Powerpoint on Watson and Rayner's "little Albert" experiment. Includes aim, hypothesis, evaluation, method and procedure, alternative evidence/research and ethical/social/political implications.
Journal ofExperimental PsychologyVOL. I l l , No. i. F.docxpriestmanmable
Journal of
Experimental Psychology
VOL. I l l , No. i. FEBRUARY, 1920
CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL REACTIONS
BY JOHN B. WATSON AND ROSALIE RAYNER
In recent literature various speculations have been entered
into concerning the possibility of conditioning various types
of emotional response, but direct experimental evidence in
support of such a view has been lacking. If the theory
advanced by Watson and Morgan1 to the effect that in
infancy the original emotional reaction patterns are few,
consisting so far as observed of fear, rage and love, then there
must be some simple method by means of which the range of
stimuli which can call out these emotions and their compounds
is greatly increased. Otherwise, complexity in adult response
could not be accounted for. These authors without adequate
experimental evidence advanced the view that this range was
increased by means of conditioned reflex factors. It was
suggested there that the early home life of the child furnishes
a laboratory situation for establishing conditioned emotional
responses. The present authors have recently put the whole
matter to an experimental test.
Experimental work has been done so far on only one child,
Albert B. This infant was reared almost from birth in a
hospital environment; his mother was a wet nurse in the
Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children. Albert's life was
normal: he was healthy from birth and one of the best
developed youngsters ever brought to the hospital, weighing
twenty-one pounds at nine months of age. He was on the
whole stolid and unemotional. His stability was one of the
principal reasons for using him as a subject in this test. We
1 'Emotional Reactions and Psychological Experimentation,' American Journal
of Psychology, April, 1917, Vol. 28, pp. 163-174.
3 JOHN B. WATSON AND ROSALIE RAYNER
felt that we could do him relatively little harm by carrying
out such experiments as those outlined below.
At approximately nine months of age we ran him through
the emotional tests that have become a part of our regular
routine in determining whether fear reactions can be called
out by other stimuli than sharp noises and the sudden removal
of support. Tests of this type have been described by the
senior author in another place.1 In brief, the infant was
confronted suddenly and for the first time successively with
a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, with masks with
and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers, etc. A
permanent record of Albert's reactions to these objects and
situations has been preserved in a motion picture study.
Manipulation was the most usual reaction called out. At
no time did this infant ever show fear in any situation. These
experimental records were confirmed by the casual observa-
tions of the mother and hospital attendants. No one had
ever seen him in a state of fear and rage. The infant prac-
tically never cried.
Up to approximately nine months of age we had not tested
him with loud sounds. The test to determine whether a
...
All things should be looked at from the perspective of behaviour.
And it doesn’t matter what is going on in the mind, it just matters what the behaviour
So there is no difference in the behaviourist mind between external behaviour and internal thoughts.
Ivan Pavlov
Edward Lee Thorndike
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Journal ofExperimental PsychologyVOL. I l l , No. i. F.docxpriestmanmable
Journal of
Experimental Psychology
VOL. I l l , No. i. FEBRUARY, 1920
CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL REACTIONS
BY JOHN B. WATSON AND ROSALIE RAYNER
In recent literature various speculations have been entered
into concerning the possibility of conditioning various types
of emotional response, but direct experimental evidence in
support of such a view has been lacking. If the theory
advanced by Watson and Morgan1 to the effect that in
infancy the original emotional reaction patterns are few,
consisting so far as observed of fear, rage and love, then there
must be some simple method by means of which the range of
stimuli which can call out these emotions and their compounds
is greatly increased. Otherwise, complexity in adult response
could not be accounted for. These authors without adequate
experimental evidence advanced the view that this range was
increased by means of conditioned reflex factors. It was
suggested there that the early home life of the child furnishes
a laboratory situation for establishing conditioned emotional
responses. The present authors have recently put the whole
matter to an experimental test.
Experimental work has been done so far on only one child,
Albert B. This infant was reared almost from birth in a
hospital environment; his mother was a wet nurse in the
Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children. Albert's life was
normal: he was healthy from birth and one of the best
developed youngsters ever brought to the hospital, weighing
twenty-one pounds at nine months of age. He was on the
whole stolid and unemotional. His stability was one of the
principal reasons for using him as a subject in this test. We
1 'Emotional Reactions and Psychological Experimentation,' American Journal
of Psychology, April, 1917, Vol. 28, pp. 163-174.
