Usa foreign policy_towards_middle_east

SyedaLaraibGilani
2017
US-MiddleEasternstates
relations
Thisresearchworkputs lime lighttothe relationsof USA withmiddle
easterncountries.Thiscoversthe fieldsof economicpolitical relations
of Iraq,Iran, Israel, Palestine,Saudi ArabiaandSyriawithunitedstates
and itsimpactof foreignpolicyoverthese countriesregardingthese
fields.Thisresearchalsoallowsustolearnhow US isimplementingits
hegemonicrole overthisregionbyhavingperpetual involvementthere.
Department of International Relations
Bahauddin Zakariya University,Multan.
BS – I.R. (6th semester) ROLL #01
Ma’am Haleema Maria

US- Middle Eastern states relations
March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Introduction: 1
Table of Contents
Introduction:......................................................................................................................................3
American’s ForeignPolicy:A Brief History:...........................................................................................4
Making and Carrying Out Foreign Policy...............................................................................................6
Objectives of US foreign policy:...........................................................................................................8
The Constitution of the United States..................................................................................................9
Preamble........................................................................................................................................9
Article I. - The Legislative Branch..................................................................................................9
Article II. - The Executive Branch ................................................................................................14
Article III. - The Judicial Branch...................................................................................................16
Article IV. - The States................................................................................................................17
Article V. - Amendment.............................................................................................................18
Article VI. - Debts, Supremacy, Oaths..........................................................................................18
Article VII. - Ratification.............................................................................................................18
The Amendments .........................................................................................................................19
 Amendment 1 - Freedom of Religion, Press, Expression. Ratified 12/15/1791........................19
 Amendment 2 - Right to Bear Arms. Ratified 12/15/1791. ....................................................19
 Amendment 3 - Quartering of Soldiers. Ratified 12/15/1791. ...............................................19
 Amendment 4 - Search and Seizure. Ratified 12/15/1791. ....................................................19
 Amendment 5 - Trial and Punishment, Compensationfor Takings. Ratified 12/15/1791. ........20
 Amendment 6 - Right to Speedy Trial, Confrontation of Witnesses. Ratified 12/15/1791........20
 Amendment 7 - Trial by Juryin Civil Cases Ratified 12/15/1791. ...........................................20
 Amendment 8 - Cruel and Unusual Punishment Ratified 12/15/1791. ...................................20
 Amendment 9 - Construction of Constitution Ratified 12/15/1791........................................20
 Amendment 10 - Powers of the States and People. Ratified 12/15/1791. ..............................20
 Amendment 11 - Judicial Limits Ratified 2/7/1795. ..............................................................21
 Amendment 12 - Choosing the President,Vice-President Ratified 6/15/1804........................21
 Amendment 13 - Slavery Abolished. Ratified 12/6/1865.......................................................21
 Amendment 14 - Citizenship Rights Ratified 7/9/1868..........................................................22
 Amendment 15 - Race No Bar to Vote. Ratified 2/3/1870. ....................................................22
 Amendment 16 - Status of Income Tax Clarified. Ratified 2/3/1913.......................................23

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 Amendment 17 - Senators Elected by PopularVote. Ratified 4/8/1913. ................................23
 Amendment18- LiquorAbolished.Ratified1/16/1919. RepealedbyAmendment21,
12/5/1933.................................................................................................................................23
 Amendment 19 - Women's Suffrage Ratified 8/18/1920.......................................................23
 Amendment 20 - Presidential, Congressional Terms Ratified 1/23/1933................................24
 Amendment 21 - Amendment 18 Repealed Ratified 12/5/1933. ...........................................24
 Amendment 22 - Presidential Term Limits. Ratified 2/27/1951. ............................................25
 Amendment 23 - Presidential Vote for District of Columbia Ratified 3/29/1961. ....................25
 Amendment 24 - Poll Tax Barred. Ratified 1/23/1964...........................................................25
 Amendment 25 - Presidential Disability and Succession Ratified 2/10/1967 ..........................25
 Amendment 26 - Voting Age Set to 18 Years. Ratified 7/1/1971............................................26
 Amendment 27 - Limiting Congressional Pay Increases. Ratified 5/7/1992. ...........................26
Background of US foreign policy towards Middle East:........................................................................27
Economy of Middle East Countries: ...................................................................................................28
 Economy of Iran.................................................................................................................28
 Economy of Iraq.................................................................................................................28
 Economy of Israel ..............................................................................................................28
 Economy of the Palestinian territories.................................................................................29
 Economy of Saudi Arabia....................................................................................................30
 Economy of Syria...............................................................................................................30
Nuclear program of Iran and US foreign policy: ..................................................................................31
Palestine- Israel conflict and US policy: ..............................................................................................33
Strategic cooperation........................................................................................................................35
Romney’s view of the Middle East:....................................................................................................38
Implementing U.S. Democracy PromotionPolicyin Middle East: .........................................................40
US foreign policy and Syria crisis:.......................................................................................................41
Impact of American policy in the Middle East:....................................................................................43
Conclusion:......................................................................................................................................45

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Introduction:
There are many countries of the world.US is one of the leading country of them. US play an
important role in the contemporary world. Every country has a foreign policy and US has
also.US is ruling the whole world through foreign policy.US controls Middle East through
foreign policy. US create good relation with some Middle East countries such as Saudi Arabs,
Kuwait, and Qatar etc.
The foreign policy of the United States is the way in which it interacts with foreign nations and
sets standards of interaction for its organizations, corporations and individual citizens.
The global reach of the United States is backed by a $15 trillion economy, approximately a
quarter of global GDP, and a defense budget of $711 billion, which accounts for approximately
43% of global military spending. The U.S. Secretary of State is analogous to the foreign minister
of other nations and is the official charged with state-to-state diplomacy, although the president
has ultimate authority over foreign policy; that policy includes defining the national interest, as
well as the strategies chosen both to safeguard that and to achieve its policy goals. US take many
foreign policy towards Middle East for the cause of natural resources such as oil, gas etc.
United States has many important allies in greater Middle East region. These allies are Turkey,
Saudi Arabia, morocco, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar. Israel and Egypt are leading recipients of
united states foreign aid, receiving $2.775 billion and $1.75 billion in 2010.turkey is an ally of
united states through its membership in NATO, while all of the other countries except Saudi
Arabia and Qatar are major non- NATO allies.
The United States toppled the government of Saddam Hussein during the2003 invasion of Iraq.
Turkey is host to approximately 90 B61 nuclear bombs atincirlik air base. Other allies include
Qatar where 3500 us. Troops are based, and Bahrain home of NAVCENT and fifth fleet.
United States has invested several hundred billion dollars in re-building Iraq's infrastructure and
military in the aftermath of Iraq. Turkey is host to approximately 90 B61 nuclear bombs at Base.
Other allies include Qatar, where 3,500 US troops are based.US established good relations with
his allies based on economic, political etc.US want to expand democracy in Middle East but he
maintains good relation with some non democratic countries.

