The document discusses UV-visible spectroscopy. It provides an overview of the principles of spectroscopy and how electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter to cause electronic, vibrational and rotational transitions between energy levels. It describes different types of spectroscopy including absorption and emission spectroscopy. It explains key terms used in UV-visible spectroscopy like chromophores, auxochromes and different types of electronic transitions that can occur.
Gerenciamento de riscos é o processo de planejar, organizar, dirigir e controlar os recursos humanos e materiais de uma organização, no sentido de minimizar ou aproveitar os riscos e incertezas sobre essa organização.
Incertezas representam riscos e oportunidades, com potencial para destruir ou agregar valor. O gerenciamento de riscos corporativos possibilita aos administradores tratar com eficácia as incertezas, bem como os riscos e as oportunidades a elas associadas, a fim de melhorar a capacidade de gerar valor.
Entenda o conceito e como funciona!
Présentation des conclusions du mémoire de fin d'études mené en binôme.
Problématique : "Le recours à la symbolique de l'héroïsme par le marketing d'influence : quels leviers pour quelles applications ?"
Note écrit : 16
Note orale : 17
My Session on Quantum Computing at Geeky Night Coimbatore at ThoughtWorks Campus. This material covers the fundamentals of Quantum Computing and Emerging Concepts and Platforms related to Quantum Computing. It also touches upon how Quantum Computing influences the world of Blockchain. It covers emerging paradigms such as Topological Quantum Computing and Holonomic Quantum Computing.
Weight loss surgery/ Bariatric surgery is a very exciting field which has revolutionized the process of weight loss. It has not only given new lease of life to the patients who are severely obese but has also helped tremendously in controlling type-2 diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, infertility and obstructive sleep apnea. [www.delhiobesityclinic.com/weight-loss-surgery-in-delhi/]
O WebPesados é primeiro e maior marketplace de veículos e equipamentos pesados da América Latina. Através do Leilão, Feirão e Classificados, tanto os vendedores quanto os compradores negociam máquinas e veículos pesados com segurança e transparência.
Gerenciamento de riscos é o processo de planejar, organizar, dirigir e controlar os recursos humanos e materiais de uma organização, no sentido de minimizar ou aproveitar os riscos e incertezas sobre essa organização.
Incertezas representam riscos e oportunidades, com potencial para destruir ou agregar valor. O gerenciamento de riscos corporativos possibilita aos administradores tratar com eficácia as incertezas, bem como os riscos e as oportunidades a elas associadas, a fim de melhorar a capacidade de gerar valor.
Entenda o conceito e como funciona!
Présentation des conclusions du mémoire de fin d'études mené en binôme.
Problématique : "Le recours à la symbolique de l'héroïsme par le marketing d'influence : quels leviers pour quelles applications ?"
Note écrit : 16
Note orale : 17
My Session on Quantum Computing at Geeky Night Coimbatore at ThoughtWorks Campus. This material covers the fundamentals of Quantum Computing and Emerging Concepts and Platforms related to Quantum Computing. It also touches upon how Quantum Computing influences the world of Blockchain. It covers emerging paradigms such as Topological Quantum Computing and Holonomic Quantum Computing.
Weight loss surgery/ Bariatric surgery is a very exciting field which has revolutionized the process of weight loss. It has not only given new lease of life to the patients who are severely obese but has also helped tremendously in controlling type-2 diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, infertility and obstructive sleep apnea. [www.delhiobesityclinic.com/weight-loss-surgery-in-delhi/]
O WebPesados é primeiro e maior marketplace de veículos e equipamentos pesados da América Latina. Através do Leilão, Feirão e Classificados, tanto os vendedores quanto os compradores negociam máquinas e veículos pesados com segurança e transparência.
Set against a backdrop of the majestic Dhauladhar Range and perched on the upper reaches of the Kangra Valley, Dharamshala beckons many tourists from all over. It is also renowned the world over as the home of His Holiness the Dalai Lama and the peaceful Tibetan community. Despite the flourishing Tibetan culture, one can still see the charming remnants of the British colonial lifestyle.
We talk a lot about how communication has changed from the Mad Men era until today’s digitally driven consumer interaction. But what’s next for the advertising industry that many of us love (and a lot of us love to hate)?
Overview of temples
The name Khajuraho is derived from its Sanskrit nomenclature ‘Kharjuravahaka’ which is the confluence of two Sanskrit words ‘Kharjur’ meaning date palm and ‘Vahaka’ meaning bearer. There are about 25 temples spread over an area of approximately 6 square Km. The temples are grouped into three categories depending on their orientation – the Western Group of Temples, the Eastern Group of Temples and the Southern Group of Temples. These temples are dedicated to several Hindu Gods and Goddesses along with deities in Jain beliefs. Among the temples that are standing till now, 6 are dedicated to Lord Shiva, 8 to Lord Vishnu, 1 each to Lord Ganesha and the Sun God, while 3 are dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras. The largest of the temples is the Kandariya Mahadeo Temple that is dedicated to the glory of lord Shiva. It makes Khajuraho one of the four holy sites dedicated to the glory of Lord Shiva, the other three being Gaya, Kashi and Kedarnath.
An introduction to Ionic, the use of Angular and Cordova to develop fast and beautiful hybrid mobile web applications. Presentation given by Sjors de Wildt at CM Telecom.
Most developers are familiar with the basics of AI: how do you make a computer, an algorithm, a system learn something? What most don't realize though is that the same principles are applied to people.
This talk looks at the theory behind how people learn, and maps it to real life examples of how specifically developers learn.
MELLIZOS DE PADRES DIFERENTES - MEDICINA CLARA VIH Y SIDA TODO LO QUE NECESIT...Alfredo Moscoso
MELLIZOS DE PADRES DIFERENTES - MEDICINA CLARA VIH Y SIDA TODO LO QUE NECESITA SABER - SIDA 92 – 95 / ELISA/ inmunotransferencia para VIH - MARÍA MEJÍA - MARÍA CAROLINA DEL REAL
Spacebrew Goes MAD: Connecting an LED StripJulio Terra
This is the presentation from the Spacebrew workshop that we held at the Museum of Art and Design on May 11th. It gives an overview of Spacebrew, and walks through the tutorial for hooking up an LED strip to Spacebrew.
Spacebrew MADess: Running Your Own ServerJulio Terra
This is the presentation from the Spacebrew workshop that we held at the Museum of Art and Design on June 1st. It gives an overview of Spacebrew, and walks through how to run your own local instance of the Spacebrew server.
This is a non-engineer's experience in making an automated cat feeder using an Arduino with Built-in Wifi called a WiDo. The point was to encourage participants to join a Internet of Things Maker Community called JumpSparc
Set against a backdrop of the majestic Dhauladhar Range and perched on the upper reaches of the Kangra Valley, Dharamshala beckons many tourists from all over. It is also renowned the world over as the home of His Holiness the Dalai Lama and the peaceful Tibetan community. Despite the flourishing Tibetan culture, one can still see the charming remnants of the British colonial lifestyle.
We talk a lot about how communication has changed from the Mad Men era until today’s digitally driven consumer interaction. But what’s next for the advertising industry that many of us love (and a lot of us love to hate)?
Overview of temples
The name Khajuraho is derived from its Sanskrit nomenclature ‘Kharjuravahaka’ which is the confluence of two Sanskrit words ‘Kharjur’ meaning date palm and ‘Vahaka’ meaning bearer. There are about 25 temples spread over an area of approximately 6 square Km. The temples are grouped into three categories depending on their orientation – the Western Group of Temples, the Eastern Group of Temples and the Southern Group of Temples. These temples are dedicated to several Hindu Gods and Goddesses along with deities in Jain beliefs. Among the temples that are standing till now, 6 are dedicated to Lord Shiva, 8 to Lord Vishnu, 1 each to Lord Ganesha and the Sun God, while 3 are dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras. The largest of the temples is the Kandariya Mahadeo Temple that is dedicated to the glory of lord Shiva. It makes Khajuraho one of the four holy sites dedicated to the glory of Lord Shiva, the other three being Gaya, Kashi and Kedarnath.