3 JOHN B. WATSON AND ROSALIE RAYNER
felt that we could do him relatively little harm by carrying
out such experiments as those outlined below.
At approximately nine months of age we ran him through
the emotional tests that have become a part of our regular
routine in determining whether fear reactions can be called
out by other stimuli than sharp noises and the sudden removal
of support. Tests of this type have been described by the
senior author in another place.1 In brief, the infant was
confronted suddenly and for the first time successively with
a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, with masks with
and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers, etc. A
permanent record of Albert's reactions to these objects and
situations has been preserved in a motion picture study.
Manipulation was the most usual reaction called out. At
no time did this infant ever show fear in any situation. These
experimental records were confirmed by the casual observa-
tions of the mother and hospital attendants. No one had
ever seen him in a state of fear and rage. The infant prac-
tically never cried.
Up to approximately nine months of age we had not tested
him with loud sounds. The test to determine whether a
...
All things should be looked at from the perspective of behaviour.
And it doesn’t matter what is going on in the mind, it just matters what the behaviour
So there is no difference in the behaviourist mind between external behaviour and internal thoughts.
Ivan Pavlov
Edward Lee Thorndike
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Under conditioned learning, Little Albert's experiment is popular as experiment performed on human being. The power point presentation provides brief introduction on the Little Albert's Experiment and similar other experinces
Social Media Marketing MKT 3045The Pepsi Refresh Project A Th.docxwhitneyleman54422
Social Media Marketing MKT 3045
The Pepsi Refresh Project: A Thirst For Change
In 2010, for the first time in 23 years, PepsiCo did not invest in Superbowl advertising for its iconic brand. Instead, the company diverted this $20 million to the social media-fueled Pepsi Refresh Project: PepsiCo's innovative cause-marketing program in which consumers submitted ideas for grants for health, environmental, social, educational, and cultural causes. Consumers voted for their favorite ideas, and PepsiCo funded the winners with grants ranging from $5,000 to $250,000. The case highlights the benefits and risks of traditional branding and social media branding, including a discussion of how the Pepsi Refresh Project fits with Pepsi's previous brand positioning. The case discussion focuses on how the brand team should evaluate the initiative's return on investment (from sales to social media engagement), whether they should continue the initiative for 2011, and whether Pepsi is the right brand for this kind of initiative.
The Pepsi Refresh Project case shows how a social mission branding strategy using social/digital/mobile/video media can build brand meaning, and connect the target audience to the brand, by using dialogues with consumers at various levels. Essentially, Pepsi decided to “open up” their brand using consumer involvement through social/digital/mobile/video marketing media while decreasing their spending in traditional media. Answer all of the questions and be sure to include insight on the Technographics Ladder provided for question #2.
1. Overall, was the Pepsi Refresh Project a right fit for the trademark Pepsi brands, and in your opinion, did it build or detract from their brand equity?
2. Based on Pepsi’s target audience selection for social media, describe the brand fan category and social Technographics profile (noted below in graphic) used for this project? What groups did the Pepsi Refresh Project attract and learn about from their Refresh campaign?
3. Did the Pepsi Refresh Project’s social mission change consumer behavior in the soda category with Pepsi’s existing and prospective customers?
4. Is Pepsi the right brand for a cause marketing program like the Pepsi Refresh Project? Why or Why not?
Conditioned Emotional Reactions
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner
i n recent literature various speculations have been en-tered into concerning the possibility of conditioningvarious types of emotional response, but direct exper-
imental evidence in support of such a view has been lack-
ing. If the theory advanced by Watson and Morgan ("Emo-
tional Reactions and Psychological Experimentation,"
American Journal of Psychology, April, 1917, Vol. 28, pp.
163-174) to the effect that in infancy the original emotional
reaction patterns are few, consisting so far as observed of
fear, rage and love, then there must be some simple method
by means of which the range of stimuli which can call out
these emotions and their compounds is greatly i.
Pavlovian Applications
Chapter 4
*
Fear
The first person to study human emotions systematically was John B. Watson:
Fear as faulty reasoning or instinctual reaction
Fear and other emotions elicited by few stimuli
Conditioned emotional responses and Pavlovian conditioning
*
Because classical conditioning involves simple reflexive behavior, people dismiss it as unimportant or as historical interest. However, Pavlovian research has contributed immensely to the understanding of many human problems. This chapter will introduce the class to the application of classical conditioning in “reality.”