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Departmentof International Relations |American’sForeignPolicy:A Brief History: 4
American’s Foreign Policy: A Brief History:
A central function of the u.s. government is to conduct relations with the almost 200 other
nations in the world. A nation is a sovereign country, and as such, possesses the highest authority
over its territories equal.
Foreign policy determines how America conducts relations with other countries. It is designed to
further certain goals. It seeks to assure America’s security and defense. It seeks the power to
protect and project ameica’s national interest around the world. National interest shapes foreign
policy and covers widerange of political, economic, military, ideological, and humanitarian
concerns.
America’s foreign policy has changed over time refelecting the change inits national interest.as
a new nation after revolutionary war, america’s prime interest was to maintain its indepence
from more powerful europeancountries. Protected byatlantic ocean itsmajor foreign policy
astypified by the moroe doctrine, was tolimit the European attempts of further colonizaion of the
western hemisphere.
Through the 19th century, America concentrated on creating a nation that spanned the continent,
and it avoided forign entanglements. Once industralized and more prosperous it began looking
for the foreign markets and colonies.
By the turn of 20th century, the united states of america had become a minor imperial power,
fighting a war ith spain for cuba and te Philippines and annexing Hawaii and several other
territories. World war I engaged the US in european affairs, but after the war the wave of
isolationist policy feeling swept the country. Refusing membership the league of nations,
America turned inward once again. Absorbed by the prosperity of the 1920s and the great
depression of the 1930s, America let its military strength erode. It was not prepared for war when
the Japanese struck the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor in late 1941.
Emerging from W.W.II as the most powerful economic power on earth, United States changed
its foreign policy dramatically. It took the lead in founding the United Nations. It invested
billions of dollars through the Marshall plan to help strengthen war-devastated European
democracies. It created a system of alliances, including north Atlantic treaty organization
(NATO).
Central to America’s foreign policy in the post – war period was the containment of the Soviet
Union, economically exhausted from competing with the west, disintegrated. This left the United
States the only remaining super power in a world no longer ruled by the logic of containing the
Soviet Union.
Through time, various constitutional principles and values have shaped American foreign policy.
American foreign policy has favored the self – determination of nations for independence. Based

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |American’sForeignPolicy:A Brief History: 5
on our commitment to constitutional government, we often favor and support nations that
practice democracy. These principles, however, sometimes have conflicted with the goals of
national security, economics or the realities of international politics. In certain cases, America
has supported dictorial governments or intervened to curtail popular political movements.

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Makingand CarryingOutForeignPolicy 6
Making and Carrying Out Foreign Policy
America’s foreign policy today covers a wide range of functions and issues. It includes
establishing and maintaining diplomatic relations with other countries ad international
organizations such as the United Nations and the organization of American states. It includes
peace – keeping functions such as working with allies to assure regional and international
security and arms – control efforts. It covers a range of international economic issues including
trade, travel, and business. It involves foreign aid and disaster relief. As a superpower, the United
States of America has also taken a leadership role in peace – keeping mission around the globe
by trying to negotiate the various regional conflicts. Also, as a world leader, the United States
has a longstanding role in trying to address international economic and environmental problems.
The making and carrying out of America’s foreign policy involve all three branches of
government and a complex array of governmental institutions and agencies.
The president and the executive branch have the most significant role in making foreign policy
and are responsible for carrying it out. With the advice and the consent of senate, the president
makes treaties and appoints the ambassadors. The president can hold summit meetings with the
leaders of the world. As the commander in chief of the military, the president can, by executive
order, rapidly project the U.S. power around the globe.
In forming the U.S. foreign policy, the president relies on the advice from the national Security
Council. This group is made up of the vice – president, secretary of the state, secretary of
defense, head of central intelligence agency(CIA) and the chair of joint chiefs of staff( the
nation’s highest military adviser).
The secretary of the state heads the US state department and often represents the president
abroad. The state department carries out foreign policy decisions and helps develops foreign
policy for every region of the world. Attached to the state department is the U.S Foreign Service
or diplomatic corps. It is made up of ambassadors (who represents America’s political interests
in every country), consults (who represents America’s business interests), and other officials who
specialize in the technical matter and issues of foreign aid.
Congress also plays a role in America’s foreign policy through is power to set duties and tariffs
on foreign exports and imports, regulate foreign commerce and immigration and declare war. It
set quotas on immigration, chooses which countries will benefit for most favored nations status
in trade agreements, votes on foreign aid, ad set the defense budget. But the congress is usually n
the role of accepting, changing or rejecting policies proposed by the president.
The Supreme Court plays a limited role in foreign policy. It has jurisdiction over cases involving
treaties, admiralty and maritime law, and ambassadors and other public ministers. It also is
charged with deciding disputes between states, foreign states and their citizens and subjects.

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Departmentof International Relations |Makingand CarryingOutForeignPolicy 7
At different times, tensions have arisen between the branches in the conduct of foreign policy.
President sometimes favors treaties that the senate does not want to approve. President Woodrow
Wilson promoted the treaties establishing the League of Nations after World War I, but the
senate opposed the league and refused to ratify the treaties. Other times, tensions have arisen
between the congress’ power to declare the war and the president’s role as commander in chief.
Presidents have committed the American armed forces to the major conflicts such as the Korean,
Vietnam and gulf war without a declaration of war by congress.
The public also plays a role in influencing foreign policy. Advocacy groups for foreign countries
often try to influence congress and the president about the issues. Business associations lobby the
government about international economic and trade issues. Groups and individuals with strong
views on certain foreign policy issues, especially military intervention, often organize protests or
other political actions to influence decisions.