An introduction to Ionic, the use of Angular and Cordova to develop fast and beautiful hybrid mobile web applications. Presentation given by Sjors de Wildt at CM Telecom.
Most developers are familiar with the basics of AI: how do you make a computer, an algorithm, a system learn something? What most don't realize though is that the same principles are applied to people.
This talk looks at the theory behind how people learn, and maps it to real life examples of how specifically developers learn.
MELLIZOS DE PADRES DIFERENTES - MEDICINA CLARA VIH Y SIDA TODO LO QUE NECESIT...Alfredo Moscoso
MELLIZOS DE PADRES DIFERENTES - MEDICINA CLARA VIH Y SIDA TODO LO QUE NECESITA SABER - SIDA 92 – 95 / ELISA/ inmunotransferencia para VIH - MARÍA MEJÍA - MARÍA CAROLINA DEL REAL
Spacebrew Goes MAD: Connecting an LED StripJulio Terra
This is the presentation from the Spacebrew workshop that we held at the Museum of Art and Design on May 11th. It gives an overview of Spacebrew, and walks through the tutorial for hooking up an LED strip to Spacebrew.
Spacebrew MADess: Running Your Own ServerJulio Terra
This is the presentation from the Spacebrew workshop that we held at the Museum of Art and Design on June 1st. It gives an overview of Spacebrew, and walks through how to run your own local instance of the Spacebrew server.
This is a non-engineer's experience in making an automated cat feeder using an Arduino with Built-in Wifi called a WiDo. The point was to encourage participants to join a Internet of Things Maker Community called JumpSparc
Lessons from the Trenches: Monitoring your OpenStack Cloud Platform9
One of the most important tasks that a cloud operator needs to focus on, after deployment, is effective monitoring. But what are the best tools to use and what metrics should be tracked to ensure a healthy OpenStack cloud? In this webinar, Platform9's engineering team talks about how Platform9 monitor our customers’ clouds and the lessons learned from being in the trenches of deploying OpenStack in production.
Focus areas covered during this webinar:
1. State of the union on OpenStack monitoring
2. Tools we use for monitoring: Server Density, Slack, VictorOps and PaperTrail
3. Lessons learned on how and what to monitor
Simone Puorto. 2024 Odissea nel Travel Il Ruolo della GenAI nell’Universo Tur...Simone Puorto
La discussione inizia con un'attenta esplorazione del ruolo della GenAI nel fornire raccomandazioni di viaggio iper-personalizzate, adattando gli itinerari per corrispondere alle preferenze individuali e ai modelli di dati storici. Inoltre, si addentra nella competenza della GenAI nel superare le barriere linguistiche, offrendo servizi di traduzione in tempo reale che migliorano la comunicazione e l'immersione culturale per i viaggiatori internazionali. Lo speech prosegue svelando il settore emergente delle esperienze di turismo virtuale, potenziate dalla GenAI, che permettono ai turisti di esplorare destinazioni attraverso simulazioni vivide prima delle loro visite effettive. Questo segmento sottolinea il potenziale di queste tecnologie di democratizzare il viaggio e offrire alternative sostenibili al turismo tradizionale. Inoltre, la presentazione evidenzia come la determinazione dinamica dei prezzi guidata dalla GenAI possa ottimizzare la redditività per i fornitori di servizi assicurando al contempo costi competitivi ed equi per i consumatori. Nel dominio del customer care, la presentazione dettaglia i modi in cui la GenAI può fornire un supporto superiore, disponibile 24 ore su 24, rispondendo alle richieste con un'efficienza e una precisione senza pari. Il relatore discuterà anche delle implicazioni di questi avanzamenti per l'occupazione e le competenze richieste nel panorama turistico in evoluzione. Lo speech mira a fornire una visione equilibrata, considerando non solo le opportunità, ma anche le considerazioni etiche e le sfide poste dall'integrazione della GenAI nel turismo, in un futuro in cui la GenAI agisce come catalizzatore per creare esperienze di viaggio più inclusive, personalizzate e sostenibili, rivoluzionando l'industria in modi che stiamo solo iniziando a comprendere.
Radical Co-Creation - How to Collaborate for Groundbreaking InnovationVille Tikka
We looked at the principles of engaging into radical co-creation, which allows us to collaborate for groundbreaking innovation. This is the presentation for the PDMA Social Product Development and Co-Creation Conference in Phoenix, Arizona on June 27-28, 2011.
Native VS HTML5 - Ionic App Development | CM TelecomCM.com
Ionic is an HTML5 mobile app development framework targeted at building hybrid mobile apps. Hybrid apps are essentially small websites running in a browser shell in an app that have access to the native platform layer. Hybrid apps have many benefits over pure native apps, specifically in terms of platform support, speed of development, and access to 3rd party code.
Think of Ionic as the front-end UI framework that handles all of the look and feel and UI interactions your app needs in order to be compelling. Kind of like “Bootstrap for Native,” but with support for a broad range of common native mobile components, slick animations, and beautiful design.
Unlike a responsive framework, Ionic comes with very native-styled mobile UI elements and layouts that you’d get with a native SDK on iOS or Android but didn’t really exist before on the web. Ionic also gives you some opinionated but powerful ways to build mobile applications that eclipse existing HTML5 development frameworks.
Since Ionic is an HTML5 framework, it needs a native wrapper like Cordova or PhoneGap in order to run as a native app.
De nieuwe meldertester van DetectorTesters is vanaf januari 2024 verkrijgbaar bij SenseTek de #XTR2 is sneller effectiever en werkt in de cloud om de gebruiker beter te assisteren bij het testen van de puntmelders. De XTR2 staat momenteel naast de Testifire 1001 maar deze zal op termijn geheel vervangen worden door de XTR2. de Testifire 2000 welke de mogelijkheid heeft om ook CO te testen zal blijven bestaan. De XTR2 is puur rook en thermisch uitgevoerd. Heeft u vragen over de werking of de mogelijkheden van deze nieuwe testunit van DectorTesters neemt u dan vrijblijvend contact op met SenseTek Fire & Security Solutions in Amsterdam via telefoonnummer 0020-6131611 of kijk even op de website naar www.sensetek.nl
The history and evolution of loyalty programsLoyela
All businesses want to retain their most loyal customers who will return in the future for more purchase. They created loyalty programs to nurture and attract loyal customers. The earliest known commercial loyalty program appeared as early as the 18th century. Today of course they are commonplace and an integral part of many businesses’ strategy.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2. S P E C T R O S C O P Y: -
S P E C T R O S C O P Y I S T H E B R A N C H O F S C I E N C E D E A L I N G T H E
S T U D Y O F I N T E R A C T I O N O F E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C R A D I A T I O N W I T H M A T T E R
.
O R
I T I S T H E M E A S U R E M E N T O F E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C R A D I A T I O N ( E M R )
A B S O R B E D O R E M I T T E D W H E N M O L E C U L E O R I O N S O R A T O M S O F A
S A M P L E M O V E F R O M O N E E N E R G Y S T A T E T O A N O T H E R E N E R G Y S T A T E .
S P E C T R O S C O P Y I S T H E M O S T P O W E R F U L T O O L A V A I L A B L E F O R T H E S T U D Y
O F A T O M I C & M O L E C U L A R S T R U C T U R E A N D I S U S E D I N T H E A N A L Y S I S O F A
W I D E R A N G E O F S A M P L E .
