This document provides an introduction and literature review for a research paper analyzing the human relationship with animals. The introduction discusses how Americans have changed in how they relate to and categorize different animal species. The research question asks what has led to changes in animal relationships over the past century and why Americans apply different ethical reasoning to different animals. The literature review summarizes several sources that analyze how industrialization and social/economic changes have impacted human-animal dynamics in areas like farming, pet ownership, and perceptions of food animals. The research will use surveys and longitudinal analysis to understand contemporary animal relationships in South Florida.

1. Spring
11
Eating Animals
Bianca Rico
The analysis of the human relationship with animals. A review of the categorizations
created by Americans of certain species of animals.

2. Bianca Rico
SYG 4972
Spring 2011
Introduction:
As far as I am concerned, spaghetti is a genuine friend. We enjoy watching
television together, we enjoy eating together, and we enjoy riding our bikes to the
beach and taking a refreshing dip, to cool our toasted bodies together. Spaghetti is a
fantastic companion, as I’m sure most dogs are to their owners. Most Americans have
not the faintest clue as to why they relate to their pet or other animals the way that
they do. For most, the analysis of their own cognitive reasoning behind their animal
relationships has never been a question of which to ponder. Currently, the total
number of American households that have pets is approximately 153835000,
according to the pet ownership and demographics source book. This number itself
signifies the growing change in the human and animal dynamic. The study of human
and animal relationships has recently grown due to these obvious societal changes.
Most research has primarily focused on animal to animal relations or on animals as
emotional creatures, but the focus on human interactions and perceptions of animals
has not been widely focused on until recently.

3. Americans have changed greatly the way they relate to animals. Their
interactions with animals have been transformed for several reasons. Today the
contexts in which Americans interact with animals differ drastically from the
interactions that occurred over 60 years ago. Americans have also found an
interesting paradox in their creation of a hierarchical system that is based on certain
characteristics as well as the animals position to the human needs or desires.
Research Question
What has lead to the change in relationships towards animals within the past
century? Why have Americans applied different ethical reasoning behind the
treatment of particular animals?
Purpose
The purpose of this research is to understand the societal changes that have
directly affected American relationships with animals. The greater understanding of
these relationships will also help in understanding the paradox of the inequality
amongst animals that are integrated heavily as a part of human society and animals
that are regarded simple commodities, regarding it as purposeless outside its
economic value. This will help to understand the American psyche in terms of how it
has either become either desensitized or hyper sensitized to particular treatment of
animals.

4. Literature Review:
Stiffer, Steve. 2005. Chicken: The dangerous transformation of America’s favorite
food. Yale agrarian studies. New Haven: Yale University Press.
The in depth analysis of the current transformation of chicken , not only
genetically speaking but also how Americans perceive the animal in their daily
relationships, grasps some of the social relationships one group of Americans have
with this overall processed animal. Chicken as an animal once had a form more than
simply dinner. Americans have always related to these animals as a source of food
but in past centuries, realized that this food source was also a living creature. This
bird could be purchased alive and in breathing form at the local market or was
cultivated itself by Americans (Stiffler 2005, 103). Americans were aware that as a
source of food, this animal must be nurtured and cared for in order to maintain their
own livelihood and survival. Currently, the chicken has transformed into simply, food
and no other form. Chicken was once the least desirable, yet most expensive meat to
consume. This animal was also, not the most emotionally intelligent creature, which
lead Americans to care for the animals well being less as the industrial revolution
began to change the way in which Americans and animals interacted.
This research reveals the not so shocking fact that the food industry has
transformed the way Americans have categorized certain animals, in particular,
animals that are raised primarily for consumption (Stiffler 2005, 87). The fact that
chicken as a commodity is at a low cost for maintenance and so easily profitable
makes it a desirable product for the poultry industry. There once was a time when

