This document provides an overview of an introductory lecture on advanced computer networks. It outlines the course learning outcomes as developing conceptual grounding in network design principles and the Internet's evolution. Assessment includes assignments, projects, tests and papers. Recommended textbooks are listed. Potential advanced topics for research include nano-network communication, visible light communication for UAVs, software-defined networking, and using biological organisms to enable molecular communication. Networking principles like layered architecture, protocols, statistical multiplexing, and loose coupling between layers and applications are discussed.
The document discusses networking concepts such as network topologies, devices, and the OSI model. It begins by explaining how businesses realized networking could increase productivity and save costs. It then describes common networking devices like NICs, hubs, switches, and routers. The document also covers standard network topologies and the layers of the OSI model, providing examples of how data is encapsulated as it travels through each layer.
The document provides information about networking certifications and the CCNA exam. It discusses the CCNA exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, number of questions, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also covers networking topics like data networks, networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, network topologies, LANs, WANs, virtual private networks, bandwidth, internetworking devices, network structure and hierarchy, IEEE 802 standards, and the OSI model.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices like hubs, switches, routers, and network interface cards. Finally, it covers networking topics such as network topologies, the OSI model, TCP/IP protocols, WANs, LANs, and the IEEE 802 standards.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of LANs, MANs and WANs. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of local, metropolitan, and wide area networks. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers, describing the function of each layer.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of local, metropolitan, and wide area networks. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers, describing the function of each layer.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of LANs, MANs and WANs. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers.
he Data Link Layer (DLL) is the second layer of the OSI model that provides reliable data transfer across a physical link. Here are some key concepts related to the Data Link Layer:Nodes and Links: Nodes are devices on a network (such as computers or routers) while links are the physical or logical
The document discusses networking concepts such as network topologies, devices, and the OSI model. It begins by explaining how businesses realized networking could increase productivity and save costs. It then describes common networking devices like NICs, hubs, switches, and routers. The document also covers standard network topologies and the layers of the OSI model, providing examples of how data is encapsulated as it travels through each layer.
The document provides information about networking certifications and the CCNA exam. It discusses the CCNA exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, number of questions, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also covers networking topics like data networks, networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, network topologies, LANs, WANs, virtual private networks, bandwidth, internetworking devices, network structure and hierarchy, IEEE 802 standards, and the OSI model.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices like hubs, switches, routers, and network interface cards. Finally, it covers networking topics such as network topologies, the OSI model, TCP/IP protocols, WANs, LANs, and the IEEE 802 standards.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of LANs, MANs and WANs. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of local, metropolitan, and wide area networks. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers, describing the function of each layer.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of local, metropolitan, and wide area networks. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers, describing the function of each layer.
The document provides information about the CCNA certification exam, including the exam number, total marks, duration, passing score, question types, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also discusses common networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, common network topologies, and the functions of LANs, MANs and WANs. Finally, it introduces the OSI model and its seven layers.
he Data Link Layer (DLL) is the second layer of the OSI model that provides reliable data transfer across a physical link. Here are some key concepts related to the Data Link Layer:Nodes and Links: Nodes are devices on a network (such as computers or routers) while links are the physical or logical
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
This document outlines the topics and policies for a network management course. The topics to be discussed include types of networks, network hardware, TCP/IP fundamentals, and TCP and UDP communications. Course policies cover attendance, assignment deadlines, exams, and conduct. Grading will be based on exams, assignments, attendance, and quizzes. The document then provides content on network types and topologies, network devices, and internetworking models like OSI and TCP/IP.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides an overview of networking concepts including the purpose of networking, networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, network topologies, LANs/WANs, virtual private networks, bandwidth, the OSI model, and IEEE 802 standards.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam and provides details about its format, benefits, and requirements. It then covers networking concepts like network devices, topologies, protocols, and the OSI model. Key points include that the CCNA exam tests knowledge of networking fundamentals, has multiple choice and simulation questions, and benefits career advancement. It also defines common network components, topologies, and each layer of the OSI model.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides information about networking devices, topologies, standards, and the OSI model layers. Key topics covered include switches, routers, network topologies like star and bus, IEEE 802 standards, and an explanation of each of the seven layers of the OSI model.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides information about networking devices, topologies, protocols, and the OSI model layers. Key topics covered include switches, routers, network topologies like star and bus, the 7 layers of the OSI model and what each layer is responsible for, and how data is encapsulated as it moves through the layers from physical to application.
This document provides a course syllabus for the subject "Communication Networks". It includes:
1) An outline of 5 units that will be covered in the course, including fundamentals of data communications, media access and internetworking, routing, transport layer protocols, and application layer.