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Objectivesof USforeignpolicy: 8
Objectives of US foreign policy:
The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States, as mentioned in the Foreign
Policy Agenda of the U.S. Department of State, are
 "to create a more secure,
 democratic,
 And prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international
community,
 Perpetual involvement.”
In addition, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs states as some of its
jurisdictional goals:
 "export controls, including nonproliferation of nuclear technology and nuclear hardware;
 measures to foster commercial intercourse with foreign nations
 to safeguard American business abroad;
 international commodity agreements;
 international education;
 Protection of American citizens abroad and expatriation."
U.S. foreign policy and foreign aid has been the subject of much debate, praise and criticism
both domestically and abroad.US main policy in Middle East to acquire more oil for
industrialization.

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |The Constitutionof the UnitedStates 9
The Constitution of the United States
Preamble
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice,
insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and
secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this
Constitution for the United States of America.
ArticleI. - TheLegislativeBranch
Section1 - The Legislature
All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which
shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Section2 - The House
The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the
People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite
for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.
No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years,
and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an
Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.
(Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be
included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by
adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of
Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.) (The previous sentence
in parentheses was modified by the 14th Amendment, section 2.) The actual Enumeration shall
be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The
Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall
have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New
Hampshire shall be entitled to chose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence
Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware
one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five and Georgia three.
When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof
shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.
The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the
sole Power of Impeachment.

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Section3 - The Senate
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, (chosen by
the Legislature thereof,) (The preceding words in parentheses superseded by 17th Amendment,
section 1.) for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.
Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be
divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall
be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the
fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be
chosen every second Year; (and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the
Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments
until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.) (The preceding
words in parentheses were superseded by the 17th Amendment, section 2.)
No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been
nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of
that State for which he shall be chosen.
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote,
unless they be equally divided.
The Senate shall choose their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of
the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.
The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose,
they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief
Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of
the Members present.
Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and
disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States:
but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment
and Punishment, according to Law.
Section4 - Elections, Meetings
The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be
prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law
make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Place of Choosing Senators.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall (be on the first
Monday in December,) (The preceding words in parentheses were superseded by the 20th
Amendment, section 2.) unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

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Section5 - Membership,Rules, Journals,Adjournment
Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members,
and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller number may
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in
such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.
Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly
Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two-thirds, expel a Member.
Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same,
excepting such Parts as May in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the
Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be
entered on the Journal.
Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn
for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be
sitting.
Section6 - Compensation
(The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be
ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States.) (The preceding words in
parentheses were modified by the 27th Amendment.) They shall in all Cases, except Treason,
Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session
of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or
Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.
No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to
any civil Office under the Authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the
Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any
Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in
Office.
Section7 - Revenue Bills, LegislativeProcess,PresidentialVeto
All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may
propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.
Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it
become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it,
but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated,
who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together
with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if

March 4, 2017
approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of
both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and
against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not
be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been
presented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the
Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.
Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of
Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to
the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by
him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of
Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.
Section8 - Powers of Congress
The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the
Debts and provide for the common Defense and general Welfare of the United States; but all
Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
 To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
 To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the
Indian Tribes;
 To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of
Bankruptcies throughout the United States;
 To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of
Weights and Measures;
 To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the
United States;
 To establish Post Offices and Post Roads;
 To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to
Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;
 To constitute Tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
 To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offenses
against the Law of Nations;
 To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning
Captures on Land and Water;
 To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a
longer Term than two Years;
 To provide and maintain a Navy;
 To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;
 To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress
Insurrections and repel Invasions;
 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the Militia, and for governing such
Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the

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States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the
Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
 To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not
exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the acceptance
of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise
like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in
which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and
other needful Buildings; And
 To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the
foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of
the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
Section9 - Limits on Congress
 The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall
think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one
thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation,
not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.
 The privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases
of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.
 No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.
 (No capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or
Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.) (Section in parentheses clarified by the
16th Amendment)
 No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.
 No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of
one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged
to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.
 No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations
made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of
all public Money shall be published from time to time.
 No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any
Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of
any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince or
foreign State.
Section10 - Powers prohibited ofStates
 No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque
and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin
a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law
impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.
 No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on
Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection
Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or

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Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall
be subject to the Revision and Control of the Congress.
 No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any duty of Tonnage, keep Troops,
or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another
State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such
imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.
ArticleII. - TheExecutiveBranch
Section1 - The President
The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall
hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice-President chosen for
the same Term, be elected, as follows:
Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of
Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be
entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust
or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.
(The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two persons, of whom
one at least shall not lay an Inhabitant of the same State with them. And they shall make a List of
all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and
certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the
President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and
House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The
Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority
of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such
Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall
immediately chose by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then
from the five highest on the List they said House shall in like Manner chose the President. But in
choosing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State
having one Vote; a quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two-
thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case,
after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors
shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the
Senate shall choose from them by Ballot the Vice-President.) (This clause in parentheses was
superseded by the 12th Amendment.)
The Congress may determine the Time of choosing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall
give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.
No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any
Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and
been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

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(In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability
to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice
President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or
Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as
President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President
shall be elected.) (This clause in parentheses has been modified by the 20th and 25th
Amendments.)
The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall
neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and
he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of
them.
Before he enters on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:
"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the
United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of
the United States."
Section2 - CivilianPoweroverMilitary,Cabinet,PardonPower,Appointments
The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of
the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may
require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments,
upon any subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to
Grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States, except in Cases of
Impeachment.
He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties,
provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the
Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and
Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose
Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but
the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in
the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.
The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the
Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
Section3 - State of the Union,ConveningCongress
He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and
recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he
may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of
Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to

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such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he
shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the
United States.
Section4 - Disqualification
The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from
Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and
Misdemeanors.
ArticleIII. - TheJudicial Branch
Section1 - Judicialpowers
The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such
inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of
the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at
stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during
their Continuance in Office.
Section2 - Trialby Jury,OriginalJurisdiction,Jury Trials
(The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution,
the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;
to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; to all Cases of admiralty
and maritime Jurisdiction; to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; to
Controversies between two or more States; between a State and Citizens of another State;
between Citizens of different States; between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under
Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States,
Citizens or Subjects.) (This section in parentheses is modified by the 11th Amendment.)
In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a
State shall be Party, the Supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases
before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact,
with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.
The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall
be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed
within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have
directed.

