UNDERSTANDING POLICY (SOCIAL) RESEARCH

UNDERSTANDING POLICY (SOCIAL)
RESEARCH
BY
TANKO AHMED, fwc
Senior Fellow (Security & Strategic Studies), NIPSS, Kuru-Jos
ta_mamuda@yahoo.com 08037031744

A Paper Presented at the NIPSSCONSULTS Workshop
on Social Research, Analysis and Reporting Skills for
Mid-Level Staff of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs – 16th
to 27th July, 2018 at the National Institute for Policy
and Strategic Studies (NIPSS), Kuru-Jos

An Abstract
• Policy, action or social, research is built and
operated on a functional cycle that creates,
processes, applies and reviews ideas into action
often used for problem solving.
• Policy research focuses more on practical or
actionable social factors, than theoretical
considerations.
• This paper discusses and explains the basics of
research; and the nature, application, challenges
and prospects of policy research with a case
study specifically designed as group exercise for
mid-level staff of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

QUOTES ON RESEARCH
“Research is what I’m doing when I don’t know what I’m doing.”
-Wernher von Braun
“Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose.
” -Zora Neale Hurston
“In much of society, research means to investigate something you do not
know or understand.” -Neil Armstrong
“Research is creating new knowledge.” -Neil Armstrong
“Research is about engaging in a conversation with a brand.”
-Matthew Rhodes
https://www.qualtrics.com/blog/research-quotes/

INTRODUCTION“… power of ideas …”

Background
• Research involves seeking for answers to raised
questions that are often termed as problems.
• It is built and operated on a functional cycle
which creates, develops, applies and reviews
ideas into action often used for problem solving.
• Research in general is highly procedural-based
on well-established scientific methodology.
• Policy research employs the power of ideas
through research to create new knowledge and
new ideas for problem-solving

Types of Research
• Research comes in varied orientation including
basic, pure or experimental research; applied
research as policy or action research; and
evaluation research for assessment or appraisal
research and social accounting (Miller and Salkind,
2002).
• Policy, action and/or social research is built and
operated on a functional cycle that creates,
processes, applies and reviews ideas into action
often used for problem solving.
• Policy research focuses more on practical or
actionable social factors than theoretical
considerations.

Literature
• Literature on policy research, also known as
evidence-based, is widely used and applied
to policy making with particular interest and
attention of various academic considerations.
• Oliver, Lorene and Innvaer (2014) observed
this continued drive, but show concern on
emerging barriers to the use of evidence.
• This trend clearly indicates the need for
adherence to standard scientific procedure in
the conduct of policy research.

Literature Focus
• This paper pays more attention to the
understanding of research and the need for
evidence-based policy inputs in terms
research.
• Particular consideration is shown on the
basics of research and how they facilitate
understanding of policy research

Proposition
• Research work is generally guided by well-
established paradigms as sets or bodies of beliefs,
agreements or practices.
• Research paradigm is a set of common belief and
agreements shared by scientists about how
problems should be understood and addressed
(Kuhn, 1962)
• Paradigms are thus shared understanding of reality
in a larger and wider view of research as being
guided by set(s) of assumptions about how things
work (Rossman and Rollis, 1998)

Philosophical Approaches
The two main philosophical approaches
or paradigms in social science research
stand at the extreme ends of:
Positivism, or positive state of
acquiring knowledge; and
Interpretivism, or interpretation of
knowledge.

Positivists and Interpretivists Paradigms
• The positivist philosophy, characterised by
objective assumptions and hypothesis testing,
inclines more to natural science research modes,
while the interpretationist philosophy is
subjective and tends toward social science
modes (Acumen Insights, 2009).
• Both positivists and interpretivists aim at
generating knowledge in research, satisfying the
need to create and add structured knowledge;
access to empirical and non-empirical data in
focused areas; and formulation of conceptual,
theoretical and methodological frameworks for
research.

