theory is that it will lead to trust,
engagement, and well-being and thus to leadership effec-
tiveness. Contextual factors such as uncertainty, culture/
climate, and inclusion are considered, to the extent that
they moderate the outcomes of authentic leadership.
Ethical qualities, such as moral capacity, courage, and

transparency are understood as positive psychological
resources. Although some authors (Avolio and Gardner
2005, Luthans and Avolio 2003, May et al. 2003) under-
stand ethics as an inherent component of authentic lead-
ership, others (Cooper et al. 2005, Shamir and Eilam 2005,
Sparrowe 2005) voice concerns about defining authentic
leadership as encompassing moral resources.
Responsible leadership appears to overlap with authen-
tic leadership with respect to its self-awareness and self-
regulation components (Pless and Maak 2005), but it also
goes further. Pless and Maak (2005) specify that respon-
sible leadership requires leaders to take another step to
develop a sense of others’ emotions and values/norms,
123
reflect on the adequacy of their own emotions and values,
and assess them in comparison with general standards and

hypernorms (Donaldson and Dunfee 1999), as well as with
local needs. Moreover, ethical qualities constitute a struc-
tural element in responsible leadership research; in that
sense, they are more than positive psychological resources.
Moral awareness, ethical reflection, an ability to employ
moral imagination to reconcile dilemmas (Werhane 1999),
and moral deliberation and decision-making skills are all
important features of responsible leadership.
Both authentic and responsible leadership theories factor
in the organizational impact of leadership. Avolio and
Gardner (2005), Avolio et al. (2004), and Luthans and
Avolio (2003) assert that authentic leadership can have
positive organizational impacts by helping people find
meaning at work and contributes to sustained performance
and growth through long-term value creation for share-
holders (Avolio and Gardner 2005). Similar to authentic
leadership, responsible leadership aims for positive orga-
nizational outcomes, but extending beyond traditional

economic outcome variables, it also proposes that leader-
ship includes contributions to value and social capital by
stakeholders in business and society and thus ultimately
should result in positive social change (Maak 2007; Pless
2007).
Transformational Leadership
Leadership is always about change, whether on the indi-
vidual, team, organizational, or societal levels, or a com-
bination thereof. Leaders, whether by appointment,
dedication, or accident, influence followers (stakeholders),
and vice versa, which leads to the realization of certain
objectives. Reaching the objective implies a change pro-
cess—thus, transformation.
The notion of transformational leadership was intro-
duced by Burns (1978) in the context of political leader-
ship, then further developed and conceptualized by Bass
(1985) and his colleagues (e.g., Bass and Avolio 1995;
Avolio et al. 1991). As an individual-level phenomenon,

transformational leadership entails a process of building
commitment and empowerment among followers to
accomplish organizational goals (Stone et al. 2004; Yukl
2002) and thus enhance follower performance. Research on
transformational leadership considers some contextual
factors, such as country culture or organizational culture,
but it does not explicitly discuss ‘‘leadership in the context
of contemporary stakeholder theory’’ (Bass and Steidlmeier
1999, p. 200), which instead is the specific contribution of
responsible leadership theory.
Responsible leadership is close to the transformational
notions of vision, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration. But it also differs in several
aspects. First, in terms of the definition of followers,
responsible leadership considers them more broadly as
stakeholders inside and outside the organization.
Second, with regard to the emphasis of leadership,
transformational leaders influence followers for the

instrumental purpose of enhancing performance and
accomplishing organizational objectives (e.g., improving
the economic bottom-line, satisfying shareholders), at least
in the prevailing approach proposed by Bass and col-
leagues. Responsible leaders instead serve different stake-
holders and mobilize them to engage in and support
objectives tied to a higher social purpose at organizational
and societal levels. In this contrast, we find a shift from a
shareholder mindset to a stakeholder orientation (Maak and
Pless 2006a; Waldman and Galvin 2008).
Third, responsible leadership is less focused on indi-
vidual characteristics, such as defining the ‘‘great man’’ or
the charismatic and transformative leader. Instead, it is
geared toward a relational leadership approach (Uhl-Bien
2006) based on inclusion, collaboration, and cooperation
with different stakeholder groups. Maak and Pless (2006a)
point out that in the broader leadership context of stake-
holder interaction, leadership entails new responsibilities