5. farmers produced simply to maintain themselves and their families. Americans
perceive the relationship between themselves and chickens much differently than
previously because of the food industries mass productions of these animals. The
location of chicken “farms,” tends to be located in middle and western part of America
where the populations are much smaller and often of an economically struggling class
of people (Stiffler 2005, 107). Most factory farms locate themselves to cities where
the unemployment rate is high and most local citizens will work for seemingly lower
wages than the rest of the country. More often than not, most workers are illegal
immigrants seeking employment at whatever cost. The fact that these factories are
located so far from most cities has deeply impacted the way Americans of which are
located in larger, most populous cities relate to these animals. If they do not see the
animal, how can they relate to it? If Americans see the chicken only in its processed,
nicely packaged form, how can they relate to it as a living creature? This
demonstrates most Americans’ relationships to animals that are popular commodities
of consumption.
Arluke, Arnold, and Clinton, Sanders. 1996. Regarding animals. Animals,
culture, and society. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Different species of animals are related to, based on the context in which
Americans interact with particular species. Regarding Animals serves to prove how
different relationships change the way Americans perceive different species of
animals. This can be used to understand American relationships to animals on a
macro scale. For example the unique relationship between an independent farmer and

6. a factory farmer are drastically different. The independent farmer typically practices
a form of reciprocity, the animal gives its life for the survival of Americans, and these
farmers seem to take that into consideration when raising and slaughtering these
animals. The independent farmer understands that he is dependant on the well being
of the animal, because without the animal, the farmer would not be able to produce
any source of income or food (Arluke, Clinton 1996, page65). The factory farmer
practices a much different form of raising and slaughter.
The factory farmer is not driven by independent demands of production but
rather a larger scale of demands that arrive from the corporations that own these
factories. These corporations set a strict number of quotas and demands of
productions that must be met .This factory farmer thus relates to the animal as a
commodity only. A way in which to make ends meat, and maintain their economic
survival, with no consideration of the treatment of this animal. This heavily effects the
factory farmers’ and workers’ perceptions of the animals. They must adapt to the
treatment and rearing of the animals for the sake of their own economic survival.
They quickly become desensitized by the processing system, in order to meet their
corporate demands.
These two industries, represent the unique break in the perceptions of both of
these “type” of farmers have regarding the treatment of the same species of animals
and processing systems. The Arluke and Clinton have analyzed some of the emotions
Americans have adapted when relating to animals that have to do primarily in the
economic survival of these Americans in their respected industries.

7. Regarding animals focuses on the wide variety of industries that gain profit
from animals in different forms. This demonstrates how different environments
weigh heavily on how Americans interact with animals, and therefore how they
regard their treatment. Through deep analysis of these different fields of employment,
we are able to understand how some Americans conclude their categorization of
animals in which they work with and interact with daily.
Franklin, Adrian. 1999. Animals and modern cultures: sociology of human-
animal relations in modernity. London: Sage.
Animals in modern society are treated much differently than they were over a
century ago. This is an obvious, statement but it is primarily domesticated animals,
whose treatment has been drastically transformed. Domesticated animals are related
to in the form of kinship, they are “members of the family”. This term is used so
commonly today that it is evident that most Americans do truly feel this way. There
have always been intimate relationships between Americans and animals in the past,
which ADRIAN , explores but it was not nearly the same as today’s treatment of
domesticated animals(Adrian 131) . The form in which domesticated animals are
regarded is with a socially moral and ethically humane treatment .What this means is
that most Americans believe that the abuse of these “companion” species is taboo,
and socially unacceptable. Americans have become hyper sensitized to the well being
and treatment of these animals because they share an intimate relationship with
them daily. This is due to the many years of socialization in modern American society.
Americans grow up learning that a dog or cats are pets. They can be found in most

8. homes and for the most part are friendly animals. Children in house holds that own
pets are often taught that a pet is a great responsibility and should be treated kindly
and with respect.
Whether a person has had an interaction with a pet in their neighborhood
strongly has to do with the contemporary perceptions on the treatment of animals in
American society. Adrian’s analysis of these is intimate relationships with
domesticate animals grants larger insight into the unique and ever transforming
relationship.
Hoage, R. J. 1989. Perceptions of animals in American culture. National
zoological park symposium for the public series. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian
Institution Press.
The advancement of the industrial revolution and the crowded municipalities due
to urbanization, Americans were finding themselves interacting less and less with
certain species of animals, and confused on the treatment of other species. Americans
during the 19th and 20th centuries, Americans and their relationships and perceptions of
animals relied solely in the form of tool. Americans relied on the certain animals for
different needs. Horses were used as forms of transportation, cats to kill pesky rodents,
and dogs to help in the hunt for game or for protection. These animals were regarded as
useful in only these settings. Yet as Americans were largely becoming independent of
animals needs for transportation, pest removal, and assistance in hunts, they found
themselves confused in defining these animals’ purposes.