Points of Inquiry
• Explaining the Basics of research;
• Nature of Policy Research;
• Application of Policy Research;
and
• Challenges and Prospects of
Policy Research

Research
• Research is the systematic creative work conducted for
the purpose of increasing or improving human knowledge,
including culture and society in general (OECD, 2002, Kothari,
2004).
• It is philosophical in nature and is about how to generate
and interrogate knowledge such as the output added to
knowledge (Tar, 2017).
• Research is based on a scientific investigation or scientific
method described as a voyage to discovery and basis for
knowledge, innovations and advances in the socio-
economic and political transformations of human society
(Galadima, 2018:6).
• Research is therefore essential in all human activities in
which knowledge is required for decision and action;
otherwise there will be no purpose and direction.

Policy
• Imobighe (2010) defines policy as a course of
action or articulated set of objectives pursued
by a state, an organization, or private
individuals, usually for a specified period.
• Policy study in the other hand seeks to
understand the mechanism of policy making and
implementation termed as policy formulation or
policy making cycle.
• This process involves the identification of a
problem, making input and taking decision on a
course of action within a given situation or
social formation like governmental or non-
governmental affairs.

Policy Research
• Policy research is a disciplined process of
inquiry conducted by and for those taking
action in problem identification, input and
decision http://www.ascd.org/ .
• The purpose of policy research is to assist in
decision making and taking action for
improving and/or refining his or her actions.
• The termed action research was first used by
Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist, in the 1940s
https://www.edglossary.org/action-research/

Social Research
• Social research is defined as a method of study,
analysis and finding meaning to any aspect of
social life for modification, correction or
verification of knowledge (Dasai, n.d.).
• Social research employs well developed,
modified and practiced methods and techniques
adhering to the basics of research which are
scientifically sound.
• Social research is purposive and rigorous
investigation aims at generating new knowledge
and discovery of new ideas and conclusions for
improvement of all aspects of human life and
society (Sarantakos, 2013)

Action Research
• Action research seeks to evaluate, investigate
and analyse issues with the aim to generate new
knowledge, new ideas or for problem solving.
• It is usually conducted with the aim of solving
identified immediate problem, or as input to
existing process at individual, group or
institutional level of assignment, interest,
challenge or prospect depending on purpose or
situation.
• Action research could be participatory or
practical as may be the case with those charged
with providing inputs for policy or decision
making.

Basics of Research
• Basics of research cover design, setting,
population, sample size and calculation, and
use of sampling methods.
• Data collection has primary and secondary
aspects backed by presentation, analysis with
tools and methods.
• Other important basics are validity and
reliability of data, and ethical considerations.

Research Design
• Research design is the overall strategy adopted for
integrating the different components of a given
study in logical and coherent manner (De Vaus, 2001).
• It provides the glue that holds the research project
together, to structure, to show how all the major
parts work together to address the central research
question (Trochim and Donnelly, 2005:6).
• Research design serves as the blueprint, outline or
scheme for data collection, measurement and
analysis built from the problem earlier established
and addressed by a study (Trochim and Donnelly, 2006).

Research Setting
• Research setting as the physical or
geographical, social, cultural and natural site
or environment within which a researcher
conducts a study (Given, 2008).
• It involves meaningful description of the
entire research environment as the
researcher studies the universe, population
or participants of the study including their
activities.

Research Population
• Research population is a well-defined collection
of subjects and objects within a given setting
prepared as focus of a scientific study.
• It is generally categorized into ‘target’
population or universe, as the entire population
of interest; and the accessible population, a sub-
set on which conclusion are drawn and applied,
also known as study population (Explorable.com,
2009).
• A population size is determined before sampling
and sample size calculation.

Sample Size
• To determine a sample size, the researcher must
choose the number of observations for a given
sample to calculate a sample size to be able to
make inferences concerning the larger
population.
• The sample size depends on the nature and
extent of data collection as further determined
by experience of the researcher, target variance,
statistical strength, and confidence level.

Calculation of Sample Size
• There exist some formula, tables and charts
for the calculation of sample size;
• Formulas are often too difficult to decipher,
calculate or explained clearly, charts may
turn out to be too cumbersome at
corresponding points; and
• Sample calculators may not readily available
for validation of results.

Sampling Techniques
• Sample, or data sample, is a representative set
of information collected or selected from a
larger unit defined by given procedure (Peck,
Olsen and Devore, 2008).
• The components of a sample are known as
units of observation, sample points or sample
units; and they are extracted and used for
study to overcome difficulties in coverage and
management of larger population.
• According to samples are carefully selected as
fractal, sub-set representative units for
inference or extrapolation in studies
(Borzyskowski and Sokolowski, 1993).