and roles, and the leader becomes a coordinator and cul-
tivator of relationships with different constituencies—a
weaver in and among a network of relationships (Maak
2007).
Fourth, research on transformational leadership asserts
that the leader’s ethical or unethical behavior depends on
his or her motivation: Only authentic, transformational
leaders qualify as moral leaders with moral values, social
motivations, and a lack of coercion or manipulative influ-
ence (Bass 1985, Brown and Treviño 2006). In other
words, there appears to be a distinction between inau-
thentic and authentic transformational leaders. In contrast,
responsible leadership constitutes an inherently ethical
phenomenon: To qualify as responsible, leaders must be
considered responsible and thus accountable, trustworthy,
and ethical. A responsible leader is a person of character
with ethical literacy (moral reasoning, moral imagination),
who makes moral and principled decisions by considering

their impacts on others, while also using his or her influ-
ence and power to pursue moral and legitimate ends
through justifiable means.
Fifth, both transformational and responsible leadership
include notions of change and transformation. However,
responsible leaders employ change as a means to achieve a
higher social goal; transformational leaders do not neces-
sarily follow that path.
As this overview has demonstrated, previous leadership
approaches understand it as an individual-level phenome-
non and examine the characteristics, styles, and/or pro-
cesses that mark that individual, as the basic unit of
123
analysis. Researchers also assume some shared conceptual
leadership characteristics: Apart from a general values-
centered philosophy, they regard role modeling as an

important part of positive leadership, stress the intrinsic
motivation for leadership, and focus on caring concern for
others or a high level of other-regard (e.g., Brown and
Treviño 2006). To varying degrees, they also understand
ethics as an inherent component of leadership. However,
with the exception of responsible leadership, none of these
approaches includes the social and natural environment as
a pertinent level of analysis, links leadership to the out-
comes of sustainable value creation or social change (i.e.,
for the benefit of all legitimate stakeholders), or defines
followers in a broad sense as stakeholders within and
outside the organization. Maak and Pless (2006a, b) stress
that leadership in a network of stakeholder relationships
not only induces new roles and responsibilities but also
creates a new social perception of leadership, in which the
leader is a coordinator and a cultivator of relationships with
different constituencies, across and beyond the organiza-
tion. That is, we need to rethink leadership as leadership of

a network of stakeholder relationships.
Perspectives on Responsible Leadership: Special Issue
Overview
Of the eight contributions in this Special Issue, three arti-
cles are conceptual and five are empirical. More and more
researchers adopting an empirical–descriptive approach
investigate responsible leadership at both individual and
organizational levels, identify antecedents and outcomes,
examine relationships, and make predictions. All authors
emphasize responsible leadership as a relational and val-
ues-centered phenomenon that aims at generating positive
outcomes for followers as stakeholders.
Values, Authenticity, and Responsible Leadership
In ‘‘Values, Authenticity, and Responsible Leadership,’’ Ed
Freeman and Ellen Auster rethink the concept of authen-
ticity according to its application in modern organizational
life, such that they enrich extant theory on responsible
leadership. The authors reflect on some foundational

questions about the logic of values, arguing that the idea of
simply ‘‘acting on one’s values’’ or ‘‘being true to one-
self’’—what has been called the ‘‘essentialist self’’—at best
establishes a starting point for thinking about authenticity,
because of the difficulty of knowing one’s own values and
acting accordingly. They propose the idea of the ‘‘poetic
self,’’ a creative project by which the leader seeks to live
authentically. Trying to be authentic is an ongoing process
that starts with engaging perceived values while also
analyzing one’s own history (self-enlargement), relation-
ships with others (self-connection), and aspirations for the
future. This process of self-creation demands a mutual
connection with community and stakeholders. Even orga-
nizations can become poetic if they comprehend the pro-
cesses of self-understanding, connection, and aspiration
(i.e., perceived organizational values, analysis of historical
routines, awareness of the network of stakeholder rela-
tionships, and consciousness of a purpose or aspiration).

