This document provides an overview of sociological perspectives on religion. It discusses how religion serves important social functions like providing meaning, fostering social cohesion, and establishing social control. Key theorists like Durkheim viewed religion as distinguishing the sacred from the profane and using rituals to transform ordinary things into sacred symbols. The document also summarizes several major world religions like Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and animistic/shamanistic traditions, examining their core beliefs, practices, and global prevalence.

1. Principles of Sociology 19
Religion

2. Basics
• While religious beliefs and practices vary, religion is one of the
basic social institutions [Chapter 4] found in every society –
making religion a cultural universal [Chapter 3].
• Sociologists …
– Ask why religions take a particular form in one society or another.
– Consider how religious activity affects society as a whole.
– Apply the major theoretical approaches to the study of religion just
as they do to any other topic.
• secularization = a social process whereby religion’s influence
on other parts of society diminishes, and largely becomes
privatized, categorized, and individualized.

3. Basics
• Sociology seeks a social scientific perspective on
religion and is of course limited.
– Sociology evaluates religion from a historical and social
viewpoint, and cannot make statements on – for instance
– which religious beliefs are “right” or “wrong,” “true” or
“untrue.”
– These kinds of questions are addressed in disciplines like
theology and philosophy.
• syncretism = an important concept that describes
the mixing together of elements from differing
religions.

4. Durkheim on Religion
• Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) was one of the first social scientists to
recognize and emphasize the critical role of religion in society.
• Durkheim’s definition: “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative
to sacred things which unites in a single moral community all those who
adhere to that system of beliefs and practices” (Elementary Forms of
Religious Life).
• Religions function by distinguishing the sacred from the profane:
– Profane things are those which are viewed as ordinary, common, and
everyday.
– Sacred things are those which are viewed as transcendent; awe-inspiring;
set apart; extraordinary.
– Rituals are those acts/events which transform the profane into the sacred.

5. Durkheim: Rituals Transform Profane
Things into Sacred Things
EXAMPLE:
– Bread and wine are
profane things.
– In the ritual of the
Mass, bread and
wine are
transformed into
the body and blood
of Christ.

6. Religion in General
• Three Elements:
– beliefs
– rituals
– experiences
• Every religion features the following:
 cosmology = every religion has an account of the origin of
all things.
 theodicy = how a religion explains evil and tragedies.
 soteriology = a religion’s end goal for human existence
(‘salvation’; ‘enlightenment’).

7. Religion in General
• Beliefs = statements (theological or ethical) to which
members adhere.
 theism = belief in a deity/deities.
 monotheism = belief in one God (Judaism/Christianity/Islam).
 polytheism = belief in many deities (ancient Egypt).
 ethicalism = emphasis of morality and way of life over deities
(traditional Buddhism; Transcendentalism).
 animism = spirits surround us, inhabiting nature, objects, and
even people.
 pantheism = everything is “God.”

8. Religion in General
• Rituals = practices required/expected of the members.
 Standardized action(s) with some specific goal.
 Collective practices that support and/or renew religious belief.
 Sometimes associated with a particular emotional response.
 Examples:
Dancing
Feasting on holy days
Fasting
Communion
Baptism
Sacrifices
Communal prayers or chants

9. Religion in General
• Experiences = feelings or perceptions of coming into
direct contact with a reality greater than yourself.
 Often involves being overcome with emotion.
 Religious Objects:
Make visible the unseen world.
Provide material equipment to carry out the rituals.
Provide important symbols for the religion.
Examples: altars, robes, water, statues, icons, symbolic items
(cross; Star of David).

10. Religious Classification
• KEY QUESTION: What qualifies as a “religion”?
– If Confucianism, why not Marxism?
– Secularism? Atheism?
– Religion can often be defined either too broadly (every system of thought is a
“religion”), or too narrowly (which leaves some religions out entirely).
• Social scientists have come up with many different classification
systems that try to identify types of religion (see the Church-Sect
Continuum from your textbook on the NEXT SLIDE).
• Unfortunately, sociologists with western assumptions, or with little
religious experience, often make errors in these attempts.
• While it can be difficult to define what qualifies as “religion,”
Durkheim’s definition remains a brilliant outline still in use today: every
religion marks out/categorizes things as “sacred.”