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Section3 - Treason
Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering
to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless
on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.
The Congress shall have power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of
Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person
attainted.
ArticleIV. - TheStates
Section1 - Each State to Honorall others
Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial
Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner
in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.
Section2 - State citizens,Extradition
The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the
several States.
A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice,
and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive Authority of the State from
which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.
(No Person held to Service or Labor in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another,
shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or
Labor, But shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labor may be
due.) (This clause in parentheses is superseded by the 13th Amendment.)
Section3 - New States
New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new States shall be formed
or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of
two or more States, or parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States
concerned as well as of the Congress.
The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations
respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this
Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any
particular State.

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Section4 - Republicangovernment
The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of
Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the
Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic
Violence.
ArticleV. - Amendment
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose
Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the
several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be
valid to all Intents and Purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of
three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the
other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment
which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner
affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State,
without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.
ArticleVI. - Debts, Supremacy,Oaths
All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution,
shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof;
and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be
the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in
the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.
The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State
Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several
States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test
shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.
ArticleVII. - Ratification
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the Establishment of
this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same.
Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of
September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the
Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In Witness whereof we have
hereunto subscribed our Names.
 Go Washington - President and deputy from Virginia

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 New Hampshire - John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman
 Massachusetts - Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King
 Connecticut - Wm Saml Johnson, Roger Sherman
 New York - Alexander Hamilton
 New Jersey - Wil Livingston, David Brearley, Wm Paterson, Jona. Dayton
 Pennsylvania - B Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robt Morris, Geo. Clymer, Thos FitzSimons,
Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouv Morris
 Delaware - Geo. Read, Gunning Bedford jun, John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jaco.
Broom
 Maryland - James McHenry, Dan of St Tho Jenifer, Danl Carroll
 Virginia - John Blair, James Madison Jr.
 North Carolina - Wm Blount, Richd Dobbs Spaight, Hu Williamson
 South Carolina - J. Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce
Butler
 Georgia - William Few, Abr Baldwin
 Attest: William Jackson, Secretary
The Amendments
The following are the Amendments to the Constitution. The first ten Amendments collectively
are commonly known as the Bill of Rights.
 Amendment1 - Freedomof Religion,Press,Expression.Ratified12/15/1791.
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people
peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
 Amendment2 - Right to BearArms. Ratified12/15/1791.
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a Free State, the right of the people to
keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
 Amendment3 - Quarteringof Soldiers.Ratified12/15/1791.
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner,
nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
 Amendment4 - Searchand Seizure.Ratified12/15/1791.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon
probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

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 Amendment5 - Trial and Punishment,CompensationforTakings.Ratified 12/15/1791.
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a
presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or
in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be
subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in
any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property,
without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just
compensation.
 Amendment6 - Right to SpeedyTrial,ConfrontationofWitnesses.Ratified12/15/1791.
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an
impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which
district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause
of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses
Against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the
Assistance of Counsel for his defense.
 Amendment7 - Trial byJury in Civil Cases Ratified12/15/1791.
In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of
trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re- examined in any
Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
 Amendment8 - Cruel and Unusual PunishmentRatified12/15/1791.
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual
punishments inflicted.
 Amendment9 - ConstructionofConstitution Ratified12/15/1791.
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage
others retained by the people.
 Amendment10 - Powersofthe States and People.Ratified12/15/1791.
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the
States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

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 Amendment11 - Judicial Limits Ratified2/7/1795.
The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or
equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State,
or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.
 Amendment12 - ChoosingthePresident,Vice-PresidentRatified6/15/1804
The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-
President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves;
they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the
person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as
President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President and of the number of votes for each,
which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the
United States, directed to the President of the Senate;
The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives,
open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;
The person having the greatest Number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such
number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of
those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot,
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation
from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or
members from two-thirds of the states and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a
choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-
President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the
President.
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice- President, if
such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a
majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-
President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators,
and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally
ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
 Amendment13 - SlaveryAbolished.Ratified12/6/1865.
1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party
shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
jurisdiction.
2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

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 Amendment14 - CitizenshipRights Ratified7/9/1868.
1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are
citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce
any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor
shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective
numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But
when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President
of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State,
or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State,
being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except
for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced
in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male
citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-
President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who,
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States,
or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to
support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of
two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts
incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or
rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay
any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or
any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims
shall be held illegal and void.
5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this
article.
 Amendment15 - Race No Bar to Vote. Ratified2/3/1870.
1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United
States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

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 Amendment16 - Status ofIncome TaxClarified.Ratified2/3/1913.
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source
derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or
enumeration.
 Amendment17 - SenatorsElectedbyPopularVote.Ratified4/8/1913.
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by
the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State
shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State
legislatures.
When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority
of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, that the legislature of
any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people
fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.
This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen
before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.
 Amendment18 - LiquorAbolished.Ratified1/16/1919.RepealedbyAmendment21,
12/5/1933
1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of
intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the
United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby
prohibited.
2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by
appropriate legislation.
3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the
Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within
seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.
 Amendment19 - Women'sSuffrageRatified8/18/1920.
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United
States or by any State on account of sex.
Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

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 Amendment20 - Presidential,Congressional Terms Ratified1/23/1933.
1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January,
and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in
which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their
successors shall then begin.
2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon
on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.
3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall
have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been
chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have
failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have
qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor
a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the
manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a
President or Vice President shall have qualified.
4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom
the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have
devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate
may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.
5. Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this
article.
Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the
date of its submission.
 Amendment21 - Amendment18 Repealed Ratified12/5/1933.
1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby
repealed.
2. The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States
for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby
prohibited.
3. The article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the
Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven
years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

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 Amendment22 - Presidential TermLimits.Ratified2/27/1951.
1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who
has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which
some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than
once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President, when this
Article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the
office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes
operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such
term.
Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the
date of its submission to the States by the Congress.
 Amendment23 - Presidential VoteforDistrictofColumbia Ratified3/29/1961.
1. The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such
manner as the Congress may direct: A number of electors of President and Vice President equal
to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be
entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in
addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the
election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet
in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.
 Amendment24 - Poll TaxBarred.Ratified1/23/1964.
1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President
or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or
Representative in Congress shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by
reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.
 Amendment25 - Presidential DisabilityandSuccession Ratified2/10/1967
1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice
President shall become President.
2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a
Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of
Congress.