Data Collection
• Data collection is the process of gathering and
measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic fashion that enables one
to state research questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes (The Office of Research Integrity, University of
Illinois, 2018)
• Data collection seeks to obtain accurate, reliable
and acceptable information for analysis in
answering questions, achieving objectives and
validating outcomes (Adeyanju, 2018).
• Primary data is collected by means of various instruments
including questionnaire, interviews, observation and
content analysis of other existing data.
• Secondary data from existing published and unpublished
literature from various sites, including the Internet.

Data Presentation
• Data collected are presented in tables, charts (pie,
bar, line or run), histograms, boxes and whiskers, and
plots.
• Tables show data in rows and columns as data sets for
comparison, and are precise, but hard to interpret.
• Charts of various types show data as percentages of
the whole and are simple and quick to show, but
without order.
• Histograms show data without gap and provide for
continuity, but without concern for individuality.
• Boxes and whiskers show median and range for group
data and spread at a glance, but difficult to explain.

Data Analysis
• Data analysis is conducted at the tail end after
data collection, for the purpose of extracting
usable and useful information from what was
collected for as input to study (Tar, 2017).
• It describes and identifies relationships and
differences between variables; summaries the
data; and forecasts outcome.
• The researcher will have to decide on which
method to use for data analysis, like the
quantitative chi-square testing or regression
analysis; or qualitative reflexive narrative or
thematic format of analysis (Tar, 2017).

Data Validation
• Data validation ensures that data collected for
analysis is clean, valid and of standard quality.
• Validation rules are often applied or observed to
make sure that data is correct, useful and
secured by means of check routines or
validation constraints.
• Data validation guarantees quality and reliability
of content, acceptability and applicability of
study outcomes (Nanda, et al, 2000).
• This process will provide well-defined
guarantees for accuracy and consistency as basis
for data reliability, an analysis within analysis or
‘meta-analysis’.

Data Reliability
• Data Reliability is closely associated with validation
in the sense of assessment, measurement,
sustenance, and guarantee of instruments,
procedure and the quality of process and outcomes.
• Measures of reliability include successive
measurement, by periodic and phased tests and
retests; simultaneous measurement to check
instrumental bias; and single measurement for
internal consistency (Bartholomew, 2002).
• Central to the concept and practice of reliability is
the attention paid on how stable and constant
variables are formed, defined, presented and
sustained in an academic discourse with minimum
error component.

Ethical Considerations
• Research works are “… governed by a code of practice
established by a community of scholars …” (Chia, 2002:4).
• Historical and conventional developments bear witness to
trial, challenges, episodes, debates, reviews and reforms
as build up to social science research ethics (Iphofen,
2011).
• Ethics in research are philosophically linked to Aristotle’s
‘Nicomachean Ethics’ (350BC) concerning the pursuit of
good and virtuous living (Houston, 2016).
• listed ethical values guiding the conduct of research to
include honesty, fairness, objectivity, openness,
trustworthiness, and respect for others (Udo-Akang, 2013).
• Researchers therefore have obligation to honour trust
reposed on them, observe responsible conduct, and be
answerable to society as a whole.

Characteristics of Policy Research
• Policy research, in the social science parasol, reflects
the nature of social subjects and situation within
which it is conducted.
• There exists little or clear guidance compared with
research conducted on fixed natural substances or
variables in static science laboratories.
• The adaptation and application of scientific procedure
as seen in the ‘basics of research’ would therefore be
painstakingly observed and managed with extreme
care and sense of responsibility.
• The policy researcher is therefore left to create,
develop, apply, and review contents and patterns for
the purpose of employing ‘basics of research’ to solve
problems.

Process of Policy Research
• The basics of research are adaptable to social situation
within which policy research can be conducted successfully
through the following six stages:
• Table 1: Stages for Conducting Policy Research
Stage Basics of Research Policy Research
(a) (b) (c)
1 Statement of the Problem Existence of Problem
2 Research Design Formulation of the Problem
3 Data Collection Observation and Investigation
4 Data Presentation Preparations and Arrangements of Information
5 Data Treatment Treatment of Data
6 Action Problem Solving

APPLICATION OF POLICY RESEARCH

Basics of Research in Policy Research
• Inquiries into identified problems require more
than theoretical considerations in order to arrive
at practical and implementable solutions.
• Policy research is also applied through review of
existing situation, keen observations, data
collection and synthesis, evaluations and
drawing conclusions.
• This process is reflected in the principles and
practice of policy formulation which covers
policy inputs going through policy research to
policy options as research products for
implementation (Gurung, 2014).