INTRODUCTION
3. T H E P R I N C I P L E I S B A S E D O N T H E M E A S U R M E N T O F S P E C T R U M
O F A S A M P L E C O N T A I N I N G A T O M S / M O L E C U L E S
S P E C T R U M I S A G R A P H O F I N T E N S I T Y O F A B S O R B E D O R E M I T T E D
R A D I A T I O N B Y S A M P L E V E R S E S F R E Q U E N C Y ( V ) O R W A V E L E N G T H
( Λ )
S P E C T R O M E T E R I S A N I N S T R U M E N T D E S I G N T O M E A S U R E T H E
S P E C T R U M O F A C O M P O U N D
PRINCIPLE OF
SPECTROSCOPY
4. A B S O R P T I O N S P E C T R O S C O P Y : -
A N A N A L Y T I C A L T E C H N I Q U E
W H I C H C O N C E R N W I T H T H E M E A S U R E M E N T O F A B S O R P T I O N O F
E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C R A D I A T I O N E . G . U V ( 1 8 5 - 4 0 0 N M ) / V I S I B L E
( 4 0 0 - 8 0 0 N M ) S P E C T R O S C O P Y , I R S P E C T R O S C O P Y ( 0 . 7 6 – 1 5 U M )
E M I S S I O N S P E C T R O S C O P Y : -
A N A N A L Y T I C A L T E C H N I Q U E I N
W H I C H E M I S S I O N O F A P A R T I C L E O R R A D I A T I O N I S D I S P E R S E D
A C C O R D I N G T O S O M E P R O P E R T Y O F T H E E M I S S I O N & A M O U N T O F
D I S P E R S I O N I S M E A S U R E D E . G . M A S S S P E C T R O S C O P Y
TYPE OF SPECTROSCOPY
5. E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C R A D I A T I O N C O N S I S T O F D I S C R E T E P A C K E T S
O F E N E R G Y W H I C H A R E C A L L E D P H O T O N S
A P H O T O N C O N S I S T O F A N O S C I L L A T I N G E L E C T R I C F I E L D ( E ) & A N
O S C I L L A T I N G F I E L D ( M ) W H I C H A R E P E R P E N D I C U L A R T O E A C H
O T H E R
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
6. W A V E L E N G T H : - I T I S T H E D I S T A N C E B E T W E E N T W O
S U C C E S S I V E M A X I M U M A N E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C W A V E . U N I T A R E
: - M , C M , M M , N M , A N D M I C R O M E T E R
F R E Q U E N C Y : - N U M B E R O F W A V E L E N G T H U N I T P A S S T H R O U G H
A G I V E N P O I N T I N U N IT T I M E I S C A L L E D A S F R E Q U E N C Y . I T I S
D E N O T E D B Y “ V ” A N D U N I T A R E C Y C L E S P E R S E C O N D H E R T Z .
W A V E N U M B E R : - A S T H E N U M B E R O F W A V E S P E R C M I N
V A C U M M .
V E L O C I T Y : - I T I S T H E P R O D U C T O F W A V E L E N G T H A N D
F R E Q U E N C Y A N D I S E Q U A L T O T H E V E L O C I T Y O F T H E W A V E I N
T H E M E D I U M .
V = N × Λ
PROPERTIES OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
8. E L E C T R O N I C E N E R G Y L E V E L S : -
A T R O O M T E M P E R A T U R E T H E M O L E C U L E A R E I N T H E L O W E S T E N E R G Y
L E V E L E 0 . W H E N T H E M O L E C U L E A B S O R B U V - V I S I B L E L I G H T F R O M E M R
. O N E O F T H E O U T E R M O S T B O N D / L O N E P A I R E L E C T R O N I S P R O M O T E D
T O H I G H E R E N E R G Y S T A T E S U C H A S E 1 E 2 … . E T C I S C A L L E D A S
E L E C T R O N I C T R A N S I T I O N A N D T H E D I F F E R E N C E I S A S …
V I B R A T I O N A L E N E R G Y L E V E L : -
T H E S E A R E L E S S E N E R G Y L E V E L
T H A N E L E C T R O N I C E N E R G Y L E V E L S . T H E S P A C I N G B E T W E E N E N E R G Y
L E V E L A R E R E L A T I V E L Y S M A L L 0 . 0 1 T O 1 0 K C A L / M O L E .
E . G . W H E N I R R A D I A T I O N I S A B S O R B E D M O L E C U L E A R E E X C I T E D F R O M
V I B R A T I O N A L T O A N O T H E R O R I T V I B R A T E W I T H H I G H E R A M P L I T U D E .
INTERACTION OF EMR
WITH MATTER
9. ROTATIONAL ENERGY LEVELS: -
•T H E S E E N E R G Y L E V E L S A RE Q U A NT I ZE D & D I S C R E T E . T H E
S PA C I N G B E T WE E N E N E R G Y L E VE L S M A L L E R T H E N
V I B R AT I O N A L E N E R G Y L E V E L .
INTERACTION OF EMR
WITH MATTER
10. A N EL EC TRO N I N A B O N D I N G S - O R B I TAL I S E XC I TE D TO T H E
C O R R E S P O N D I N G A N T I - B O N D I N G O R B I TAL A ND O B S E RV E D
W I T H S AT UR AT E D C O M P O U N D S . T H E E NE R G Y R E Q U I R E I S
L A R G E .
E X : - M E T H A N E ( W I T H H A S O N LY ) C - H B O N D S , A N D CA N O N LY
U N DE R G O Σ → Σ * T R A N S I T I O N S H O W A N A B S O R B AN CE
M A XI M U M AT 1 2 5 N M . A B S O R P T I O N M A XI M A D U E TO Σ → Σ *
T R A N S I T I O N A R E N O T S E E N I N T Y P I C AL U V-V I S S P E CT R A
( 2 0 0 - 7 0 0 N M ) B U T I N U V- R E G I O N ( 1 2 5 - 1 3 5 N M )
ELECTRONIC TRANSITION
σ → σ* transition.
11. N – > Σ * T R A N S I T I O N : -
S AT U RATED C O M P O U N D S C O N TA I N I N G ATO M S
W I T H L O N E PA I R ( N O N – B O N D I N G E L E CT RO N S ) L I K E O , N , S
A N D H A L O G E N A RE C APA B L E O F N – > Σ * T R A N S I T I O N . T H E S E
T R AN S I T I O N U S U AL LY N E E D L E SS E NE R G Y T H A N N – > Σ *
T R AN S I T I O N . T H E Y CA N B E I N I T I AT E D B Y L I G H T W H O S E
WAV E L E N G T H I N T H E R A N G E 1 5 0 - 2 5 0 N M . T H E N U M B E R O F
O R G A N I C F U N CT I O N A L G R O U P N – > Σ * PE A K I N T H E U V
R E G I O N I S S M A L L
ELECTRONIC TRANSITION
12. Π T O Π * T R A N S I T I O N : -
P I E E L E C T R O N I N A B O N D I N G O R B I TA L I S
E X C I T E D TO C OR R ES PO N D I N G ANT I - B O N D I N G O R B I TA L PI E S TA R
A N D O B S ERV E D I N C O N J U G AT ED CO M P O UN D S . C OM P O U N DS
C O N TA I N I NG M U LT I P L E B O N D L I K E A L K E N E S , AL K Y N E S , C AR B ONYL
, N I T R I L E S , A R O M AT I C C O M P O UN D S E T C U N D E R G O P I E TO PI E S TA R
T R A N S I T I O N .
E G : - A L K E N E S G E N E R A L LY A B S O R B I N T H E R E G I O N 1 7 0 TO 2 0 5 N M .