Because authenticity requires acting on perceived values, it
provides a starting point for ethics as well. The idea of
responsible leadership thus expands with this new con-
ceptualization of the self and authenticity, such that it may
help create more humane organizations.
Responsible Leadership as Virtuous Leadership
Kim Cameron, in ‘‘Responsible Leadership as Virtuous
Leadership,’’ equates responsible leadership with account-
ability, dependability, authority, and empowerment—but
above all with virtuousness. Using this connotation entails
three assumptions about responsible leadership: (1) eudae-
monism, or the assumption that all people are inclined
toward moral goodness; (2) inherent value, such that vir-
tuousness represents a ‘‘good of first intent’’; and (3)
amplification, which is the assumption that observing vir-
tuousness creates a self-reinforcing cycle of more virtu-
ousness. In turn, it leads to two important outcomes. Virtue
establishes a fixed point for coping with change, because it

helps identify the universally accepted standard for what
leaders may consider best for other individuals and their
organizations. It also offers benefits for constituents who
otherwise would never have been affected. By focusing on
virtuous outcomes, the leader can achieve desirable ends,
such as organizational commitment or performance, that
insure advantages for all constituencies—rather than ben-
efiting some at the expense of others.
Responsible Leadership Outcomes Via Stakeholder
CSR Values
In his study ‘‘Responsible Leadership Outcomes Via
Stakeholder CSR Values: Testing a Values-Centered
Model of Transformational Leadership,’’ Kevin Groves
proposes a conceptual link between responsible and
transformational leadership theories and examines how
transformational leadership advances responsible leader-
ship outcomes through leader values, leadership behavior,
and follower perceptions of leader–follower values con-

gruence. The responsible leadership outcomes include
followers’ beliefs in a stakeholder CSR perspective and
willingness to engage in citizenship behaviors that benefit
both the organization and wider society. The author tests
123
his values-centered leadership model, comprising leader
stakeholder and economic values, follower values con-
gruence, and responsible leadership outcomes, with data
from 122 organizational leaders and 458 direct reports. A
structural equation modeling analysis demonstrates that
leader stakeholder values predict transformational leader-
ship; leader economic values are more associated with
transactional leadership. Follower values congruence also
appears strongly associated with transformational leader-
ship but unrelated to transactional leadership; it partially
mediates the relationships of transformational leadership

with both follower organizational citizenship behaviors and
follower beliefs in the stakeholder view of CSR. By
adhering to stakeholder values and creating strong follower
perceptions of shared values, transformational leaders can
influence followers’ beliefs in the stakeholder CSR per-
spective and willingness to engage in extra-role, citizenship
behaviors that address organizational and community
problems.
Measuring Responsible Leadership
Christian Voegtlin’s article, ‘‘Development of a Scale
Measuring Responsible Leadership,’’ extends understand-
ing of responsible leadership with an ideal of discourse
ethics that enables leaders to act morally and engage in
dialogue with all affected constituents, which grants the
organization a license to operate. This understanding of
responsible leadership might address the challenges of
globalization better than existing leadership concepts. The
proposed empirical scale of responsible leadership enables

descriptive and prescriptive evaluations; it validates a
one-dimensional construct with high internal consistency,
as well as discriminant and predictive validity. Thus,
responsible leadership reflects the pertinent hierarchical
level; can reduce unethical behavior among a primary
stakeholder group, namely, employees; and has a direct
impact on the job satisfaction of direct report employees.
This effect of responsible leadership on job satisfaction
also is partly mediated by observed unethical behavior. In
this sense, responsible leaders have an indirect effect on
job satisfaction, because they help create a more ethical
work environment.
Moving Forward with the Concept of Responsible
Leadership
The aim of David Waldman’s article ‘‘Moving Forward with
the Concept of Responsible Leadership: Three Caveats to
Guide Theory and Research’’ is to point out three issues that
must be considered if we are to progress in the area of