Policy Formulation as Policy Research Cycle
• Policy formulation is the development of policy, or steps
taken to improve the effectiveness of existing process, by
which governments translate their political visions into
programmes and actions to deliver outcome, or
transformation (Ahmed, 2014).
• It is the development of certain policy or review of
existing policies for better results, as policies are made,
executed or reviewed in a process that includes setting of
goals or agenda formulation, adaptation, implementation
and evaluation (Gurung, 2014).
• Imobighe (2011) explains policy formulation stages to
include definition or clarification of goals; description of
trends; analysis of conditions; projection of future
developments; evaluation and selection of alternatives;
and choosing the preferred option.

CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF
POLICY RESEARCH

Challenges facing Policy Research
• Challenges facing policy research from
individually assigned inquiries to institutional
responsibilities are all reflected in those seen in
the process of policy evaluation.
• These challenges range from lack of resources
specifically dedicated to policy research or policy
review to the quality of the process itself and
inadequate utilization of its outcomes (Scioli,
1979; Stone, Maxwell and Oliver, 2001; Lorene and
Innvaer, 2014).
• These challenges form the basis for this lead
paper in a Workshop dedicated to Social
Research, Analysis and Reporting Skills for Mid-
Level Staff of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Prospects for Policy Research
• Prospects for policy research are ironically
associated to its listed challenges of lack of
dedicated resources, quality of the process,
inadequate utilization, and dearth of knowledge
and skills in the field, particularly among officials
charged with policy inputs.
• The UK DFID had earlier funded and organised an
International Workshop for its stakeholders to
addressed these challenges (Stone, Maxwell and Oliver,
2001).
• The same trend is presently seen as the basis for
organizing this current workshop on social research,
analysis and reporting skills for middle-level staff of
the Nigerian MFA by NIPSS.

Challenges and Prospects in Nigeria’s
Foreign Policy Issues
• The Nigerian Foreign Policy faces a number of
challenges as well as prospects most of which
are associated with the need for skillful
policy inputs often requiring evidence-based
contributions, or policy research.
• One of the lingering issues requiring
attention is an impending review of Nigeria’s
policy on the Western Sahara crisis.

A Contributory Note
• A Contributory Note on the subject is
prepared and attached to this paper as
Appendix ‘A’.
• The Note covers background, nature,
literature, problem state, concept,
analysis of stakeholder positions,
contribution of NIPSS and conclusion on
the Western Sahara Crisis.

An Exercise
Workshop participants, divided into three
or four groups, are required to study the
Note carefully and submit observations as
‘policy research input’.

Summary
• The paper sets out to discuss the understanding
of policy research in which power of ideas is
added to the creation, development to
processed information as policy input in
problem-solving.
• Basics of research is explained and applied to
nature of policy research to determined
challenges and prospects in the field,
particularly in the need for knowledge and skills
among official responsible for policy inputs.

Conclusion and Recommendation
• The paper concludes that a trend exists on
organizing workshop to counter listed
challenges and emphasise on emerging
prospects.
• The paper strongly recommends the kind of
workshop organised for the middle-level staff
of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to fill in the
gap in policy research knowledge and skills
for official charged with policy inputs.