11. Religious Classification
• cult (new religious movements, or NRMs) = a
term capable of various meanings depending on
who you talk to; often considered as an insult
with negative connotations.
 A very loaded term with distinct usages:
• historical = a small group emerging out of a larger religion.
• psychological = a religious group employing questionable
techniques.
• theological = the larger groups label smaller groups that
are considered unorthodox “cults.”

12. Evaluating Religions
• Every world religion contains both essential and
secondary elements, and can be evaluated
accordingly.
• The “Mere” = the essential core elements of a
religion – without these the religion becomes
something else (these do not change in mainstream
versions of the religion).
• The “More” = secondary elements of the religion
that divide various denominations and groups within
the religion (these change throughout history often).

13. Religion in the World
• The vast majority of the world’s population can be described as
“religious” or “spiritual” in some way: atheism and agnosticism
represent a very small percentage of the world population.
• Eastern religions include Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Confucianism.
• So-called “Western” religions (actually, all world religions
began in the East) include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• Much of the rest of the world can be classified as Animistic or
Shamanistic, a religious worldview sharing much in common
with the Eastern religions, western “New Age” practices, and
Wicca.

14. Religion in the World: Hinduism
• Originally, religion in India was manifested in many
regional religions – each with its own temples and
deities, though with many common beliefs (for
example, karma).
• “Hinduism” was the colonial way of describing all of
these regional manifestations with a single label –
and, thus, “Hinduism” became a “world religion.”
• While all religions claim to go back to the very
beginning, Hinduism is the oldest of all religions
when considered in its historical (observable)
organization.

15. Religion in the World: Hinduism
• Hindus believe in an Ultimate Reality (“God”) manifested
in millions of divine beings (“gods” and “goddesses,” each
with their own devotees).
– Some Hindus believe that the Ultimate Reality is a personal
being – they believe in “God with attributes.”
– Many Hindus, however, see God as more of an impersonal
force – they believe in “God without attributes.”
• Unlike western religions, Hinduism features several
writings given the status of “scriptures,” though the
ancient Vedas are seen as the highest (“from the hands of
God”).

16. Hinduism: Hindu temple in El Paso,
meditation, ancient copies of the Vedas,
Hinduism in pop culture, Hindu goddess.

17. Religion in the World: Buddhism
• Buddhism began with Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) and
his teachings (dhamma).
• Traditional Buddhism is agnostic on the question of “God,” but
several forms venerate the Buddha himself (along with other
figures) as worthy of worship and devotion.
• Fosters belief that much of life in this world involves suffering;
worldly things hold back spiritual development.
• The ultimate goal is to transcend this world and stop the cycle
of rebirth (reincarnation) – this is pursued through meditation
seeking the hisghest enlightenment (nirvana).

18. Buddhism: first
Zen Buddhists
in the U.S.,
sumsara,
statues of
Buddha,
syncretism,
Dalai Lama

19. The Teachings of the Buddha
Southern (Theravada) Buddhism
Eastern (Mahayana) Buddhism
Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism
Zen Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism
Nichiren Buddhism

20. Religion in the World: Confucianism
• Concerned with facilitating harmony with the Tao/Dao (the
“law” of the universe).
• Confucianism teaches that the key to such harmonization
comes through community.
• Revives principles of the I Ching: education is crucial and should
lead to “human-heartedness” (ren/jen).
• Basic Scriptures: The Confucian Classics and The Analects (Lun-
yü)
• Four Ethical Elements: love/compassion, justice, restraint, and
wisdom.

21. Confucianism:
Confucius with
followers, Yin-Yang
symbol of the Tao,
Confucian Temple,
Confucian shrine.

22. Religion in the World: Judaism
• Originally, Judaism was a Temple religion with a
priesthood and an elaborate sacrificial system
(described in Leviticus).
• The destruction of the Temple in 70 CE by the
Roman armies caused Judaism to shift to the
synagogue system (a precursor to Christian
churches), which were led by Rabbis.
• Judaism follows a sacred calendar of feasts and
festivals, focuses on Torah (the Law = first five books
of the Bible), practices ritual male circumcision, and
maintains an attachment to Israel.