2) Course objectives to understand network layering and functionality and analyze network solutions.
3) 4 course outcomes related to identifying network components, choosing layer functionality, and tracing information flow.
4) A mapping of course outcomes to 12 program outcomes and 3 program specific outcomes.
The document provides information about Cisco certifications including the CCNA exam requirements and benefits, describes common networking devices like hubs, switches, routers and their functions, and explains basic networking concepts such as topologies, protocols, and the layered OSI model which is important for understanding network communication. It covers a wide range of foundational networking topics in preparation for Cisco certification exams.
This document provides an introduction to data communications and networking concepts. It discusses the history of telecommunications and data communication. The key aspects covered include the OSI reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite, network topologies, transmission media such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optics and wireless technologies. Application areas such as email, e-commerce and wireless applications are also summarized. The document concludes with an overview of data communication careers.
This document provides an overview of the syllabus for a Computer Networks course. It includes:
- An outline of the course units which cover data communication components, the OSI model, TCP/IP model, and each layer of the OSI model from layers 2 through 7.
- Evaluation criteria which includes continuous internal evaluation, semester end examination, and mandatory minimum marks.
- Suggested reading materials including textbooks and publications.
- An overview of the Computer Networks lab covering various experiments involving networking tools, protocols, programming, and simulation.
This document provides information on layering in networked computing by discussing the OSI and TCP/IP models. It begins by outlining the learning objectives, which are to understand the need for layering, the layers and protocols in each model, and how data is transmitted between layers and hosts. It then describes each layer in the OSI model and its functions. The TCP/IP model is also explained, comparing it to the OSI model by mapping its 4 layers to the 7 layers of OSI. Key protocols at each layer are identified and packet encapsulation in TCP/IP is demonstrated.
Metacomputer Architecture of the Global LambdaGridLarry Smarr
06.01.13
Invited Talk
Department of Computer Science
Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences
Title: Metacomputer Architecture of the Global LambdaGrid
Irvine, CA
The document discusses grid computing and the development of computational grids. Key points:
- Grids allow for sharing of computing power and resources across geographic locations through networked supercomputers, databases, and instruments.
- Major organizations like NASA, DOE, and NSF are working to build computational grids for applications like scientific simulations and instrument control.
- Indiana University is involved in grid research through various departments and projects focused on resource sharing, portals, middleware, and more.
The transport layer in computer networking provides host-to-host communication services for applications. It provides functions like connection-oriented data streams, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing. Common transport layer protocols include TCP, UDP, SCTP, and SPX. The OSI transport layer defines five classes of connection-mode protocols: class 0 (unacknowledged mode), class 1 (acknowledged mode), class 2 (numbered mode), class 3 (alternate mode), and class 4 (unconfirmed mode).
This document discusses layered network models, specifically the OSI model and TCP/IP model. It provides an overview of each layer in both models and their functions. The key points are:
- The OSI model defines 7 layers that break communication into smaller parts to simplify the process and allow different hardware/software to work together.
- The TCP/IP model has 4 layers - application, transport, internet, and network access. It is used widely on the internet.
- Each layer adds header information to data as it moves down the stack. This encapsulation allows communication between layers and across networks.
The document provides an overview of Janet Abbate's book "Inventing the Internet" which explores the history of the development of the Internet from 1959 to 1994. The book examines the social and cultural factors influencing the Internet's evolution from ARPANET to a global network. It analyzes how the Internet was shaped by collaboration and conflict between various players including government, military, computer scientists, and businesses. The author traces the technological development of the Internet and links it to organizational, social, and cultural changes during that period.
This document provides an overview of computer networks and data communications. It discusses trends driving changes in network requirements, common network types including LANs and WANs, and technologies like circuit switching, packet switching, and frame relay. It also compares the OSI reference model to the TCP/IP model and summarizes key functions of each layer, including physical, data link, network, and transport layers.
This document provides an introduction to the OSI and TCP/IP network models. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model and the four layers of the TCP/IP model. It explains the functions of each layer, such as the transport layer providing reliable data delivery and the network layer providing network-wide addressing and routing. The document also discusses protocols like TCP, UDP, and IP that operate at different layers and how data is encapsulated as it passes through the layers.