Fear – The first person to study human emotions systematically was John B. Watson. Before Watson, if was assumed that fear was caused by faulty reasoning or an instinctual reaction, such as being innately afraid of fire. Watson found that few stimuli aroused fear or other strong emotional reactions.
However, when objects were paired with emotionally arousing situations, emotional responses were easily invoked. This suggests that emotional responses are learned through Pavlovian conditioning. Watson called these emotional responses conditioned emotional responses. We now know that emotional reactions are learned using Pavlovian conditioning. Watson discovered this and his work has vastly improved our understanding and treatment of emotional disorders, particularly phobias.
Phobias
A phobia is a persistent, irrational, and disruptive fears of a specific object, activity, or situation. It is neither justified nor based in reality.
One of the most common behavior problem is phobia.
Out of 1000 people surveyed, 198 were afraid of the dentist and 390 were afraid of snakes.
People who experience phobia are aware that the fear is irrational and want to overcome the problem.
Rats, fear, and conditioned suppression.
*
Conditioned Suppression – Reduction of the rate of an ongoing behavior due to exposure to an aversive CS. This is a convenient way to measure fear: the greater the reduction in a CR, the more there is evidence of fear. This is a way to define and measure fear objectively and systematically. For example, if a rat presses a lever at a steady rate for food and then a light is conditioned to signal oncoming shock, the mere presence of the light reduces lever pressing. The faster the reduction, likely the higher the fear in the rat.
Conditioned Fear and Albert
Watson and Rayner (1920) began studying fear by testing infant reactions to specific stimuli thought to be innately fear provoking:
Potentially innately fearful stimuli did not elicit fear.
Loud noises were an effective US for fear responses.
Watson and Rayner (1920) decided to use Pavlovian conditioning to establish fear in 11 month-old Albert.
*
Stimuli included cats, dogs, fire, etc.
This suggests that, to survive, fear reactions must be learned, and likely are not genetically encoded. A good, unable to be answered, question is if fear is not genetic and is learned, are p.
Ethical Considerations in ResearchChoose one of the unethica.docxtheodorelove43763
Ethical Considerations in Research
Choose one of the unethical experiments discussed in Chapter 7 of your textbook. Analyze the ethical aspects relevant to the study. Be sure to address the following in your main post:
What did the study entail?
What were the ethical issues involved?
Who was harmed in the research study?
Which of the APA Ethical Standards are most relevant to the ethical issues involved?
How might you improve upon the research design to reduce the ethical issues involved?
Ethical Considerations in Research
In 1920, John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted a study that came to be known as the
Little Albert
study (Bordens & Abbott, 2018). This study was arguably one of the most unethical studies of its time. Little Albert was removed from the study by his mother and Albert was never deprogrammed by Watson and Rayner.
The Study
The study set out to determine if emotional responses could be learned (Bordens & Abbot, 2018). They took an eleven-month-old boy, whom they called Albert, and presented him with a small white stuffed rat and other furry objects which he seemed to enjoy. Then they began presenting Albert with the objects and at the same time banged a pipe and hammer together behind the boy to startle him. The noise made the baby cry and scared him. Once conditioned, they presented the objects without the noise and still got a cry response and fear.
Ethical Issues Involved
According to Bordens & Abbott (2018), no one knows if they got consent from the baby’s mother. The child was removed from the study abruptly when the mother moved away from the area and was not given any treatment to reverse the conditioning. There is also the issue of doing no harm to a research subject.
Who Was Harmed?
Little Albert was the main victim in the study. He had been traumatized and not treated to reverse the effects. The baby’s mother was also a victim. she had to deal with the repercussions of the trauma inflicted on the baby.
The APA Ethical Issues
The American Psychological Association (APA) was founded in 1892 but did not publish a code of ethical practice until 1953 (APA, 2020). We can then only judge the study against the current code of ethics as published in 2003. According to the current code of ethics, there were two areas of concern in the
Little Albert Study
. First, 8.02 informed consent, there appears to be no informed consent, nor does it appear that the baby’s mother was informed about what they were going to do to the baby. Second, 8.08(C) Debriefing, Watson & Rayner did not take the necessary steps to care for and treat the harm that they had inflicted on the baby.