ELECTRONIC TRANSITION
13. N T O Π * T R A N S I T I O N : -
A N E L E C T R O N F R O M OR B I TA L I S P R O M O T E D
TO A N T I - B O N D I N G P I E S TA R O R B I TA L A N D R E Q U I R E D L O W E R
E N E R GY. C O M P O U N DS C O N TA I N I N G D OU B LE B O N D IN V O LV I N G
H E T E R O ATO M ( C = O , C N , N = O ) U N D E RG O S UC H T R AN S I T I O N . N TO
P I E S TA R T R A NS I T I O N R E Q U I R E M I N I M U M E N E R GY A ND S H O W
A B S O R P T I O N L O N G E R WAV E L E N G T H A R O U N D 3 0 0 N M .
ELECTRONIC TRANSITION
14. C H R O M O P H O R E : -
T H E PA RT O F A M O L E C U L E R E S P O N S I B L E F O R
I M PA RT I N G C O L O R , A R E C A L L E D A S C H R O M O S P H E R S .
O R
T H E F U N C T I O N A L G R O U P C O N TA I N I N G M U LT I P L E B O N D S
C A PA B L E O F A B S O R B I N G R A D I AT I O N A B O V E 2 0 0 N M D U E TO Π TO
Π * T R A N S I T I O N TO Π * T R A N S I T I O N E . G . N O 2 , N = O , C = O , C = S E T C . .
TERM USED IN UV/ VISIBLE
SPECTROSCOPY
15. A U X O C H R O M E : -
T H E F U N C T I O N A L G R O U P A T T A C H E D T O A
C H R O M O P H O R E T O A B S O R B L I G H T , A L T E R I N G T H E W A V E L E N G T H
O R I N T E N S I T Y O F A B S O R P T I O N .
O R
T H E F U N C T I O N A L G R O U P W I T H N O N – B O N D IN G E L E C T R O N T H A T
D O E S N O T A B S O R B R A D I A T I O N I N N E A R U V R E G I O N W H E N
A T T A C H E D T O A C H R O M O P H O R E A L T E R T H E W A V E L E N G T H &
I N T E N S I T Y O F A B S O R P T I O N . E G . B E N Z E N E ( Λ M A X ) = 2 5 5 N M , P H E N O L
( Λ M A X ) = 2 7 0 N M , A N I L I N E ( Λ M A X ) = 2 8 0 N M .
TERM USED IN UV/ VISIBLE
SPECTROSCOPY
16. 1 . B A T H O C H R O M I C S H I F T ( R E D S H I F T ) : - W H E N A B S O R P T I O N
M A X I M A Λ M A X O F A C O M P O U N D S H I F T S T O L O N G E R W A V E L E N G T H
. I T I S K N O W N A S B A T H C H R O M I C S H I F T O R R E D S H I F T .
2 . H Y P S O C H R O M I C S H I F T ( B L U E S H I F T ) : - W H E N A B S O R P T I O N
M A X I M A Λ M A X O F A C O M P O U N D S H I F T T O S H O R T E R W A V E L E N G T H
, I T I S K N O W N A S H Y P S O C H R O M I C S H I F T O R B L U E S H I F T .
3 . H Y P E R C H R O M I C E F F E C T : - W H E N A B S O R P T I O N I N T E N S I T Y O F A
C O M P O U N D I S I N C R E A S E D I T I S K N O W N A S H Y P E R C H R O M I C
S H I F T .
4 . H Y P O C H R O M I C E F F E C T : - W H E N A B S O R P T I O N I N T E N S I T Y O F A
C O M P O U N D I S D E C R E A S E D I T I S K N O W N A S H Y P O C H R O M I C S H I F T
ABSORPTION & INTENSITY SHIFTS
17. T H E O R Y I N V O L V E D
W H E N A B E A M O F L I G H T FA L L S O N A S O L U T I O N O R H O M O G E N O U S
M E D I A A P O RT I O N O F L I G H T I S R E F L E C T E D F R O M T H E S U R FA C E O F
T H E M E D I A A P O RT I O N I S A B S O R B E D W I T H I N T H E M E D I U M A N D
R E M A I N I N G I S T R A N S M I T T E D T H R O U G H T H E M E D I U M .
T H U S I F I 0 I S T H E I N T E N S I T Y O F R A D I AT I O N FA L L I N G O N T H E
M E D I A .
I T I S T H E A M O U N T O F R A D I AT I O N S R E F L E C T E D .
I A I S T H E A M O U N T O F R A D I AT I O N A B S O R B E D & .
I T T H E A M O U N T O F R A D I AT I O N T R A N S M I T T E D .
T H E N I 0 = I T + I A + I T
UV-VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY
18. L AW S I N VO LV E D
B E E R ’ S L AW
L A M B E RT ’ S L AW
B E E R – L A M B E RT ’ S L AW
B E E R ’ S L AW : -
W H E N A B E A M O F M O N O C H R O M AT I C L I G H T I S
PA S S E S T H R O U G H A H O M O G E N O U S A B S O R B I N G M E D I U M . T H E
R AT E O F D E C R E A S E O F I N T E N S I T Y O F R A D I AT I O N W I T H
I N C R E A S E I N T H E C O N C E N T R AT I O N ( C ) O F A B S O R B I N G S P E C I E S
I S D I R E C T LY P R O P O RT I O N A L TO T H E I N T E N S I T Y ( I ) O F T H E
I N C I D E N T L I G H T ( R A D I AT I O N )
- d I / d c = kI
- d I / I = kd c
O N I N T E G R AT I O N O F A B O V E E Q U AT I O N
- I n I = k c + b ( b = i n t e g r a t i o n c o n s t a n t ) … … ( 1 )
W H E N C O N C . = 0 , T H E N T H E R E I S N O A B S O R B A N C E . H E R E I = I 0
T H E R E F O R S U B S T I T U TI N G I N E Q U AT I O N ( 1 )
I n I = k 0 + b
I n I = b
19. s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e o f b i n t h e e q u a t i o n ( 1 )
I n I = kc - I n I o
I n I 0 - I n I o = kc
I n I o / I n I = kc ( s i n c e l o g A - l o g B = l o g A / B )
I o / I = e kc ( re mo v i n g n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h m)
I o / I = e - kc ( i n v e r s e b o t h s i d e )
I = I o e - kc … … … … … … ……. (2 )
L a mb e r t ’s l a w : - w h e n a b e a m o f mo n o c h ro ma t i c l i g h t i s p a s s e d
t h ro u g h a h o mo g e n o u s a b s o r b i n g me d i u m t h e r a t e o f d e c re a s e o f
i n t e n s i t y o f r a d i a t i o n w i t h t h i c kn e s s o f a b s o r b i n g me d i u m i s d i re c t l y
p ro p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e i n c i d e n t l i g h t ( r a d i a t i o n )
d I / d t = kI
I = i n t e n s i t y o f i n c i d e n t l i g h t o f w a v e l e n g t h Λ & T = T H I C K N E S S O F
M E D I U M
S i n c e , I = I o e - kc … … … … … …… …(3 )
N o w c o mb i n e t h e e q . ( 2 ) a n d ( 3 ) w e g e t
I = I o e - kc t
20. c o n v e r t i n g n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h m t o b a s e d 1 0
i n v e r s e o n b o t h s i d e
I o / I = 1 0 kc t
t a k i n g l o g o n b o t h s i d e s
l o g I o / I = k c t … … … … … … … … … . . ( 4 )
h e r e t r a n s mi s s i o n ( t ) = I / I o a n d a b s o r b a n c e ( a ) = l o g 1 / T
h e n c e A = l o g I 0 / I … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . ( 5 )
A = k c t
I n s t e a d o f K w e c a n u s e ∑ t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n w i l l b e a s f o l l o w :
A = ∑ c t
T h i s i s ma t h e ma t i c a l e q u a t i o n f o r B e e r ’s L a mb e r t ’s L a w .