The document discusses the OSI reference model and TCP/IP reference model. The OSI model divides network architecture into seven layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application layer. The TCP/IP model has four layers - process/application layer, host-to-host layer, internet layer, and network access layer. The TCP/IP model was created by the US Department of Defense to allow networks to survive disruptions like nuclear war.
osi model, What is osi model, osi model by shubham mishra, osi model layers, osi model protocols, osi model layer protocols, osi model used protocols, osi model used devices, osi model application, osi model advantages and dis advantages, layers of osi model, osi model layer functions, how many layers in osi model, physical later, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session later,presentation layer, application layer, MGCGV, Shubham Mishra
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
This document outlines the topics and policies for a network management course. The topics to be discussed include types of networks, network hardware, TCP/IP fundamentals, and TCP and UDP communications. Course policies cover attendance, assignment deadlines, exams, and conduct. Grading will be based on exams, assignments, attendance, and quizzes. The document then provides content on network types and topologies, network devices, and internetworking models like OSI and TCP/IP.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides an overview of networking concepts including the purpose of networking, networking devices, network interface cards, hubs, switches, routers, network topologies, LANs/WANs, virtual private networks, bandwidth, the OSI model, and IEEE 802 standards.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam and provides details about its format, benefits, and requirements. It then covers networking concepts like network devices, topologies, protocols, and the OSI model. Key points include that the CCNA exam tests knowledge of networking fundamentals, has multiple choice and simulation questions, and benefits career advancement. It also defines common network components, topologies, and each layer of the OSI model.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides information about networking devices, topologies, standards, and the OSI model layers. Key topics covered include switches, routers, network topologies like star and bus, IEEE 802 standards, and an explanation of each of the seven layers of the OSI model.
The document discusses the CCNA certification exam including details about the exam such as number of questions, duration, passing score, and benefits of obtaining the certification. It also provides information about networking devices, topologies, protocols, and the OSI model layers. Key topics covered include switches, routers, network topologies like star and bus, the 7 layers of the OSI model and what each layer is responsible for, and how data is encapsulated as it moves through the layers from physical to application.
This document provides a course syllabus for the subject "Communication Networks". It includes:
1) An outline of 5 units that will be covered in the course, including fundamentals of data communications, media access and internetworking, routing, transport layer protocols, and application layer.
2) Course objectives to understand network layering and functionality and analyze network solutions.
3) 4 course outcomes related to identifying network components, choosing layer functionality, and tracing information flow.
4) A mapping of course outcomes to 12 program outcomes and 3 program specific outcomes.
The document provides information about Cisco certifications including the CCNA exam requirements and benefits, describes common networking devices like hubs, switches, routers and their functions, and explains basic networking concepts such as topologies, protocols, and the layered OSI model which is important for understanding network communication. It covers a wide range of foundational networking topics in preparation for Cisco certification exams.
This document provides an introduction to data communications and networking concepts. It discusses the history of telecommunications and data communication. The key aspects covered include the OSI reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite, network topologies, transmission media such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optics and wireless technologies. Application areas such as email, e-commerce and wireless applications are also summarized. The document concludes with an overview of data communication careers.
This document provides an overview of the syllabus for a Computer Networks course. It includes:
- An outline of the course units which cover data communication components, the OSI model, TCP/IP model, and each layer of the OSI model from layers 2 through 7.
- Evaluation criteria which includes continuous internal evaluation, semester end examination, and mandatory minimum marks.
- Suggested reading materials including textbooks and publications.
- An overview of the Computer Networks lab covering various experiments involving networking tools, protocols, programming, and simulation.
This document provides information on layering in networked computing by discussing the OSI and TCP/IP models. It begins by outlining the learning objectives, which are to understand the need for layering, the layers and protocols in each model, and how data is transmitted between layers and hosts. It then describes each layer in the OSI model and its functions. The TCP/IP model is also explained, comparing it to the OSI model by mapping its 4 layers to the 7 layers of OSI. Key protocols at each layer are identified and packet encapsulation in TCP/IP is demonstrated.
Metacomputer Architecture of the Global LambdaGridLarry Smarr
06.01.13
Invited Talk
Department of Computer Science
Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences
Title: Metacomputer Architecture of the Global LambdaGrid
Irvine, CA
The document discusses grid computing and the development of computational grids. Key points:
- Grids allow for sharing of computing power and resources across geographic locations through networked supercomputers, databases, and instruments.
- Major organizations like NASA, DOE, and NSF are working to build computational grids for applications like scientific simulations and instrument control.
- Indiana University is involved in grid research through various departments and projects focused on resource sharing, portals, middleware, and more.
The transport layer in computer networking provides host-to-host communication services for applications. It provides functions like connection-oriented data streams, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing. Common transport layer protocols include TCP, UDP, SCTP, and SPX. The OSI transport layer defines five classes of connection-mode protocols: class 0 (unacknowledged mode), class 1 (acknowledged mode), class 2 (numbered mode), class 3 (alternate mode), and class 4 (unconfirmed mode).