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3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker
of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers
and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such
powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.
4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive
departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro
tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration
that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President
shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.
Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the
Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall
resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the
principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law
provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of
the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge
the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling
within forty eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty one
days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty
one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two thirds vote of both Houses
that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President
shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume
the powers and duties of his office.
 Amendment26 - VotingAgeSet to 18Years. Ratified7/1/1971.
1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age.
 Amendment27 - LimitingCongressional PayIncreases.Ratified5/7/1992.
No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take
effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

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Departmentof International Relations |Backgroundof US foreignpolicytowardsMiddle
East:
27
Background of US foreign policy towards Middle East:
Since the United States ended the Second World War in 1945 every administration has found
itself involved more and more in the affairs of the Middle East. Over the decades this
engagement in the orient has changed due to the new realities of the post-World War era and the
evolving relations between the USA and Arab nations. Today, no other foreign policy matter
could be more crucial than the issue of United States foreign policy toward the Middle East.
After the horrific and tragic terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11,
2001 the relevance of the issue gained a dramatic new dimension. For decades the US-Arab
relation has been the focus of recent scholars, especially the never-ending Israel-Palestinian
conflict has had its share of the research that has been conducted. In the ten years of the twenty-
first century the urgent need to comprehend US-Arab relations is understandably dominant. In
the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks a wave of historical and scientific works
were published. Most of the historians were still in shock from the events that had occurred and
therefore not willing to reflect upon past experiences with Middle Eastern nations.
But eventually the pressing question arose that puzzled so many minds: Why do they hate us? A
project by many respectable scholars involved a website devoted to the American values where
they posted several essays in trying to answer that question. By raising it, they automatically
came across the path of self-definition and self-defense. As the Bush Administration articulated
its first response to the attacks of 9/11 with the retaliatory strike against Afghanistan, the scholars
of www.americanvalues.org defended the action by publishing a kind of declaration of self-
defense in order to protect the values of America and the values of the free world. In it, they
clearly distanced themselves and America from barbaric terrorist attacks and declared that they
were meant to destroy American values which led them to answer the next fundamental question.
American foreign policy increased towards Middle East when Iranian revolutionaries entered the
U.S. embassy in Tehran in 1979 and seized 52 Americans, President Jimmy Carter dismissed
reminders of America's long intervention in Iran as "ancient history." Carter's point was not
merely that previous U.S. policy could not excuse the hostage taking. In the aftermath of the
most overt and direct U.S. attempt to manage affairs in the Middle East, the Persian Gulf War, it
is more important than ever to understand how the United States came to be involved in the
region and the disastrous consequences of that involvement. President Bush's willingness to
sacrifice American lives to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait, to restore the "legitimate"
government of that feudal monarchy, and to create a "new world order" proceeds logically from
the premises and policies of past administrations. Indeed, there is little new in Bush's new world
order, except the Soviet Union's assistance. That may mean the new order will be far more
dangerous than the old, because it will feature an activist U.S. foreign policy without the
inhibitions that were formerly imposed by the superpower rivalry. That bodes ill for the people
of the Middle East, as well as for the long-suffering American citizens, who will see their taxes
continue to rise, their consumer economy increasingly distorted by military spending, and their
blood spilled--all in the name of U.S. leadership.

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Departmentof International Relations |Economyof Middle East Countries: 28
Economy of Middle East Countries:
The Economy of the Middle East is very diverse. Composed of Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran,
Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, the Palestinian territories, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen the individual economies range from
hydrocarbon exporting renter economies to government led socialist economies to free market
economies.
Collectively, the region is best known for producing and exporting oil. The oil industry does
significantly impact the entire region, both through the wealth that it generates and through the
movement of labor. Most of the countries in the region have undertaken efforts to diversify their
economies in recent years, however. In the report, Science-Matrix says the number of scientific
publications listed in the Web of Science database shows that the standard growth in the Middle
East, particularly in Iran and Turkey, is nearly four times faster than the world average. America
took huge policy towards Middle East for economy. Economic situation of some Middle East
countries are given below:
 EconomyofIran
Iran has one of the largest economies in the Middle East. It is the world's 18th largest by PPP.
Iran's major industries are largely state owned. The nature of the Iranian state-owned enterprises
has led to a degree of inefficiency. Iran ranks 69th out of 139 in Global Competitiveness Report.
Iran has been able to subsidize inefficient industry through large oil revenues and maintain
respectable growth rates. The nature of the state-driven economy has led to significant 'brain
drain' in recent years as educated Iranians seek opportunities abroad. Consequently, Iran has
begun a privatization effort in order to stimulate trade in accordance with its ongoing five-year
plan as well as an ambitious economic reform plan. The most important advantage that Iran's
capital market has in comparison with other regional markets is that there are 40 industries
directly involved in it. Industries such as the automotive, telecommunications, agriculture,
petrochemical, mining, steel iron, copper, banking and insurance, financial mediation and others
trade shares at the stock market, which makes it unique in the Middle East. Iran has a high
potential of becoming one the world's largest economies in the 21st century.
 EconomyofIraq
Nearly 30 years of fighting, against Iran in the 1980s and the United States since 1991, has had a
detrimental impact on Iraqi economic growth. Oil production remains Iraq's chief economic
activity. The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18%–30% unemployed and a
depressed per capita GDP of $4,000.Reconstruction aid has helped to bolster the nation's
infrastructure, however, an ongoing insurgency by ISIS has handicapped economic recovery.
 EconomyofIsrael
Israel's national leadership established a socialist economy when Israel gained independence in
1948. The purpose of this approach was to establish economic self-sufficiency, particularly