A = ∑ c t
W h e r e A = A b s o r b a n c e
∑ = M o l e c u l a r e x t i n c t i o n c o e ff i c i e n t
C = C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s a mp l e
T = P a t h l e n g t h
I=Io e-kct
21. S O U R C E O F R A D I AT I O N
C O L L I M AT I N G S Y S T E M
M O N O – C H R O M AT E R S Y S T E M
S A M P L E H O L D E R
D E T E C TO R
A M P L I F I E R
INSTRUMENTATION
22. R E Q U I R E M E N T O F A N I D E A L S O U R C E
i t s h o u l d b e s t a b l e a n d s h o u l d n o t a l l o w f l u c t u a t i o n s
i t s h o u l d e mi t l i g h t o f c o n t i n u o u s s p e c t r u m o f h i g h a n d u n i f o r m i n t e n s i t y
o v e r t h e e n t i re w a v e l e n g t h re g i o n i n w h i c h i t ’s u s e d .
i t s h o u l d p ro v i d e i n c i d e n t l i g h t o f s u f f i c i e n t i n t e n s i t y f o r t h e t r a n s mi t t e d
e n e r g y t o b e d e t e c t e d a t t h e e n d o f o p t i c p a t h .
i t s h o u l d n o t s h o w f a t i g u e o n c o n t i n u e u s e d .
SOURCE OF RADIATION
23. I T C O N S T R U C T I O N I S S I M I L A R TO A H O U S E H O L D L A M P.
T H E N B U L B C O N TA I N A F I L A M E N T O F T U N G S T E N F I XE D I N
E VA C U AT E D C O N D I T I O N A N D T H E N F I L L E D W I T H I N E RT G A S .
T H E F I L A M E N T C A N B E H E AT E D U P TO 3 0 0 0 K . B E Y O N D T H I S
T U N G S T E N S TA RT S S U B L I M AT I N G .
I T I S U S E D W H E N P O LY C H R O M AT I C L I G H T I S R E Q U I R E D
D E M E R I T I T E M I T S T H E M A J O R
P O RT I O N O F I T S R A D I A N T
E N E R G Y I N N E A R I R
R E G I O N O F T H E S P E C T R U M
TUNGSTEN HALOGEN LAMP
24. I N H Y D R O G E N D I S C H A R G E L A M P PA I R O F E L E C T R O D E I S
E N CL O S E D I N A G L A S S T UB E ( P R O V I D E W I T H S I L I C A O R
Q U A RT Z W I N D O W F O R U V RA D I AT I O N TO PA S S T H R O U G H )
F I L L E D W I T H H Y D R O G E N G A S .
W H E N C U R R E NT I S PA S S E D T H R O U G H T H E S E E L E CT R O D E S
M A I N TA I NE D AT H I G H VO LTA G E , D I S C H A R G E O F E L E C T R O N
O C C U R S W H I C H E XC I T E S H Y D RO G E N M O L E C UL E W H I C H I N
T U R N C A U S E E M I S S I O N O F U V R A D I AT I O N I N N E A R U V R E G I O N
T H E Y A R E S TA B L E A N D W I D E LY U S E D .
HYDROGEN DISCHARGE LAMP
25. I T P O S S E S S E S T W O T U N G S T E N E L E C T R O D E S E PA R AT E D B Y
S O M E D I S TA N C E .
T H E S E A R E E N C L O S E D I N A G L A S S T U B E ( W I T H Q U A RT Z O R
F U S E D S I L I C A ) A N D XE N O N G A S I S F I L L E D U N D E R P R E S S U R E
A N I N T E N S E A R E I S F O R M E D B E T W E E N E L E C T R O D E B Y
A P P LY I N G H I G H VO LTA G E . T H I S I S A G O O D S O U R C E O F
C O N T I N U O U S P L U S A D D I T I O N A L I N T E N S E R A D I AT I O N . I T S
I N T E N S I T Y I S H I G H E R T H E N T H E H Y D R O G E N D I S C H A R G E L A M P .
D E M E R I T : - T H E L A M P S I N C E
O P E R AT E S AT H I G H VO LTA G E
B E C O M E V E RY H O T D U R I N G
O P E R AT I O N A N D H E N C E N E E D S
T H E R M A L I N S U L AT I O N .
XENON DISCHARGE LAMP
26. I N M E R C U RY A R E L A M P , M E R C U RY VA P O R I S S TO R E D U N D E R
H I G H P R E S S U R E A N D E XC I TAT I O N O F M E R C U RY ATO M S I S
D O N E B Y E L E C T R I C D I S C H A R G E .
D E M E R I T : - N O S U I TA B L E F O R
C O N T I N U O U S S P E C T R A L S T U D I E S
( B E C A U S E I T D O E S N O T G I V E N
C O N T I N U O U S R A D I AT I O N )
MERCURY ARC LAMP
27. T H E R A D I AT I O N E M I T T E D B Y T H E S O U R C E I S C O L L I M AT E D
( M A D E PA R A L L E L ) B Y L E N S E S M I R R O R A N D S L I T S .
L E N S E S
M AT E R I A L U S E D F O R T H E L E N S E S M U S T B E T R A N S PA R E NT TO
T H E R A D I AT I O N B E I N G U S E D .
O R D I N A RY S I L I C A G L A S S T R A N S M I T B E T W E E N 3 5 0 TO
3 0 0 0 0 N M A ND I S S U I TA B L E F O R V I S I B L E A N D N E A R I V R E G I O N .
Q U A RT Z O R F U S E D S I L I C A I S U S E D A S A M AT E R I A L F O R L E N S
TO W O R K B E L O W 3 0 0 N M .
COLLIMATING SYSTEM
28. M I R R O R S : -
T H E S E A RE U S E D TO R E F L E CT F O C U S O R C O L L I M AT E L I G H T
B E A M S I N S P E C T R O P H O TO M E T E R
TO M I N I M I ZE T H E L I G H T L O S S , M I R R O R S A R E A L U M I N I ZE D
O N T H E I R F R O N T S U R FA C E .
S L I T S : -
S L I T I S A N I M P O RTA N T D E V I CE I N RE S O LV I N G
P O LY C H R O M AT I C RA D I AT I O N I NTO M O N O C H R O M AT I C
R A D I AT I O N .
TO A C H I E V E T H I S , E N T R A N C E S L I T A N D E XI T S L I T A R E U S E D .
T H E W I D T H O F S L I T P L AY S A N I M P O RTA NT R O L E I N
R E S O L U T I O N O F P O LY C H R O M AT I C R A D I AT I O N .
29. I T I S A D E V I C E U S E D TO I S O L AT E T H E R A D I AT I O N O F T H E
D E S I R E D WAV E L E N G T H F R O M WAV E L E N G T H O F T H E
C O N T I N U O U S S P E C T R A .
T H E E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N TS O F M O N O C H R O M ATO R S A R E
A N E N T R A N C E S L I T
D I S P E R S I N G E L E M E N T
E XI T S L I T
T H E E N T R A N C E S L I T S H A R P LY D E F I N E T H E I N C O M I N G B E A M O F
H E T R O C H R O M AT I C R A D I AT I O N . T H E D I S P E R S I N G E L E M E N T
D I S P E R S E S T H E H E T R O C H R O M AT I C R A D I AT I O N I N TO I T S
C O M P O N E N T WAV E L E N G T H . E XI T S L I T A L L O W S T H E N O M I N A L
WAV E L E N G T H TO G E T H E R W I T H A B O N D O F WAV E L E N G T H O N
E I T H E R S I D E O F I T .