This document discusses layered network models, specifically the OSI model and TCP/IP model. It provides an overview of each layer in both models and their functions. The key points are:
- The OSI model defines 7 layers that break communication into smaller parts to simplify the process and allow different hardware/software to work together.
- The TCP/IP model has 4 layers - application, transport, internet, and network access. It is used widely on the internet.
- Each layer adds header information to data as it moves down the stack. This encapsulation allows communication between layers and across networks.
The document provides an overview of Janet Abbate's book "Inventing the Internet" which explores the history of the development of the Internet from 1959 to 1994. The book examines the social and cultural factors influencing the Internet's evolution from ARPANET to a global network. It analyzes how the Internet was shaped by collaboration and conflict between various players including government, military, computer scientists, and businesses. The author traces the technological development of the Internet and links it to organizational, social, and cultural changes during that period.
This document provides an overview of computer networks and data communications. It discusses trends driving changes in network requirements, common network types including LANs and WANs, and technologies like circuit switching, packet switching, and frame relay. It also compares the OSI reference model to the TCP/IP model and summarizes key functions of each layer, including physical, data link, network, and transport layers.
This document provides an introduction to the OSI and TCP/IP network models. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model and the four layers of the TCP/IP model. It explains the functions of each layer, such as the transport layer providing reliable data delivery and the network layer providing network-wide addressing and routing. The document also discusses protocols like TCP, UDP, and IP that operate at different layers and how data is encapsulated as it passes through the layers.
The document discusses the OSI reference model and TCP/IP reference model. The OSI model divides network architecture into seven layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application layer. The TCP/IP model has four layers - process/application layer, host-to-host layer, internet layer, and network access layer. The TCP/IP model was created by the US Department of Defense to allow networks to survive disruptions like nuclear war.
osi model, What is osi model, osi model by shubham mishra, osi model layers, osi model protocols, osi model layer protocols, osi model used protocols, osi model used devices, osi model application, osi model advantages and dis advantages, layers of osi model, osi model layer functions, how many layers in osi model, physical later, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session later,presentation layer, application layer, MGCGV, Shubham Mishra
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3. Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs) and
Objectives:
1. Developing a sound conceptual grounding to
computer networks and its design principles.
2. Going through the thought-process that went into
designing the Internet which is the best example of
a computer network that has adapted and scaled to
changing environment.
3. Introduction to advanced topics in computer
networks including communication technologies,
network protocols, performance measurement and
resource allocation
4. Attendance (75 % attendance is mandatory) 2.5%
Workshop / Assignments/Case study 2.5%
Surprise Test/Sudden Test, Quizzes 5%
Semester Project 15%
Mid Term Paper 25%
Final Term paper 50%
Total 100%
5. 1. “Computer Networks-A System Approach”,
Peterson and Davis 4th Edition
2. “Data and Computer Communication” by
William Stalling, Prentice Hall, 9th Edition
3. “Computer Networks -A Top-Down Approach
Featuring the Internet” by Kurose and Ross
10. 1. Biological organism assisted medium range molecular communication,
architecture and multihop communication schemes
2. Resource allocation schemes for terrestrial communication for time
critical and high data rate applications
3. SDN facilitating IoT
4. Providing HD data services at low cost to rural areas (Low cost rural HD
services-communication technologies)
5. Swarm intelligence for next generation networks (security and resource
allocation)
6. Caching strategies for UAV based HD services to rural areas
7. Green cashing in UAVs
8. Visible light communication for UAVs, resource allocation for NOMA and
massive MIMO physical layer
9. IoT Protocols and Standards (IPv6, 6LoWPAN, RPL, 6TiSCH, RAW )
z
12. … …
A protocol defines the format and the order of
messages exchanged between two or more
communicating entities, as well as the actions
taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a
message or other event.
13. Layers built on concept of abstraction and decomposition
… …
Applications
Modularization based on abstractions is the way to build large systems
…built on…
…built on…
Reliable (or unreliable) transport
Best-effort global packet delivery
Best-effort local packet delivery
…built on…
…built on…
Physical transfer of bits
15. … …
Statistical multiplexing: no fixed slot but allocation according to need
Fixed multiplexing schemes: schemes like TDMA and
FDMA are better suited to circuit switched approaches
16. … …
The main benefits are in reduced avg. queueing delay and more
efficient resource management of resources with bursty traffic.