March 4, 2017
agriculturally, in the face of hostile neighbors and to provide jobs for a population rapidly
expanding through immigration. The socialist nature of the economy created a great deal of
inefficiency which the government was able to offset through foreign aid, first in the form of
West German Holocaust reparations then through direct aid, primarily from western nations.
Following the Yom Kippur War Israeli defense spending rose dramatically, exposing the
weaknesses of the state-run economy. The result was rampant inflation that led Israel to recall
the lira in 1980 and issue the shekel. This move did not sufficiently curb inflation and
consequently the shekel was recalled in 1985 in favor for the Israeli new shekel, a move
implemented together with a comprehensive economic stabilization program which stemmed
inflation and set the stage for high growth in the 1990s. Israel had also undertaken a privatization
effort beginning in the late 1970s. The economy received a boost in the early 1990s with the
arrival of several hundred thousand immigrants from the former Soviet Union. As a significant
number of the immigrants were highly educated, Israel accelerated its privatization in order to
encourage the high-skilled workers to stay. The new high-skill labor also attracted a lot of
foreign direct investment. Israel's growth over the past decade has been commensurate with
western developed nations as is its GDP (PPP) per-capita which is about $30,000/year – the
highest of all the non natural resources dependent countries in the Middle East. It is described as
"Very Highly Developed" on the UN's Human Development Index, ranking 15th among 169
world nations in 2010.
In September 2010, Israel joined the OECD, which praised Israel's scientific and technological
progress and described it as having "produced outstanding outcomes on a world scale." Indeed,
much of the growth in the country's economy over the past couple of decades is attributable to
the software, biomedical, electronics, telecommunications and other high-technology sectors as
the percentage of Israelis engaged in scientific and technological inquiry, and the amount spent
on research and development (R&D) in relation to gross domestic product (GDP), is among the
highest in the world.
 Economyofthe Palestinianterritories
The economy of the Palestinian National Authority has been severely truncated by the ongoing
conflict with Israel. Production has dropped since the beginning of the Second Intifada in 2000.
The Gaza Strip has been blockaded by Israel and Egypt since June 2007 after Hamas took
control of the Palestinian territory in the course of a conflict with rival Palestinian group Fatah.
Only limited humanitarian aid has been allowed into the Gaza Strip. In May 2010, the UN Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs stated that the formal economy in Gaza has
collapsed since the imposition of the blockade. The West Bank has fared slightly better since the
split in the Palestinian power structure and Fatah took power in the West Bank Israel has opened
some trade up. Still the Palestinian Authority is nearly entirely dependent on foreign aid.
Collectively the Palestinian territories have a per capita GDP of $2,900.

March 4, 2017
 EconomyofSaudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia has 20% of the known oil reserves in the world. With its oil they have a national
GDP of $546 billion and a per capita GDP of $21,300.With this revenue stream the country has
become the largest renter economy in the world. As the oil wealth grew so too did the civil
service. It grew from 37,000 in 1962 to 232,000 in 1981. Further, as Saudi Arabia's civil service
grew so too did its reliance on foreign labor which currently stands at 5.5 million or about one-
third of its working age population.
Currently about 40%33 of Saudi Arabia's population is under the age of 15. This has led the
government to accelerate investment in education and infrastructure in an effort to ensue jobs for
the growing population and alleviate a chronically high unemployment rate. The state has
announced plans to build six 'economic cities' in order to diversify its economy.
 EconomyofSyria
Stemming from a 1960s nationalization effort most Syrian economy is run by the government.
However, owing to the inefficient public sector, significant domestic subsidies, and considerable
intervention investment in Lebanon inflation and external debt have become significant
problems. Consequently, the Syrian government has undertaken modest privatization reform in
preparation for the opening of the Damascus Stock Exchange in 2009. Modest oil production and
an agriculture sector lead Syria's production while most of its employment is in the service
sector. Its per capita GDP stands at $4,900.

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Nuclearprogramof Iran and US foreignpolicy: 31
Nuclear program of Iran and US foreign policy:
The nuclear program of Iran was launched in the 1950s with the help of the United States as part
of the Atoms for Peace program. The participation of the United States and Western European
governments in Iran's nuclear program continued until the 1979 Iranian Revolution that toppled
the Shah of Iran. After the 1979 revolution, the Iranian government temporarily disbanded
elements of the program, and then revived it with less Western assistance than during the pre-
revolution era. Iran's nuclear program has included several research sites, two uranium mines, a
research reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include three known uranium enrichment
plants.
After delays, Iran's first nuclear power plant, Bushehr I reactor was complete with major
assistance of Russian government agency Rosatom and officially opened on 12 September 2011.
Iran has announced that it is working on a new 360 MW nuclear power plant to be located in
Darkhovin. Iran has also indicated that it will seek more medium-sized nuclear power plants and
uranium mines in the future.
In November 2011, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Board of Governors
rebuked Iran following an IAEA report detailing how Iran had undertaken research and
experiments geared to developing a nuclear weapons capability. For the first time, the IAEA
report outlines, in depth, the country’s detonator development, the multiple-point initiation of
high explosives, and experiments involving nuclear payload integration into a missile delivery
vehicle. Iran rejected the details of the report and accused the IAEA of pro-Western bias and
threatened to reduce its cooperation with the IAEA.
 Iranianstatements onnucleardeterrence
The Iranian authorities deny seeking a nuclear weapons capacity for deterrence or retaliation
since Iran's level of technological progress cannot match that of existing nuclear weapons states
and the acquisition of nuclear weapons would only spark an arms race in the Mideast. According
to Ambassador Javad Zarif, It is true that Iran has neighbors with abundant nuclear weapons, but
this does not mean that Iran must follow suit. In fact, the predominant view among Iranian
decision-makers is that development, acquisition or possession of nuclear weapons would only
undermine Iranian security. Viable security for Iran can be attained only through inclusion and
regional and global engagement.
Iran's President Ahmadinejad, during an interview with NBC anchor Brian Willians in July 2008,
also dismissed the utility of nuclear weapons as a source of security and stated:
Again, did nuclear arms help the Soviet Union from falling and disintegrating? For that matter,
did a nuclear bomb help the U.S. to prevail inside Iraq or Afghanistan, for that matter? Nuclear
bombs belong to the 20th century. We are living in a new century ... Nuclear energy must not be
equaled to a nuclear bomb. This is a disservice to the society of man.