responsible leadership. The first caveat pertains to defini-
tional issues: Multiple definitions and moral bases exist to
conceptualize responsible leadership, all of might be equally
legitimate and valid (e.g., shareholder view, normative
stakeholder theory). The second point to the importance of
recognizing the strong values and potential ideologies of the
researcher. To advance the concept of responsible leader-
ship, it is crucial that theory and research are not ideologi-
cally driven or biased. The third caveat is connected to the
positioning of responsible leadership within the body of
leadership theory and research according to its ‘‘other-
regarding focus’’ (i.e., leaders’ accountability to various
stakeholders). Thus, responsible leadership offers unique,
beneficial, new, or complementary insights. This author also
notes concerns about the measurement of responsible lead-
ership. Useful measures should integrate multiple perspec-
tives on leader’s values and behaviors, from different types
of stakeholders rather than just from immediate followers.

Finally, he notes the importance of further descriptive
research in the domain of responsible leadership.
Responsible Leadership Helps Retain Talent
In ‘‘Responsible Leadership Helps Retain Talent in India,’’
Jonathan Doh, Stephen Stumpf, and Walter Tymon
approach responsible leadership as an organizational-level
phenomenon. Drawing on stakeholder theory, they define
and operationalize it from the perspective of employees
and their views of leaders’ actions. With this ‘‘inclusive
concept … employees perceive their organization as hav-
ing an ethical and proactive stakeholder perspective toward
constituents outside the organization and the employees
themselves.’’ Their empirical study is based on a survey
involving 28 organizations operating in India and 4,352
employees; it underscores the critical role of responsible
leadership for employee retention. These authors also
propose a tripartite employee view of responsible leader-
ship: (1) employees’ perception of a strong stakeholder
culture that supports acting in a socially responsible and

ethical manner, (2) fair and inclusive human resource
practices, and (3) positive managerial support for employee
development and success. The components of responsible
leadership also relate to employees’ pride in and satisfac-
tion with the organization, as well as their retention.
Exploring the Interface Between Strategy-Making
and Responsible Leadership
In ‘‘Exploring the Interface Between Strategy-Making and
Responsible Leadership.’’ Rachel Maritz, Marius Pretorius,
and Kato Plant report on the thinking of organizational
leaders, managers and non-managers regarding strategy-
making modes. Empirical findings, based on mixed
method research (analyses of in-depth interviews and 210
questionnaires) conducted in South Africa, reveal that
123
organizations combine deliberate strategy-making modes

(i.e., formal, rational, comprehensive approach with artic-
ulated vision, direction, and specific ends and means) with
emergent strategy-making efforts (i.e., quick response,
adaptive, trial-and-error with vague ends and means, flex-
ible planning structures, and tolerance for change). These
strategy-making modes have key implications for the
responsible leader, as an architect or change agent. For
example, the high performance consensus (neutral part of
strategy-making) in these organizations leads to greater
tolerance for risk-taking. Organizational leaders must
remain cognizant of the growing use and characteristics of
emergent strategy-making, if they hope to facilitate effec-
tive governance. Further understanding of these charac-
teristics could provide guidance for leaders who want to be
both responsive and responsible in all their actions areas.
The Human Resources Contribution to Responsible
Leadership
The article by Jean-Pascal Gond and colleagues, ‘‘The

Human Resources Contribution to Responsible Leadership:
An Exploration of the CSR-HR Interface,’’ aims to inves-
tigate how human resources (HR) contribute to socially
responsible leadership at functional, practical, and rela-
tional levels of analysis. Although CSR practices have been
embraced by many corporations, the authors argue that the
specific contributions of HR professionals, HR manage-
ment practices, and employees to responsible leadership
have been overlooked. Relying on analyses of interviews
with 30 CSR and HR corporate executives from 22 cor-
porations operating in France, these authors determine
whether and how HR can support employees’ involvement
in CSR, while also highlighting areas of collaboration and
tension between HR and CSR functions around emerging
practices of responsible leadership. The findings uncover
the multiple, often implicit roles of HR in responsible
leadership, as well as the interrelation of functional, prac-
tical, and relational dimensions. In its organizational and