MONOCHROMATORS
30. T W O T Y P E O F F I LT E R A R E U S E D T H E Y A R E
A B S O R P T I O N F I LT E R : - W O R K B Y S E L E C T I VE A B S O R P T I O N O F
U N WA N T E D R A D I AT I O N A N D T R A N S M I T T H E R A D I AT I O N W H I C H
I S R E Q U I R E D .
E XA M P L E : - G L A S S A N D G E L AT I N E F I LT E R
S E L E C T I O N O F A B S O R P T I O N F I LT E R I S D O N E A C C O R D I N G TO
T H E F O L L O W I N G P R O C E D U R E :
D R AW A F I LT E R W H E E L
W R I T E T H E C O L O U R V I B G Y O R I N C L O C K W I S E O R
A N T I C L O C K W I S E M A N N E R , O M I T T I N G I N D I G O
I F S O L U T I O N TO B E A N A LY S E D I S B L U E I N C O L O U R A F I LT E R
H AV I N G A C O M P L I M E N TA RY C O L O U R O R A N G E I S U S E D I N T H E
A N A LY S I S .
FILTERS
31. A N A B S O R P T I O N G L A S S F I LT E R I S M A D E O F S O L I D S H E E T O F
G L A S S T H AT H A S B E E N C O L O U R E D B Y P I G M E N T W H I C H I S
D I S S O LV E D O R D I S P E R S E D I N T H E G L A S S .
M E R I T S : -
S I M P L E I N C O N S T R U C T I O N
C H E A P E R
S E L E C T I O N O F T H E F I LT E R I S E A S Y
D E M E R I T S : -
L E S S A C C U R AT E
B A N D PA S S ( B A N D W I D T H ) I S M O R E ( + 2 0 - 3 0 N M ) I F W E H AV E
TO M E A S U R E AT 4 0 0 N M . W E G E T R A D I AT I O N F R O M 3 7 0 -
4 3 0 N M . H E N C E L E S S A C C U R AT E R E S U LT A R E O B TA I N E D .
32. W O R K O N T H E I N T E R F E R E N CE P H E N O M E N O N C A U S E
R E J E C T I O N O F U N WA N T E D WAV E L E N G T H B Y S E L E C T I V E
R E F L E C T I O N .
I T I S C O N S T R U C T E D B Y U S I N G T W O PA R A L L E L G L A S S
P L AT E S W H I C H A R E S I LV E R E D I N T E R N A L LY A N D S E PA R AT E D
B Y T H I N F I L M O F D I E L E C T R I C M AT E R I A L O F D I F F E R E N T (
C A F 2 , S I O , M G F 2 ) R E F R A C T I V E I N D E X.
T H E S E F I LT E R S H AV E A B A N D PA S S O F 1 0 - 1 5 W I T H P E A K
T R A N S M I S S I O N O F 4 0 - 6 0 %
INTERFERENCE FILTER
33. M E R I T S : -
P R O V I D E G R E AT E R T R A N S M I T TA N C E A N D N A R R O W E R B A N D
PA S S ( 1 0 - 1 5 N M ) A S C O M PA R E TO A B S O R P T I O N F I LT E R
I N E X P E N S I V E
A D D I T I O N A L F I LT E R C A N B E U S E D TO C U T O F F U N D E S I R E D
WAV E L E N G T H .
34. P R I S M I S M A D E F R O M G L A S S , Q U A RT Z O R F U S E S S I L I C A .
Q U A RT Z O R F U S E D S I L I C A I S T H E C H O I C E O F M AT E R I A L O F
U V S P E C T R U M .
W H E N W H I T E L I G H T I S PA S S E D T H R O U G H G L A S S P R I S M ,
D I S P E R S I O N O F P O LY C H R O M AT I C L I G H T I N R A I N B O W
O C C U R S N O W B Y R O TAT I O N O F T H E P R I S M D I F F E R E N T
WAV E L E N G T H O F T H E S P E C T R U M C A N B E M A D E TO PA S S
T H R O U G H I N E XI T S L I T O N T H E S A M P L E .
T H E E F F E C T I V E WAV E L E N G T H D E P E N D O N T H E D I S P E R S I V E
P O W E R O F P R I S M M AT E R I A L A N D T H E O P T I C A L A N G L E O F
T H E P R I S M .
PRISM
35. T H E S E A RE T W O T Y P E S O F M O U N T I N G I S A N I N S T R U M E NT
O N E I S C AL L E D ‘ C O R N T Y PE ’ ( R E F R A CT I VE ) W H I C H H A S O N
O P T I C A L AN G L E O F 6 0 0 A ND I T S AD J U ST E D T H AT O N
R O TAT I O N T H E E M E R G I N G L I G H T I S A LL O W E D TO FA LL O N
E XI T S L I T I N F I G ( A )
T H E O T H E R T Y PE I S C AL L E D “ L I T T R O W T Y PE
“ ( R E F L E CT I V E ) , W H I C H H A S O P T I C AL A N G L E 3 0 0 A N D I T S
O N E S U R FAC E TO A L U M I N I ZE D W I T H R E F L E CT E D L I G H T
B A C K PA S S T H R O U G H P R I S M AN D TO E M E R G E O N T H E S A M E
S I D E O F T H E L I G H T S O U R C E . L I G H T D O E S N O T PA S S
T H R O U G H T H E P R I S M O N O T H E R S I D E . F I G ( B )
36. T H E Y A RE M O S T E F F I C I E N T I N C O N V E RT I NG A
P O LY C H R O M AT I C L I G H T . A S A R E S O L U T I O N O F + / - 0 . 1 N M
C O U L D B E A C H I E V E D B Y U S I N G G R AT I N G . A S T H E G R AT I N G
A R E E XP EN S I VE T H E Y AR E C O M M O N LY U S ED I N
S P E C T R O P H O TO M E T E R .
G R AT I N G A R E O F T W O T Y P E : -
D I F F R A C T I O N G R AT I N G
T R A N S M I S S I O N G R AT I N G
D I F F R A C T I O N G R AT I N G : -
M O R E R E F I N E D D I S P E R SI O N O F
L I G H T I S O B TA I NE D B Y M E AN S O F D I F F R A C T I O N G R AT I N G
. T H E S E C O N S I ST A L A R G E N U M B E R O F PA R A L L E L L I N E S (
G R O V E S ) A B O U T 1 5 0 0 0 - 3 0 0 0 0 / - I N C H
GRATINGS
37. I S R U L E D O N H I G H LY P O L I S H E D S U R FA C E O F A L U M I N I U M .
TO M A K E T H E S U R FA C E R E F L E C T I VE A D E P O S I T O F
A L U M I N I U M I S M A D E O N T H E S U R FA C E .
D I F F R A C T I O N P R O D U C E R E I N F O R C E M E N T
T R A N S M I S S I O N G R AT I N G : -
I T I S S I M I L A R TO D I F F R A C T I O N
G R AT I N G B U T R E F R A C T I O N TA K E P L A C E I N S T E A D O F
R E F L E C T I O N . R E F R A C T I O N P R O D U C E R E I N F O R C E M E N T T H I S
O C C U R S R A D I AT I O N T R A N S M I T T E D T H R O U G H G R AT I N G
R E I N F O R C E S W I T H T H E PA RT I A L LY R E F R A C T E D R A D I AT I O N .
T H E WAV E L E N G T H O F R A D I AT I O N P R O D U C E B Y T R A N S M I S S I O N
G R AT I N G C A N B E E XP R E S S E D B Y F O L L O W I N G E Q U AT I O N S .