17. … …
This influential principle implies loose coupling with end-applications (which
could change easily) and network (which was simple and generalized)
18. Chapter 2:
Direct Link Networks [P&D]
Chapter 1:
Computer Networks and
the Internet [K&R]
All the chapter in general
Section 1.4 (may be skipped/ skimmed for
now)
A layered architecture allows us to discuss a well-defined, specific part of a large and complex system. This simplification itself is of considerable value byproviding modularity, making it much easier to change the implementation of the service provided by the layer. As long as the layer provides the same service to thelayer above it, and uses the same services from the layer below it, the remainder of the system remains unchanged when a layer’s implementation is changed .
A protocol layer can be implemented in software, in hardware, or in a combination of the two. Application-layer protocols—such as HTTP and SMTP—are almostalways implemented in software in the end systems; so are transport-layer protocols.Because the physical layer and data link layers are responsible for handling communication over a specific link, they are typically implemented in a network interfacecard (for example, Ethernet or WiFi interface cards) associated with a given link. Thenetwork layer is often a mixed implementation of hardware and software
hat it is very easy to create and deploy our own new application-layer protocols.
Internet Architecture:
The internet architecture, also called TCP/ IP architecture based on its two most famous protocols is shown above. The architecture evolved from experience in implementing ARPANET.
While the 7 layer OSI model can be applied to the Internet (with some imagination), a four layer model is used instead. At the lowest layer is a variety of network protocols (also called data link layer or subnetwork layer). In practice, these protocols are implemented using a combination of hardware (network adapters) and software (network device driver). For example, you might find Ethernet card or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) protocols at this layer.
The second layer consists of a single protocol called Internet Protocol (IP). This is the protocol that supports the interconnection of multiple networking technologies into a single logical internetwork.
The third layer consists of two main protocols---the Transmission Control Protocol and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP and UDP provide alternative logical channels to application programs. TCP provides a bye steam channel and UDP provides an unreliable datagram service. TCP and UDP are sometimes called end to end protocol.
Running above the transport layer are a range of application protocol such as FTP, TFTP, HTTP, SMTP, Telnet, etc.
Difference between application programs and application layer protocol. All the WWW browsers (Safari, Firefox, IE, Opera, Lynx, etc.) There is a similarly large numbers of webservers. The reason all of them can interwork is that they all conform to the HTTP application layer protocol.
Internet architecture does not imply strict layering. The application is free to bypass the defined transport layer protocols and to directly use IP or any of the underlying networks. In fact, programmers are free to define new channel abstractions.
Hour glass shape: Wide at the top and bottom but narrow at the waist: IP serves as the focal point of the architecture. IP is a common method of exchanging packets among a wide collection of networks.
Image source: Jennifer Ruxford
An application-layer protocol is distributed over multiple end systems, with theapplication in one end system using the protocol to exchange packets of informationwith the application in another end system. We’ll refer to this packet of informationat the application layer as a message. Transport LayerThe Internet’s transport layer transports application-layer messages between applicationendpoints. In the Internet, there are two transport protocols, TCP and UDP, either ofwhich can transport application-layer messages. messages to the destination and flow control (that is, sender/receiver speed matching).TCP also breaks long messages into shorter segments and provides a congestion-controlmechanism, so that a source throttles its transmission rate when the network is congested. Network LayerThe Internet’s network layer is responsible for moving network-layer packets knownas datagrams from one host to another. The Internet transport-layer protocol (TCPor UDP) in a source host passes a transport-layer segment and a destination addressto the network layer, just as you would give the postal service a letter with a destination address. The network layer then provides the service of delivering the segmentto the transport layer in the destination host Network LayerThe Internet’s network layer includes the celebrated IP protocol, which definesthe fields in the datagram as well as how the end systems and routers act on thesefields. There is only one IP protocol, and all Internet components that have a networklayer must run the IP protocol. Link LayerThe Internet’s network layer routes a datagram through a series of routers betweenthe source and destination. To move a packet from one node (host or router) to thenext node in the route, the network layer relies on the services of the link layer. Inparticular, at each node, the network layer passes the datagram down to the linklayer, which delivers the datagram to the next node along the route. At this next node,the link layer passes the datagram up to the network layer.The services provided by the link layer depend on the specific link-layer protocolthat is employed over the link. For example, some link-layer protocols provide reliable delivery, from transmitting node, over one link, to receiving node. Note that thisreliable delivery service is different from the reliable delivery service of TCP, whichprovides reliable delivery from one end system to another. Examples of link-layer protocols include Ethernet, WiFi, and the cable access network’s DOCSIS protocol. Asdatagrams typically need to traverse several links to travel from source to destination,a datagram may be handled by different link-layer protocols at different links along itsroute. For example, a datagram may be handled by Ethernet on one link and by PPP on