Improving the Study
The first improvement that comes to mind would be to use a positive emotion instead of a fear response. For example, find a stimulation that makes the baby laugh, introduce the object each time you make the baby laugh and then introduce the object to see if the.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Under conditioned learning, Little Albert's experiment is popular as experiment performed on human being. The power point presentation provides brief introduction on the Little Albert's Experiment and similar other experinces
Social Media Marketing MKT 3045The Pepsi Refresh Project A Th.docxwhitneyleman54422
Social Media Marketing MKT 3045
The Pepsi Refresh Project: A Thirst For Change
In 2010, for the first time in 23 years, PepsiCo did not invest in Superbowl advertising for its iconic brand. Instead, the company diverted this $20 million to the social media-fueled Pepsi Refresh Project: PepsiCo's innovative cause-marketing program in which consumers submitted ideas for grants for health, environmental, social, educational, and cultural causes. Consumers voted for their favorite ideas, and PepsiCo funded the winners with grants ranging from $5,000 to $250,000. The case highlights the benefits and risks of traditional branding and social media branding, including a discussion of how the Pepsi Refresh Project fits with Pepsi's previous brand positioning. The case discussion focuses on how the brand team should evaluate the initiative's return on investment (from sales to social media engagement), whether they should continue the initiative for 2011, and whether Pepsi is the right brand for this kind of initiative.
The Pepsi Refresh Project case shows how a social mission branding strategy using social/digital/mobile/video media can build brand meaning, and connect the target audience to the brand, by using dialogues with consumers at various levels. Essentially, Pepsi decided to “open up” their brand using consumer involvement through social/digital/mobile/video marketing media while decreasing their spending in traditional media. Answer all of the questions and be sure to include insight on the Technographics Ladder provided for question #2.
1. Overall, was the Pepsi Refresh Project a right fit for the trademark Pepsi brands, and in your opinion, did it build or detract from their brand equity?
2. Based on Pepsi’s target audience selection for social media, describe the brand fan category and social Technographics profile (noted below in graphic) used for this project? What groups did the Pepsi Refresh Project attract and learn about from their Refresh campaign?
3. Did the Pepsi Refresh Project’s social mission change consumer behavior in the soda category with Pepsi’s existing and prospective customers?
4. Is Pepsi the right brand for a cause marketing program like the Pepsi Refresh Project? Why or Why not?
Conditioned Emotional Reactions
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner
i n recent literature various speculations have been en-tered into concerning the possibility of conditioningvarious types of emotional response, but direct exper-
imental evidence in support of such a view has been lack-
ing. If the theory advanced by Watson and Morgan ("Emo-
tional Reactions and Psychological Experimentation,"
American Journal of Psychology, April, 1917, Vol. 28, pp.
163-174) to the effect that in infancy the original emotional
reaction patterns are few, consisting so far as observed of
fear, rage and love, then there must be some simple method
by means of which the range of stimuli which can call out
these emotions and their compounds is greatly i.
Pavlovian Applications
Chapter 4
*
Fear
The first person to study human emotions systematically was John B. Watson:
Fear as faulty reasoning or instinctual reaction
Fear and other emotions elicited by few stimuli
Conditioned emotional responses and Pavlovian conditioning
*
Because classical conditioning involves simple reflexive behavior, people dismiss it as unimportant or as historical interest. However, Pavlovian research has contributed immensely to the understanding of many human problems. This chapter will introduce the class to the application of classical conditioning in “reality.”
Fear – The first person to study human emotions systematically was John B. Watson. Before Watson, if was assumed that fear was caused by faulty reasoning or an instinctual reaction, such as being innately afraid of fire. Watson found that few stimuli aroused fear or other strong emotional reactions.
However, when objects were paired with emotionally arousing situations, emotional responses were easily invoked. This suggests that emotional responses are learned through Pavlovian conditioning. Watson called these emotional responses conditioned emotional responses. We now know that emotional reactions are learned using Pavlovian conditioning. Watson discovered this and his work has vastly improved our understanding and treatment of emotional disorders, particularly phobias.
Phobias
A phobia is a persistent, irrational, and disruptive fears of a specific object, activity, or situation. It is neither justified nor based in reality.