38. A D VA N TA G E S : -
G R AT I N G G I V E S H I G H E R A N D L I N E A R D I S P E R S I O N C O M PA R E D
TO P R I S M M O N O C H R O M ATO R
C A N B E U S E D O V E R W I D E WAV E L E N G T H R A N G E ,
G R AT I N G C A N B E C O N S T R U C T E D W I T H M AT E R I A L L I K E
A L U M I N I U M W H I C H I S R E S I S TA N T TO AT M O S P H E R I C
M O I S T U R E .
P R O V I D E L I G H T O F N A R R O W WAV E L E N G T H .
N O L O S S O F E N E R G Y D U E TO A B S O R P T I O N .
39. T H E C E L L S O R C U V E T T E S A R E U S E D F O R H A N D L I N G L I Q U I D S A M P L E S .
T H E C E L L M AY E I T H E R B E R E C TA N G U L A R O R C Y L I N D R I C A L I N N AT U R E .
F O R S T U D Y I N U V R E G I O N ; T H E C E L L S A R E P R E PA R E D F R O M Q U A R T Z O R
F U S E D S I L I C A W H E R E A S F U S E D G L A S S I S U S E D F O R V I S I B L E R E G I O N .
T H E S U R FA C E O F A B S O R P T I O N C E L L S M U S T B E K E P T C L E A N N O F I N G E R P R I N T
S H O U L D B E P R E S E N T O N C E L L S
C L E A N I N G I S C A R R I E D O U T WA S H I N G W I T H D I S T I L L E D WAT E R O R W I T H
D I L U T E A L C O H O L , A C E T O N E
T H E C E L L O R C U V E T T E T H AT C O N TA I N S A M P L E S F O R A N A LY S I S S H O U L D
F U L F I L C O N D I T I O N S
A ) T H E Y M U S T B E U N I F O R M I N C O N S T R U C T I O N T H E T H I C K N E S S M U S T B E
C O N S TA N T A N D S U R FA C E FA C I N G T H E I N C I D E N T L I G H T M U S T B E O P T I C A L LY
F L AT .
B ) T H E M AT E R I A L O F C O N S T R U C T I O N S H O U L D B E I N E R T T O S O LV E N T S
C ) T H E Y M U S T T R A N S M I T L I G H T O F T H E WAV E L E N G T H U S E D
SAMPLE HOLDER OR
CUVETTES
40. D E V I C E W H I C H C O N V E RT S L I G H T E N E R G Y I N TO
E L E C T R I CA L S I G N A L S T H E Y A R E D I S P L AY E D O N R E A D O U T
D E V I C E S .
T H E T R A N S M I T T E D R A D I AT I O N FA L L S O N T H E D E T E C TO R
W H I C H D E T E R M I N E S T H E I N T E N S I T Y O F R A D I AT I O N
A B S O R B E D B Y S A M P L E
T H E F O L L O W I N G T Y P E O F D E T E C TO R S A R E E M P L O Y E D I N
I N S T R U M E N TAT I O N O F A B S O R P T I O N S P E C T R O P H O TO M E T E R
1 ) B A R R I E R L AY E R C E L L
2 ) P H O TO T U B E S
3 ) P H O TO M U LT I P L I E R T U B E
DETECTORS
41. R E Q U I R E M E N T S O F I D E A L C H A R A C T E R
I T S H O U L D G I V E Q U A N T I TAT I V E R E S P O N S E .
I T S H O U L D H AV E H I G H S E N S I T I V I T Y A N D N O I S E L E V E L .
I T S H O U L D H AV E A S H O RT R E S P O N S E T I M E .
I T S H O U L D P R O V I D E S I G N A L S O R Q U A N T I TAT I VE TO W I DE
S P E C T R U M O F R A D I AT I O N R E C E I V E D .
B A R R I E R L AY E R C E L L : -
T H E D E T E CTO R H A S A F I L M M E TA L L I C
L AY E R C O AT E D W I T H S I LV E R O R G O L D A N A C T A S E L E C T R O D E .
I T AL S O H A S A M E TAL BA SE P LATE W H I C H A CT A S AN O T H E R
E L E CT R O D E . T H E Y T W O L AY E R A RE SE PA R AT E D B Y A
S E M I C O N D UC TO R L AY E R O F S E L E N I U M . W H E N L I G H T
R A D I AT I O N FA L L O N S E L E N I U M L AY E R , E L E C T R O N B E C O M E
M O B I L E A ND A R E TA K E N U P B Y T R AN S PA RE N T M E TAL L AY E R .
T H I S C R E AT E A P O T E NT I A L D I F F E RE N CE B E T WE E N E L E C T R O D E S
C A U SE T H E F L O W O F C U R RE NT .W H E N I T I S C O N N E C TE D TO
G A LVA N O M E T E R A F L O W O F C U R R E NT O B SE RVE D W H I C H I S
P R O P O RT I O N AL TO T H E I N T E N S I T Y A N D WAVE L E N G T H O F L I G H T
FA L L I N G I T .
43. C O N S I S T O F E VA C U AT E D G L A S S T U B E W I T H A P H O TO C AT H O D E
A N D A C O L L E C TO R A N O D E .
T H E S U R FA C E O F P H O TO C AT H O D E I S C O AT E D W I T H A L AY E R
O F E L E M E N T L I K E C E S I U M , S I LV E R O XI D E O R M I XT U R E O F
T H E M .
W H E N R A D I A N T E N E R G Y FA L L O N P H O TO S E N S I T I V E C AT H O D E
E L E C T R O N A R E E M I T T E D W H I C H A R E AT T R A C T E D TO A N O D E
C A U S I N G C U R R E N T TO F L O W .
M O R E S E N S I T I V E C O M PA R E D TO B A R R I E R L AY E R C E L L A N D
T H E R E F O R W I D E LY U S E D .
PHOTOUBES
44. T H E P R I N CI PA L E M PL O Y E D I N T H I S D E T E C TO R I S T H AT
M U LT I PL I CAT I O N O F P H O TO E L E CT R O N S B Y SE C O ND A RY
E M I S S I O N O F E L E C T R O N S .
N E AR T H E L A ST D YN O D E I S F I XE D A N O D E I S EL ECT R O N
C O L L E C TO R
I N A VA CU UM T UB E A P R I M A RY PH O TO C AT H O D E I S A FI XE D
W H I C H R E C E I V E R A D I AT I O N F R O M T H E S A M P L E .
S O M E 8 TO 1 0 D YN O D E S A R E F I XE D E A C H W I T H I N C R E AS I N G
P O T E N T I A L O F 7 5 - 1 0 0 V H I G H E R T H E N P R O C E E D I N G O N E .
P H O TO M U LT I P L I E R I S E XT R E M E LY SE N S I T I V I T Y TO L I G H T
A N D I S B E ST SU I T E D WH E R E W E AK E R O R L O W R A D I AT I O N I S
R E C E I V E D .
PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE
45. T H E S I G N A L F R O M D E T E CTO R A F T E R A M P L I F I C AT I O N A RE
F I N A L LY RE CE I VE D B Y R E C O R D I N G S Y S T E M O R R E D O U T
D E V I C E .
T H E R E C O R D I N G I S D O N E B Y R E C O R D E R P E N .
READ –OUT DEVICE
46. L I G H T F R O M T H E S O U R C E I S CA RR I E D T H R O U G H L E N S A N D /
O R T H R O U G H A P E RT U R E TO PA S S T H R O U G H A S U I TA B L E
F I LT E R .
T H E T Y P E O F F I LTE R TO B E U S E D I S G O V E R NE D B Y T H E
C O L O U R O F S O L U T I O N
T H E S A M PL E S O L UT I O N TO B E A N ALY SE D I N P L AC E I N
C U V E T T E S .