functional contribution, the optimal configuration of the
HR–CSR interface enables HR to provide functional sup-
port to the deployment of responsible leadership. With
regard to a practical contribution, HR professionals help
insure stabilized or encourage emerging practices and thus
build the environment to support responsible leadership.
For the relational contribution of HR, this article notes that
HR professionals manage relationships with employees,
facilitate employees’ involvement and representation in
CSR issues and topics, and monitor the CSR influence on
employees through HR processes. Finally, the organization
of the HR–CSR interface can enable or undermine HR
contributions to responsible leadership; several underlying
cognitive factors shape this interface.
Conclusion: Pathways for Further Research
The field of responsible leadership is still in its infancy.
Further guidance on the topic remains in high demand, yet
most responsible leadership dimensions remain under

researched. This situation is not necessarily surprising;
most leadership research still assumes that leadership takes
place in clearly structured, hierarchical relationships and
that researchers can uncover some ultimate truth about
what constitutes ‘‘effective’’ leadership. The world of
leadership is messier than that—more complex, diverse,
and ultimately contested, especially when it comes to
defining responsibility. Moreover, the objectivist stance of
traditional concepts and the ignorance of normative issues
makes it difficult to determine how such research could
inform those who look for guidance in matters of respon-
sible leadership.
We hope that this Special Issue not only helps consoli-
date responsible leadership as an important area of research
but also, and perhaps more importantly, inspires additional
research that generates orienting knowledge in this domain.
The field is far from complete, and the contributions in this
issue provide only a snapshot of the challenges and con-

cerns that remain to be studied.
In particular, further research should address definitional
issues, as David Waldman notes in his contribution: Mul-
tiple definitions and moral bases attempt to conceptualize
responsible leadership, all of which might be equally
legitimate and valid. Additional explorations of these bases
would generate more clarity, which not least might prevent
the domain from becoming ideologically driven or biased.
Waldman also suggests that responsible leadership should
be better positioned within the wider stream of leadership
theory and research. Our brief overview might offer a
starting point for cross-comparisons of responsible lead-
ership with other leadership concepts. In addition, research
could explore team and shared leadership further (Pearce
and Conger 2003), link emerging literature on followership
or follower-centric approaches to responsible leadership
(Shamir and Eilam 2005), and so on.
As research seeks to refine responsible leadership, it

would be helpful to have scales and constructs for testing.
Christian Voegtlin has provided some indications of how to
pursue this avenue. Measures of responsible leadership,
though not a primary interest of researchers at this stage,
might provide more substantial evidence regarding its rel-
evance and effectiveness. Potential constructs to study
might include job satisfaction, implicit leadership theory,
and ethical leadership as perceived by immediate follow-
ers. By obtaining multiple perspectives on leaders’ values
and behaviors from different types of stakeholders, rather
than just immediate followers, as Waldman suggests,
we also could gain important insights into legitimacy,
123
stakeholder satisfaction, and leader–stakeholder dynamics.
The time also seems ripe to study the role of leadership in
building stakeholder social capital (Maak 2007). Research

needs to provide more clarity regarding who should be
included as a relevant other in the network of leader–
stakeholder relationships, which would enable connections
from stakeholder theory in general (Freeman et al. 2010)
and from stakeholder legitimacy in particular (e.g.,
Mitchell et al. 1997) to leadership theory.
We also see great benefit in investigating, both con-
ceptually and empirically, responsible leader mindsets.
Research in this area could reveal the great complexity of
responsible leadership, its quality, and underlying sense-
making processes; it also might shed light on anecdotal
evidence that leaders think differently about doing the right
thing. Waldman and Galvin’s (2008) differentiation of
economic versus stakeholder perspectives even hints at the
possibility of a spectrum of mindsets. In this sense, we
hope that we continue to see more descriptive research
on responsible leadership that generates deeper, more
insightful understanding of the phenomenon.

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