One of the most common behavior problem is phobia.
Out of 1000 people surveyed, 198 were afraid of the dentist and 390 were afraid of snakes.
People who experience phobia are aware that the fear is irrational and want to overcome the problem.
Rats, fear, and conditioned suppression.
*
Conditioned Suppression – Reduction of the rate of an ongoing behavior due to exposure to an aversive CS. This is a convenient way to measure fear: the greater the reduction in a CR, the more there is evidence of fear. This is a way to define and measure fear objectively and systematically. For example, if a rat presses a lever at a steady rate for food and then a light is conditioned to signal oncoming shock, the mere presence of the light reduces lever pressing. The faster the reduction, likely the higher the fear in the rat.
Conditioned Fear and Albert
Watson and Rayner (1920) began studying fear by testing infant reactions to specific stimuli thought to be innately fear provoking:
Potentially innately fearful stimuli did not elicit fear.
Loud noises were an effective US for fear responses.
Watson and Rayner (1920) decided to use Pavlovian conditioning to establish fear in 11 month-old Albert.
*
Stimuli included cats, dogs, fire, etc.
This suggests that, to survive, fear reactions must be learned, and likely are not genetically encoded. A good, unable to be answered, question is if fear is not genetic and is learned, are p.
Ethical Considerations in ResearchChoose one of the unethica.docxtheodorelove43763
Ethical Considerations in Research
Choose one of the unethical experiments discussed in Chapter 7 of your textbook. Analyze the ethical aspects relevant to the study. Be sure to address the following in your main post:
What did the study entail?
What were the ethical issues involved?
Who was harmed in the research study?
Which of the APA Ethical Standards are most relevant to the ethical issues involved?
How might you improve upon the research design to reduce the ethical issues involved?
Ethical Considerations in Research
In 1920, John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted a study that came to be known as the
Little Albert
study (Bordens & Abbott, 2018). This study was arguably one of the most unethical studies of its time. Little Albert was removed from the study by his mother and Albert was never deprogrammed by Watson and Rayner.
The Study
The study set out to determine if emotional responses could be learned (Bordens & Abbot, 2018). They took an eleven-month-old boy, whom they called Albert, and presented him with a small white stuffed rat and other furry objects which he seemed to enjoy. Then they began presenting Albert with the objects and at the same time banged a pipe and hammer together behind the boy to startle him. The noise made the baby cry and scared him. Once conditioned, they presented the objects without the noise and still got a cry response and fear.
Ethical Issues Involved
According to Bordens & Abbott (2018), no one knows if they got consent from the baby’s mother. The child was removed from the study abruptly when the mother moved away from the area and was not given any treatment to reverse the conditioning. There is also the issue of doing no harm to a research subject.
Who Was Harmed?
Little Albert was the main victim in the study. He had been traumatized and not treated to reverse the effects. The baby’s mother was also a victim. she had to deal with the repercussions of the trauma inflicted on the baby.
The APA Ethical Issues
The American Psychological Association (APA) was founded in 1892 but did not publish a code of ethical practice until 1953 (APA, 2020). We can then only judge the study against the current code of ethics as published in 2003. According to the current code of ethics, there were two areas of concern in the
Little Albert Study
. First, 8.02 informed consent, there appears to be no informed consent, nor does it appear that the baby’s mother was informed about what they were going to do to the baby. Second, 8.08(C) Debriefing, Watson & Rayner did not take the necessary steps to care for and treat the harm that they had inflicted on the baby.
Improving the Study
The first improvement that comes to mind would be to use a positive emotion instead of a fear response. For example, find a stimulation that makes the baby laugh, introduce the object each time you make the baby laugh and then introduce the object to see if the.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
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The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
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The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
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2. Method &
Procedure
Methodology:
There was one participant, 'Little Albert', but
was referred to as 'Albert B' in the study. He
was a normal male who was around 9 months
old when the study started.
It is deemed as a controlled observation
because it only has one condition and no IV or
DV. It is also seen as a controlled observation
because it took place in a 'lab', or well-lit room
with the main procedure taking place on a
mattress-covered table.
3. Method & Procedure
Procedures with individual conclusions:
1. Emotional tests
Albert was exposed to multiple objects (white rat, rabbit, dog, cotton wool, monkey, mask with and without hair and burning
newspapers) along with the sound of a hammer hitting a metal bar to try and see any emotional reactions.