A F T E R PA S SI N G T H R O U G H T H E S O L UT I O N T H E L I G H T S T R I K E
T H E S U R FAC E O F D E T E CTO R ( B A R R I E R L AY E R CE L L O R
P H O TO T U B E ) A N D P R O D U C E E L E C T R I CA L C U R R E N T .
T H E O U T P U T O F C U R RE NT I S A M E AS U RE D B Y T HE
D E FL E CT I O N O F N E E DL E O F L I G H T S P O T G A LVA N O M E T E R O R
M I C R O M E T E R .
SINGLE BEAM UV-
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
47. T H I S M E T E R I S C A L I B R AT E D I N T E R M O F T R A N S M I T TA NC E A S
W E L L A S O P T I C A L D E N S I T Y .
T H E RE A D I N G O F S O L U T I O N B O T H S L AN D E R E D A N D UN K N O W N
A R E R E C O R D E D I N O P T I C AL DE N S I T Y UN I T A FT E R A DJ U ST I NG
I N S T R U M E N T A R E A G E N T B L A N K .
48. D O U B L E B E A M I N ST RUM E NT I S T H E O N E I N W H I C H T W O B E A M S
A R E F O R M E D I N T H E S PA C E B Y A U S H A P E D M I R R O R C A L L E D A S
B E A M S P L I T T E R O R B E A M C H O P P E R .
C H O P P E R I S A DE V I C E C O N S I S T I NG O F A C I R C UL A R D I S C . O N E
T H I R D O F T H E D I SC I S O PA Q U E A N D O N E T H I R D I S
T R AN S PA RE N T , RE M A I N I N G I S O N E T H I R D I S M I R R O R E D . I T
S P L I T T H E M O N O C H R O M AT I C B E AM O F L I G H T I NTO T W O B E A M S
O F E Q U A L I N T E N S I T I E S .
DOUBLE BEAM UV-
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
49. S I N G L E B E A M
S I M P L E I N C O N S T R U C T I O N , E A S Y TO U S E E C O N O M I C A L
D O U B L E B E A M
I T FA C I L I TAT E S R A P I D S C A N N I N G O V E R W I D E R E G I O N .
F L U C T U AT I O N D U E TO R A D I AT I O N S O U R C E A R E M I N I M I ZE D .
I T D O E S N O T R E Q U I R E A D J U S T M E N T O F T H E T R A N S M I T TA N CE
AT 0 % A N D 1 0 0 % AT E A C H WAV E L E N G T H .
I T G I V E S R AT I O O F I N T E N S I T I E S O F S A M P L E & R E F E R E N CE
B E A M S I M U LTA N E O U S LY .
ADVANTAGE OF SINGLE BEAM
& DOUBLE BEAM
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
50. S I N G L E B E A M
A N Y F L U C T U AT I O N I N T H E I N T E N S I T Y O F R A D I AT I O N S O U R C E
A F F E C T T H E A B S O R B A N C E .
C O N T I N U O U S S P E C T R U M I S N O T O B TA I N E D .
D O U B L E B E A M
C O N S T R U C T I O N I S C O M P L I C AT E D .
I N S T R U M E N T I S E XP E N S I V E .
DISADVANTAGE OF SINGLE &
DOUBLE BEAM
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
52. Q U A L I TAT I V E Q U A N T I TAT I VE A N ALY S I S : - I T I S U S E D F O R
C H A R A C T E R I ZI N G A R O M AT I C CO M P O U N D S A N D C O N J U G AT E D
O L E F I N S . I T C A N B E US E D TO F I ND O U T M O L A R C O N CE NT R AT I O N
O F T H E S O L U T E U N D E R S T U D Y .
D E T E C T I O N O F I M P U R I T Y : - I T I S O N E O F T H E I M P O RTA N T M E T H O D
TO D E T E CT I M P U R I T I E S I N O R G A N I C S O LV E NT S A D D I T I O NA L P E A K
C A N B E C O M PA R E D W I T H T H AT O F S TA N D A R D R AW M AT E R I A L .
S T RU C T U RE E L U C I D AT I O N O F O R G A N I C C O M P O U N D : - T H E
P R E SE N CE O R A B S E N CE O F U N S AT U RAT I O N T H E P R E S E N C E O F
H E T E R O ATO M L I K E S , N , O O R H A L O G E N C A N B E D E T E R M I N E D .
S T R U C T U R E A N A LY S I S O F O R G A N I C C O M P O U N D : -
E F F E CT O F C O N J U G AT I O N : - E XT E N D E D C O N J U G AT I O N S H I F T S T H E
TO L O N G E R ( B AT H O C H R O M AT I C SH I F T ) A N D R E DU CT I O N O F T H E
C O M P O U N D O R S AT U R AT I O N O F D O U B L E B O N D S L E A D S TO T H E
APPLICATION FOR UV- VISIBLE
SPECTROSCOPY
53. O P P O S I T E E F F E C T E X: - H Y P S O C H R O M I C S H I F T
E F F E C T O F G E O M E T R I C I S O M E R I S M : - T R A N S I S O M E R A B S O R B AT
L O N G E R WAV E L E N G T H T H E N C I S I S O M E R S . C I S TO T R A N S
C O N V E R S I O N B AT H O C H R O M I C S H I F T A N D H Y P E R - C H R O M I C
E F F E C T .
A L K Y L S U B S T I T U T I O N : - S H I F T T H E L A M D A M A X TO L O N G E R
WAV E L E N G T H ( B AT H O C H R O M I C S H I F T )
N U M B E R O F R I N G S : - T H E A D D I T I O N O F R I N G C A U S E S
B AT H O C H R O M I C S H I F T.
54. T H E C H O I C E O F T H E S O LV E NT TO B E U SE D I N ULT R AVI O L E T
S P E C T R O S C O P Y I S Q U I T E I M P O RTA N T .
A S E C O N D C R I T E R I O N F O R A G O O D S O LV E NT I S I T S E FF E CT
O N T H E F I N E S T R U C T U RE O F A N A B S O R P T I O N B A N D .
I N A P O L A R S O LV E NT T H E H Y D R O G E N B O N D I N G F R O M A
S O L U T E - S O LVE NT S C O M P L E X A ND T H E F I N E S T RU C TU RE M AY
D I S A P P E A R .
A N O N – P O L A R S O LV E N T D O E S N O T H Y D R O G E N B O N D W I T H
T H E S O L U T E A N D T H E S P E C T R U M O F T H E S O L U T E CL O S E LY
A P P R O XI M AT E S T H E S PE CT R U M T H AT W O U L D B E P R O D U CE D
I N T H E G A S E O U S S TAT E , I N W H I C H F I N E S T R U CT UR E I S
O F T E N O B S E RV E D .
T H E F I R ST C R I T E R I O N F O R A G O O D S O LV E NT I S T H AT I T
S H O U L D N O T AB S O R B U LT RAV I O L E T R A DI AT I O N I N T H E S A M E
R E G I O N A S T H E S UB STA NC E W H O S E S P E CT R U M I S B E I N G
D E T E R M I N E D .
CHOICE OF SOLVENT
55. U V- V I S S P E C ( E L E C T R O N I C S P E C T R O P H O T O M E T E R )
Q U A L I T A T I V E A N D Q U A N T I T A T I V E A N A L Y S I S
D E T E C T I O N O F I M P U R I T Y F R O M O R G A N I C M I X T U R E
E L U C I D A T I O N O F S T R U C T U R E
F O R E N S I C T O X I C O L O G Y
M O L E C U L A R W E I G H T D E T E R M I N A T I O N
F O R Q U A L I T Y D E T E R M I N A T I O N
D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F M E T A L C O N T A M I N A N T S .
Q U A L I T A T I V E A N A L Y S I S
C H E M I C A L K I N E T I C
APPLICATION