23. Religion in the World: Judaism
• Basic Worldview:
– There is one God, Yahweh, who created all that exists
perfectly.
– However, the first humans wrecked the creation through sin.
– Sacrifice is required to bring humans back to God.
• Since the Temple was destroyed, no literal sacrifices can
be made – but Jews believe that God understands and
accepts their “sacrifices of the heart.”
• Basic Ethic: love God and love your neighbor.

24. Religion in the World: Judaism
• Jews have often been persecuted, and have been
dispersed all over the world (this is called the
diaspora).
• In the U.S., Judaism has four main denominations:
– Orthodox (very traditional and conservative)
– Conservative (moderate, but expect Rabbi to be strict)
– Reform (moderate)
– Reconstructionist (more liberal)

25. Judaism around the
world: Israel, Japan,
Ethiopia, Europe, and
Mexico.

26. Religion in the World: Christianity
• Originally, Christianity was a sect within Judaism – early
Christians went to the Temple, but did not practice the animal
sacrifices.
• Three factors led to the separation of Christianity from
Judaism: increasing persecution from other Jews, the
evangelization of the Gentiles by the Apostle Paul (Gentiles
began to outnumber Jews in the dearly churches), and the
destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70 CE by the Roman
armies.
• Christianity follows a sacred calendar, and focuses on the Bible
(the Jewish scriptures – renamed “the Old Testament” + the
writings of the Apostles, called “the New Testament”).

27. Religion in the World: Christianity
• Basic Worldview:
– There is one God, Yahweh, who created all that exists
perfectly.
– However, the first humans wrecked the creation through sin.
– Sacrifice is required to bring humans back to God.
– Jesus of Nazareth became the final sacrifice for humanity, and
is now exalted as Lord of everything.
– Individuals become God’s people by faith in the Gospel (“good
news”) about Jesus the Christ.
• Basic Ethic: love God and love your neighbor.

28. Christianity throughout history and
around the world: the Ecumenical
Councils; the Black Church; Martin Luther;
the Coptic Church; Wesley; the Pope.

30. Religion in the World: Islam
• Islam began with Muhammad (570-632 CE), an Arabic
businessman turned prophet who received his first
vision/revelation in 610 CE while fasting on Mount Hira
to seek the “True One” (al-Haqq).
• After his death, Muhammed’s revelations were
recorded in the Qur’ān, the written scriptures of Islam.
• Although developing from a monotheistic (one God)
movement in seventh century Arabic culture, Islam has
become a worldwide religion incorporating a wide
diversity of cultures.

31. Religion in the World: Islam
• Basic Worldview:
– There is one God, Allah, who created all that exists.
– The goal of life is harmony with and service to Allah.
– This is accomplished by sincere devotion to the profession of
faith.
– Islam = peace and submission to God.
– Islam builds on the scriptures of Judaism and Christianity,
acknowledging these other religions as “people of the Book.”
• Basic Ethic: love God and love your neighbor.

33. Islam: The Mere (5 Pillars)
1. Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no God but God and Muhammed is
God’s messenger/Prophet.”
2. Prayer/Worship (Salat): made 5 times daily at designated times.
3. Almsgiving (Zakat): Muslims who are financially capable are obligated to
share with those who are poor.
4. Fasting (Siyam): All adult Muslims who are physically able are to fast
from sun-up to sundown during the month of Ramadan.
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj)
 During a designated time of the year, millions of Muslims from all over the
world make a pilgrimage to Mecca.
 The pilgrimage is obligatory at least once in a Muslim’s life for all who are
physically and financially able.

35. Types of Islam: The More
• Sunni (85%)
– Followers of Abu Bakr.
– Accept the sunnas
– The leader (caliph) should be elected.
• Shiite (15%)
– Followers of Muhammed’s son-in-law, Alī.
– Mainly in Iran and Iraq.
– Shiites believe in a series of 12 infallible guides, Imams, with the
last one currently in hiding waiting to be revealed as a kind of
messiah-figure at the final day.

36. Types of Islam: The More
• Sufism = the interior life of Islam, with Sharī‘a
functioning as the exterior.
– Sufis are Islamic mystics, devoted to experiencing union
with God.
– Some Muslims remain suspicious of the orthodoxy of
Sufis.
– Often, Sufis have been very tolerant of other religions
and are sometimes prone to be pluralistic.
– Practices include: meditation, spiritual disciplines, and
sometimes a monastic lifestyle.