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Nuclearprogramof Iran and US foreignpolicy: 32
And according Ali Akbar Salehi, the head of Iran's Atomic Energy Organization,
In matters of national security we are not timid. We will assert our intentions. If nuclear weapons
would have brought security, we would have announced to the world that we would go after
them. We do not think a nuclear Iran would be stronger .If we have weapons of mass destruction
we are not going to use them – we cannot. We did not use chemical weapons against Iraq.
Secondly, we do not feel any real threat from our neighbors. Pakistan and the Persian Gulf, we
have no particular problems with them, or with Afghanistan. The only powerful country is
Russia in the north, and no matter how many nuclear weapons we had we could not match
Russia. Israel, our next neighbor, we do not consider an entity by itself but as part of the US.
Facing Israel means facing US. We cannot match the US. We do not have strategic differences
with our neighbors, including Turkey.
President Obama (Mar 5, 2012): "We do not want to see a nuclear arms race in one of the most
volatile regions in the world. We do not want the possibility of a nuclear weapon falling into the
hands of terrorists. And we do not want a regime that has been a state sponsor of terrorism being
able to feel that it can act even more aggressively or with impunity as a consequence of its
nuclear power.
That's why we have worked so diligently to set up the most crippling sanctions ever with respect
to Iran. We do believe that there is still a window that allows for a diplomatic resolution to this
issue, but ultimately the Iranians' regime has to make a decision to move in that direction, a
decision that they have not made thus far.
And as I emphasized, even as we will continue on the diplomatic front, we will continue to
tighten pressure when it comes to sanctions, I reserve all options, and my policy here is not going
to be one of containment. My policy is prevention of Iran obtaining nuclear weapons. And as I
indicated yesterday in my speech, when I say all options are at the table, I mean it."

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Palestine-Israel conflictandUS policy: 33
Palestine- Israel conflict and US policy:
Palestine is a place which considered pity place for three religions. Jews said that Palestine is
their birth place. But this place is actually of Muslims. Jews established Israel in 1948 by the
support of USA. Israel occupied Palestine land several times and continuing land expanding.
Palestine and Israel involved in conflict several times such as 1948, 1967, and 1973.Sometimes
US takes peace discussion but they do not participate willingly. US always support Israel in
peace discussion because of Jews lobbying. So US foreign policy failed to solve Palestine –Israel
problem.
 US policy towardsIsrael:
Israel–United States relations are an important factor in the United States government's overall
policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance
of a close and supportive relationship. The main expression of Congressional support for Israel
has been foreign aid. Since 1985, it has provided nearly $3 billion in grants annually to Israel,
with Israel being the largest annual recipient of American aid from 1976 to 2004 and the largest
cumulative recipient of aid since World War II. Congress has monitored the aid issue closely
along with other issues in bilateral relations, and its concerns have affected Administration's
policies. Almost all U.S. aid to Israel is now in the form of military assistance, while in the past
it also received significant economic assistance. Strong congressional support for Israel has
resulted in Israel's receiving benefits not available to other countries.
Bilateral relations have evolved from an initial U.S. policy of sympathy and support for the
creation of a Jewish homeland in 1948 to an unusual partnership that links a small but militarily
powerful Israel, dependent on the United States for its economic and military strength, with the
American superpower trying to balance other competing interests in the region. Some in the
United States question the levels of aid and general commitment to Israel, and argue that a U.S.
bias toward Israel operates at the expense of improved U.S. relations with various Arab and
Muslim governments. Others maintain that Israel is a strategic ally, and that U.S. relations with
Israel strengthen the U.S. presence in the Middle East.
 Attitude toward the Zionistmovement
Support for Zionism among American Jews was minimal, until the involvement of Louis
Brandeis in the Federation of American Zionists, starting in 1912 and the establishment of the
Provisional Executive Committee for General Zionist Affairs in 1914; it was empowered by the
Zionist Organization 'to deal with all Zionist matters, until better times come”. While Woodrow
Wilson was sympathetic to the plight of Jews in Europe, he repeatedly stated in 1919 that U.S.
policy was to "acquiesce" to the Balfour Declaration but not officially support Zionism. The U.S.
Congress however passed the Lodge-Fish resolution, the first joint resolution stating its support
for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people" on September 21,
1922.The same day, the Mandate of Palestine was approved by the Council of the League of

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Palestine-Israel conflictandUS policy: 34
Nations. Despite two similar attempts by Congress during the war, the policy of acquiescence
continued until after World War II.
During the war, U.S. foreign policy decisions were often ad hoc moves and solutions dictated by
the demands of the war. At the Biltmore Conference in May 1942, the Zionist movement made a
fundamental departure from traditional Zionist policy and its stated goals, with its demand "that
Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth”. Following the war, the "new post-war era
witnessed an intensive involvement of the United States in the political and economic affairs of
the Middle East. In contrast to the hands-off attitude of the pre-war period. Under Truman the
United States had to face and define its policy in all three sectors that provided the root causes of
American interests in the region: the Soviet threat, the birth of Israel, and petroleum."
 Obama administration towards Israel:
Israeli–U.S. relations came under increased strain during Prime Minister Netanyahu's second
administration and the new Obama administration. After he took office, Obama made achieving
a peace deal between Israel and the Palestinians a major goal, and pressured Netanyahu into
accepting a Palestinian state and entering negotiations. Netanyahu eventually conceded on July
14, 2009. In accordance with U.S. wishes, Israel imposed a ten-month freeze on settlement
construction in the West Bank. As the freeze did not include East Jerusalem, which Israel regards
as its sovereign territory, or 3,000 pre-approved housing units already under construction, as well
as the failure to dismantle already-built Israeli outposts, the Palestinians rejected the freeze as
inadequate, and refused to enter negotiations for nine months.
In 2009, Obama became the first U.S. President to authorize the sale of bunker buster bombs to
Israel. The transfer was kept secret to avoid the impression that the United States was arming
Israel for an attack on Iran.
In March 2010, Israel announced it would continue to build 1,600 new homes that were already
under construction in the eastern Jerusalem neighborhood of Ramat Shlomo, during Vice
President Joe Biden's visit to Israel. The incident was described as "one of the most serious rows
between the two allies in recent decades". Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said Israel's move
was "deeply negative" for U.S.-Israeli relations.East Jerusalem is, on the international diplomatic
stage, widely considered to be occupied territory, while Israel disputes this, as it annexed the
area.Obama was reported to be "livid" over the announcement.
Shortly afterward, Obama instructed Secretary of State Hillary Clinton to present Netanyahu
with a four-part ultimatum: that Israel cancel the approval of the housing units, freeze all Jewish
construction in East Jerusalem, that Israel make a gesture to the Palestinians that it wants peace
with a recommendation on releasing hundreds of Palestinian prisoners, and that Israel agree to
discuss a partition of Jerusalem and a solution to the Palestinian refugee problem during the
negotiations. Obama threatened that neither he nor any senior administration official would meet
Netanyahu and his senior ministers during their upcoming visit to Washington.