9. Farms were being moved farther and farther away from urban cities such as New
York. This impacted the daily relation to animals such as cattle, pigs and basic livestock.
In the event a person found themselves in close proximity to these animals, they regarded
them as pests; large purposeless nuisances rather than tools in which they were
previously regarded.
Human and animal relationships were driven almost entirely by the human needs
and interests. With the advances of technology and modernization, Americans were
removing themselves and farther and farther away from the concept of reciprocity
amongst species, which included themselves. Certain species became for consumption
only and therefore were regarded as commodities, not living breathing entities with a life
form.
As quickly as the industrial revolution began changing human interactions, it also
began to impact some Americans who recognized emotional intelligence among certain
species. This lead to Americans creation of categorization based on distinction among
which animals can be treated less human than other animals. This example can be
explained by George Orwell’s Animal Farm, “All animal are equal, but some animals are
more equal than others.” Americans began to demand for all Americans to take a
retrospective look inside themselves and recognize their unethical treatment of
domesticated animals, though there were not such strong rallies against the treatment of
animals that were considered for consumption only. Animals and modern cultures,
parallels these distinct and often contradicting moral understandings. It is relevant in
understanding how Americans deal with the moral and emotional obstacles they find
themselves in when dealing with animals that pertain to mass profitability.

10. Haraway, Donna Jeanne. 2008. When species meet. Post humanities; 3. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
The exploration into the modern relationships Americans have with their pets is
often just lumped into the traditional sense of, another family member. Yet it is
Haraway’s deep analysis into this relationship that explains the cause of these most
unique and intimate relationships. Most middle class households have one pet or
companion species in their home. The increase in the pet products industry has boomed
and because of this increased growth is has become evident that pets are far more
common than most might like to believe. Pets or companions species as Haraway refers
to them have a place in most households as necessary. They can often show that you have
reached adulthood if you own a house, a car, have two children and oh, yes good old
Fido, the adopted terrier mix. One has to question why this dynamic and desire that is
almost a need for households to have pets, has derived from.
Haraway attaches this desire, to the lack of modern companionship that most
Americans how recently found them with. Americans have an innate desire to
accompanied and socialize. Modern lifestyle such as leaving familiar settings such as
your home and family to go to college can often feel isolating. Relocating for a work
opportunity, can leave many Americans without the socialization that is a natural
characteristic of our species. Replacing that human companionship, with an animal
companion often fills the lonely void of isolation.

11. Eisnitz, Gail A. 1997. Slaughterhouse: The shocking story of greed, neglect,
and inhumane treatment inside the U.S. meat industry. Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books
It has been noted that some Americans have become hyper sensitized to the
treatment of certain animals while other Americans have become desensitized. Such can
be explained by pure in depth analysis of the meat packing industry, and factory farming.
These industries have both been placed under extreme scrutiny not for the ethical
treatment of animals (until recently), but for the ethical treatment of its laborers. Often
they are immigrants without legal work permits who are forced to work in deplorable
conditions in order to survive. Along with these laborers, there are also a majority of
poorer class Americans, who are often left with minimal opportunities for employment
and are also forced to work in indignant atmospheres. There have been several
psychological effects reported by employees who work in slaughter houses. Many have
become numb to the in discreetly horrendous conditions in which the animals are
maintained and slaughtered, due to their own need for the pay that is involved in these
jobs. Hundreds of carcasses are hung, skinned, disemboweled, and processed in a matter
of minutes. This is all done by minimum wage laborers, who most of the time have no
other means of income. The entire processing system must be done in a matter of minutes
and therefore is setup in a factory setting. Most employees are rotated through different
departments of the processing factory, which means all employees are exposed to each
disturbing instance of slaughtering and processing. The workers must perform in order to
receive wages and thus most attempt to adapt and ignore the dreadful obligations they