Conclusion: He showed no fear from the objects but did show some fear to hammer and bar.
2. Establishing a conditioned emotional response
The emotional reactions were tested again with the objects. When Albert was presented with the rat, the bar was hit with the
hammer, this happened two times.
Conclusion: Albert fell forwards the first and second time, with him whimpering the second time. He showed fear.
3. Testing the conditioned emotional response
Albert was tested a week later with the rat, individually without the hammer sound. He was then presented with some building
blocks to play with, showing no fear. Then, the rat and hammer sound were together 5 times.
Conclusion: Without the sound, Albert was a little bit afraid of the rat. With the sound, he showed fear and became distressed.
4. Method & procedure
Procedure and individual conclusions pt.2
3. Generalisation
After 5 days, Albert was bought back to the lab and presented with the multiple, furry, objects again.
Conclusions: He showed a lot of fear to: rat, rabbit, dog and fur coat. He showed caution to: cotton wool. He showed no fear to:
Watson's hair and building blocks.
4. Changing the environment
Another 5 days later, Albert was shown the white rat and hammer sound again to "freshen up" his reaction. He was then taken to
a new environment – a well-lit lecture room, with 4 people present. His responses were tested again here.
Conclusions: He showed less extreme reactions before being "freshened up". Afterwards, the responses were stronger. He didn’t
show any fear towards the building blocks.
5. The effect of time
A month later, Albert was bought back to the lab for final testing.
Conclusions: He showed a fear reaction to the furry objects, but it was less extreme and he cried occasionally.
5. Findings and
conclusion
Findings – Albert often sucked his thumb when he was
scared. This resulted in the fear reaction going away.
Overall Conclusions:
Watson was successful in the attempt to condition a
fear reaction into a child
Watson & Rayner suggest that "it is probable" that
many phobias are acquired in this way
Watson also argued that these phobias would only be
found in persons who are "constitutionally inferior".
Learned (conditioned) responses generalise to similar
stimuli.
6. Evaluating the method and procedure
There were high levels of control throughout because the study took place in a
controlled environment thus extraneous variables could be accounted for.
A baseline condition was completed to show that Albert was not a fearful child.
There was a control condition (building blocks) to show that the fearful reactions were
only from the furry objects.
The study was filmed so that the findings could be confirmed by other people
7. Evaluating the method and procedure
It lacks ecological validity so results may not be able to be generalised into real life
There was only one participant, Albert B
Lack of comparison can be made because only Albert was used in the study
Albert's thumb was forcibly removed from the mouth so results could actually be from
frustration of the removal of the thumb and not from the furry things
The results may have varied if it was another child used in the experiment due to Albert
growing up in a hospital
8. Alternative evidence
O H Mowrer (1947) - Two-process theory
Suggested that operant condition could explain the maintenance of phobias that were
formed from classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning: explains how phobias are acquired
Operant conditioning: explains how phobias are maintained
Öst (1987)
Said that not all phobias are preceded by a conditioning episode – though it is possible
that such traumatic incidents did happen, but have since been forgotten
Di Nardo et al (1988)
Some people who have experienced a traumatic event, such as being bitten by a cat or
a dog, do not develop a phobia
9. Alternative evidence
Martin Seligman (1970) - Biological Preparedness
He argued that animals, including humans are programmed, genetically, to rapidly
learn an association between certain stimuli and fear.
The stimuli are referred to as 'ancient fears' and are things that would have been
dangerous in the humans evolutionary past. Therefore it is adaptive to rapidly learn to
avoid these stimuli.
10. Ethical and social implications
Psychological harm and distress – Watson and Rayner caused fear and distress in
Albert B throughout the study, making it very unethical.
Informed consent – Albert's mother should have been informed of all of the procedures
and the anticipated long-term consequences from the study. Also, there was a general
lack of informed consent from Albert himself as he was a baby and was not able to fully
understand.
Right to withdraw – Albert was too young to be able to know how to actually withdraw
from the study so he was unable to do so
11. Ethical and social implications
Social implications
The study has helped to advance science in terms of conditioning and how it works.
The research from the study has demonstrated how phobias can be learnt through
classical conditioning, therefore, it could possibly be incorporated into treatments for
this type of behaviour.