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Strategiccooperation 35
On May 19, 2011, Obama made a foreign policy speech in which he called for a return to the
pre-1967 Israeli borders with mutually agreed land swaps, to which Netanyahu objected.Obama
was also criticized by many on the right in the U.S. for the proposal The speech came a day
before Obama and Netanyahu were scheduled to meet.
In October 2011 the new American Defense Secretary, Leon Panetta, suggested that Israeli
policies were partly responsible for its increasing diplomatic isolation in the Middle East, but the
Israeli government responded that the problem was the growing radicalism in the region rather
than their own hard-lined policies.
In 2012, Obama pressed the American Congress to extend by another three years the program of
United States guarantees for Israeli government debt.
Tony Blinken, National Security Advisor to U.S. Vice President Joe Biden, lamented in 2012 a
tendency by U.S. politicians to use the debate over policy toward Israel for political purposes.
Until then, Israel had been a bastion of bipartisan consensus in the U.S. Some US policy towards
Israel given below:
Strategic cooperation
The U.S. and Israel are engaged in extensive strategic, political and military cooperation. This
cooperation is broad and includes American aid, intelligence sharing, and joint military
exercises. American military aid to Israel comes in different forms, including grants, special
project allocations and loans.
Missileprogram
One facet of the U.S.–Israel strategic relationship is the joint development of the Arrow Anti-
Ballistic Missile Program, designed to intercept and destroy ballistic missiles. This development
is funded by both Israel and the United States. The Arrow has also provided the U.S. with the
research and experience necessary to develop additional weapons systems. So far, the
development cost has been between $2.4 and $3.6 Billion, with the United States picking up 50%
of the final costs. Counter-terrorism
In April 1996, President Bill Clinton and Prime Minister Shimon Peres signed the U.S.–Israel
Counter-terrorism Accord. The two countries agreed to further cooperation in information
sharing, training, investigations, research and development and policymaking.
Homeland security
At the federal, state and local levels there is close Israeli–American cooperation on Homeland
Security. Israel was one of the first countries to cooperate with the U.S. Department of
Homeland Security in developing initiatives to enhance homeland security. In this framework,
there are many areas of partnership, including preparedness and protection of travel and trade.
American and Israeli law enforcement officers and Homeland Security officials regularly meet in

March 4, 2017
Departmentof International Relations |Strategiccooperation 36
both countries to study counter-terrorism techniques and new ideas regarding intelligence
gathering and threat prevention.
In December 2005, the United States and Israel signed an agreement to begin a joint effort to
detect the smuggling of nuclear and other radioactive material by installing special equipment in
Haifa, Israel's busiest seaport. This effort is part of a nonproliferation program of the U.S.
Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration that works with foreign
partners to detect, deter, and interdict illicit trafficking in nuclear and other radioactive materials.
Military bases
The United States maintains six war reserve stocks inside Israel, and maintains some $300
million in military equipment at these sites. The equipment is owned by the United States and is
for use by American forces in the Middle East, but can also be transferred to Israeli use during a
time of crisis. The United States is also alleged to keep fighter and bomber aircraft at these sites,
and one of the bases is thought to contain a 500-bed hospital for U.S. Marines and Special
Forces.
The Dimona Radar Facility is an American radar facility in the Negev desert of Israel, located
near Dimona. The facility has two 400-foot radar towers designed to track ballistic missiles
through space and provide ground-based missiles with the targeting data needed to intercept
them. It can detect missiles up to 1,500 miles away. The facility is owned and operated by the
U.S. military, and provides only second-hand intelligence to Israel. The towers of the facility are
the tallest radar towers in the world, and the tallest towers in Israel.
Intelligence relations
The United States and Israel have cooperated on intelligence matters since the 1950s.
Throughout the Cold War, Israel provided the U.S. with information on Soviet-built weapons
systems captured from the Arabs. Israel also provides the U.S. with much of its Middle Eastern
human intelligence. The CIA became more reliant on Israeli intelligence following the Iranian
Revolution and the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing. Meanwhile, the U.S. provided Israel with
satellite imagery, and in the early 1980s, the CIA reportedly began giving Israel intelligence that
it denied its closest NATO allies. In particular, Israel received almost unlimited access to
intelligence from the KH-11 Kennan military satellite, though Israeli access was more restricted
following Operation Opera.
Despite intense intelligence cooperation, both countries have been heavily engaged in espionage
operations against one another. The United States has mainly tried to penetrate Israel's political,
military and intelligence circles and gather information on Israel's alleged nuclear and non-
conventional capabilities, while Israel has engaged in industrial espionage in the United States in
an attempt to boost its military and alleged nuclear capabilities. In the 1970s, the United States
shared intelligence on Israel with Egypt and Saudi Arabia. In the most notable and publicized
espionage case, Jonathan Pollard, a civilian analyst working for U.S. naval intelligence, was
arrested in 1985 and charged with conveying highly classified documents to Israel. He pled

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