12. must perform for their own means. How else would you explain the rapid desensitization
of the employees other than it is a means to their end?
Theoretical Approach
I will be using the structural-functional approach to understand how South
Floridians have used their social structures and have adapted to the different atmospheres
that lead to their current treatment and categorization of certain animals. South Floridians
who either own or do not own a pet have found themselves having to interact with
animals daily, though they may not believe those certain encounters to be contexts in
which to consider a legitimate interaction with animals. This would include someone at
the supermarket browsing the deli. Structural functionalism will help to determine how
atmospheres and social structures impact greatly the reasoning behind American
categorizations and treatment of different species of animals.
Research Design
I will be using a longitudinal research design in order to collect my data from
one specific group and also secondary analysis to understand what research has been
previously conducted. This can help to understand if there has been a shift over time in
the distinct relation to animals and what may be the elements that have changed that can
be focused on more specifically.
Primary data will be collected in the form of surveys. I will conduct surveys to
South Floridians, almost entirely Miami residents between the ages of 18-25. I believe
this will provide the most up to date perspective Americans have towards the treatment of
animals in various situations.

13. Methodology:
I will use surveys in order to get a contemporary understanding of how Americans in
south Florida interact with animals. The interviews will be conducted on Americans
ranging between the ages of 18-25 that have pets and households that do not have pets.
This will work to analyze comparatively distinct daily interactions with animals. I will
also analyze any previous studies that have been conducted on human perceptions of
animals.
Data found through census analysis the pet ownership and demographics source
book will also give great comparisons with my results from the survey.
Data and Findings
From my own findings I have simply proven my own theory and an obvious
belief amongst Americans. Animals that are commonly interacted with in social settings
such as homes and petting farms are regarded as worthy of protection and more
concerned for in their treatment and well-being.

14. There were not surprisingly the same corresponding reactions to the questions that
related to the treatment of pets such as questions 1 and 2 that ask first if the respondent
would allow dogs to be eaten if it were a matter of cultural custom and secondly weather
they themselves believe that eating dogs is inhumane. Cultural customs weigh heavily on
whether the respondent would accept this behavior. The response that would allow dogs
to be eaten if it were a cultural customs was 4 out of 16 or 25%, saying yes. This was not
surprising being that 12 out of the 16 respondents were pet owners and 14 out of 16 of the
respondents grew up in households with pets. This much socialized relationship with
these pets has heavily affected this group’s reaction to the treatment of popularly
domesticated animals.
Discussion
Americans have often regarded their relationship with animals as simple and
obvious. There are animals that are pets, there are animals that are food, and there are
animals that are exotic and beautiful. Yet, they have never truly delved into what has led
to their categorization of these animals. What makes the animal exotic and worthy of
protection from the endangered species list? Why is it ok to mass produce and factory
farm animals at the expense of the treatment of these animals? Americans have rarely
taken a moment to understand their socialized past and history with animals that has
drastically affected their current relationship to animals in their everyday lives.
Conclusion

15. Previous research has shown that the dynamic in which Americans interact with
animals has changed immensely. Americans no longer visit the local market to purchase
the recently skinned chicken or visit a farm where they can view a cow grazing openly as
it had once before. It is these changes that have occurred in the food industry, the
industrialized economy, and the growing number of populations in urban cities and the
declining population in Central United States, that have grown to impact the perceptions
of Americans on animals.
Without the changes of law regarding the humane treatment of animals, children
would now have been socialized from a young age to treat pets as animals that are
nurtured and respected.
Works Cited.
1. Striffler, Steve. 2005. Chicken : The dangerous transformation of America’s
favorite food. Yale agrarian studies. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2. Arluke, Arnold, and Clinton Sanders. 1996. Regarding animals. Animals,
culture, and society. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
3. Franklin, Adrian. 1999. Animals and modern cultures : A sociology of human-
animal relations in modernity. London: Sage.

16. 4. Hoage, R. J. 1989. Perceptions of animals in American culture. National
zoological park symposium for the public series. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press.
5. Haraway, Donna Jeanne. 2008. When species meet. Posthumanities ; 3.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
6. Eisnitz, Gail A. 1997. Slaughterhouse : The shocking story of greed, neglect,
and inhumane treatment inside the U.S. meat industry. Amherst, NY:
Prometheus Books