37. Branches of Islam

38. Religion in the World: Animism/Shamanism
• This is a constructed category meant to capture much of the
religious world that does not practice any of the major world
religions just covered.
• Animism, Shamanism, and some other religions (Wicca,
Paganism, Druidism) are very similar in their worldview:
– Belief in a spirit world.
– Belief that the world is permeated by an impersonal spiritual “force”
that can be manipulated through magic.
– Pantheistic in their conception of deity.
• This kind of worldview is very ancient and embraces most of
the indigenous religions around the world: pre-Christian
Europe, Africa, Native American religions, Latin America, Asia.

39. Animistic/Shamanistic
Spirituality: Native American
religion, Wicca, indigenous
South American religion,
Aboriginal religion.

40. Religion in the World
• After accounting for the major world religions and
Animism/Shamanism, there are still many religious people in
the world.
• Some of these people can be categorized in groups that fit
one of the following:
– Spin Off Groups (smaller groups that leave a larger religion): off
Christianity (Jehovah’s Witnesses, LDS); off Islam (Baha’i, Nation of
Islam); off Hinduism (Hare Krishnas).
– Groups that Combine Elements (syncretism creates a new religious
group): Sikhism (Islam and Hinduism), Mind-Science groups
(Hinduism and Christianity).

41. Religion in the World
• There are Two Extremes Today (avoid them both):
– #1: “all religions are basically the same”- NO, they are NOT. To claim that
they are is to ignore the distinctive “mere” essentials of the world’s
religions.
– #2: “religions are so different there can never be any cooperation” – also
NOT TRUE. The world’s religions feature much common ground (EX: all of
them emphasize love of our neighbors).
• The truth is that there are significant differences between
religions, as well as much common ground.
• Each religion contains multiple sub-groups, with most
differences within religions having to do with secondary issues
(the “more”).

42. Theories: Structural-Functionalist
• Three Functions of Religion (Durkheim):
1. Meaning and purpose
2. Social cohesion and a sense of belonging
3. Social control
• civil religion = nationalism – with the society/nation
itself as the ultimate source of meaning – which
utilizes terms and concepts drawn from popular
religion(s) [EX: “God and Country” in the U.S.].
• prophetic function = religion can critique society and
contribute to social change.

44. Theories: Social-Conflict
• Marx: “opiate of the people”
Religion is simply a tool used by the elite to embody
ideologies and facilitate false consciousness.
Religion serves the interests of elite power in
society.
• Weber: the teaching of predestination created
the Protestant work ethic among the Puritans,
and this work ethic – stripped of religious
significance – created modern capitalism.

45. Theories: Symbolic Interactionist
• Focuses on the micro-level aspects of religion, and how
it impacts the everyday lives of people:
– Religion can serve as a reference group that helps people
define themselves (EX: religious symbols can be very powerful
for both groups and individuals).
– Men and women interpret religion differently, a fact which
some theorize has led to the monopolization of religion by
men and the subordination of women as a consequence.
• Religion is viewed as a socially constructed reality that
provides believers with a “cosmic frame of reference”
(Berger).

46. Theories: Rational Choice
• This perspective sees religion as a rational response to
human needs.
• spiritual marketplace = pluralistic societies like the U.S.
feature multiple expressions of religion that continually
compete for members.
– This process has been produced by the democratization of
religion in the U.S. (i.e., the principle of religious freedom
which allows the endless creation of new religious groups and
expressions).
– Driven by individualism, many Americans become religious
consumers.

47. Global Trends in Religion
• Early social scientists were convinced that secularization
represented progress and would continue to displace religion as
the “enlightened” West brought rationalism to the “primitive”
parts of the world.
– Instead, Europe has proven to be the exception – i.e., religion is actually
growing throughout the world. In the U.S., religion co-exists with
secularism.
• Much worldwide growth in Christianity has been the result of
the Charismatic movement [see charts in NEXT SLIDES].
• Increasingly, the global center of Christianity is shifting to the
global South (Africa, Asia, and Latin America) [see charts in
NEXT SLIDES].