References
Aarons, G. A., Green, A. E., Palikans, L. A., Self-Brown, S., Whitaker, D. J., Lutzker, J. R., Silovsky, J. F., Hecht, D. B., and Chaffin, M. J. (2012) Dynamic
adaptation process to implement an evidenced-based child maltreatment intervention. Implementation Science, 7(32), April 18. Retrieved from
https://implementationscience.biomedcentral.com /track/pdf
Acumen Insights (2009) Researching in organisations – philosophical requirements, April 20 Retrieved from
https://www.acumenmobile.com/papers/...pdf
Adeyanju, S. (2018) ‘Data analysis methods’. A Paper Presented at the NIPSS SEC 40 Workshop for Directing Staff and Research Fellows, Monday,
February 5, at the PPLPDC Conference Hall, Kuru
Ahmed, T. (2014) Libraries as tools for policy formulation and transformation agenda in Nigeria, International Researcher, 3(2), June, 24-33
Bartholomew, D. J. (2002) Measuring intelligence: Facts and fallacies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Borzyskowski, A. M. and Sokolowski, S. (Eds) (1993) Mathematical foundations of computer science. Proceedings of the 18th International Symposium,
Gdansk, Poland, August 30 – September 3, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 711, 281-290
Braun, V. and Clarke, V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. Retrieved from
http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/ 11735/2/thematic_analysis_revised
Campbell, D. and Campbell, S. (2008) Introduction to regression and data analysis. StatLab Workshop Series. Retrieved from
http://statlab.stat.yale.edu/workshops/ IntroRegression/StatLab-IntroRegressionFa08.pdf
Caracelli, V. J. and Greene, J. C. (1993) Data analysis strategies for mixed-method evaluation designs. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15(2),
195-207
Carta, D. (2008) Notebook 2.0: 12 tools for researchers. Mashable, September 1. Retrieved from https://mashable.com/2008/09/01/research-tools/
Chia, R. (2002) The production of management knowledge: Philosophical underpinnings of research design. In D. Partington (ed.) Essential skills for
management research, 1-19 London, UK: Sage Publications
Colombo, M. (2003) Reflexivity and narratives in action research: A discursive approach. Forum: Qualitative Social Science, 4(2), Art. 9, May. Retrieved
from http://www.qualitative-research.net 15/2/18
Dasai, R (n.d.) Social research: meaning, nature and utility. Retrieved from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/social-research/social-research-meaning-
nature-and-its-utility/92733 3/3/18
De Vaus, D. A. (2001) Research design, In Social research. London, UK: SAGE
Ernest, T. S. (2014) Action research. California, CA: Thousand Oaks.
Explorable.com (Nov 15, 2009) Research Population. Retrieved Feb 06, 2018 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/research-population
Galadima, H. S. (2018) ‘Understanding research’ A Paper Presented at the NIPSS SEC 40 Workshop for Directing Staff and Research Fellows, Monday,
February 5, at the PPLPDC Conference Hall, Kuru
Given, L. M. (2008) The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (Vols 1 & 2) London, UK: SAGE
Gurung, P. (2014) Role of research in policy making (in terms of policy research) Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/PabitraGurung/role-of-
research-in-policy-making-in-terms-of-policy-research

Houston, M. (2006) The ethics of research in the social sciences: an overview. School Ethics Forum (SEF), College Research Ethics Committee (CREC),
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland. Retrieve from https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/media_487728_en.pdf 14/1/18
Imobighe, M. A. (2010) The Nature of Policy and Strategy and the Impact of Technology in the Transformation of Modern Strategy. A Lecture delivered
to the Participants of the NIPSS Senor Executive Course No. 33, November 15.
Iphofen, R. (2011) Ethical decision making in social research: a practical guide. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan
Kothari, C.R. (2004) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, IN: New Age International Publishers.
Kuhn, T. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
Miller, D. C. and Salkind, N. J. (2002) Handbook of research design and social measurement (6th edition). London, UK: Sage Publications
Nanda, S. K., Rivas, A. Al., Trochim, W. M. and Deshler, J. D. (2000) Emphasis on validation in research: A meta-analysis. Scientometrics, 48(1), 45-64
OECD (ed.) (2002) Towards Sustainable Household Consumption? Trends and Policies in OECD Countries. Paris, FR: OECD Publication.
Office of Research Integrity (ORI) (2018) ‘Research integrity’. Retrieved from https://www.uis.edu/research/research-integrity/ 11/11/18
Oliver, K., Lorene, T., and Innvaer, S. (2014) New directions in evidence-based policy research: a critical analysis of the literature. Health Research Policy
and Systems, 12(34), July. https://health-policy-systems.biomedcentral.com/ articles/
Peck, R., Olsen, C. and Devore, J. L. (2008) Introduction to statistics and data analysis, 3rd Edition). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning
Rossman, G. and Rollis, S. (1998) Learning in the field: An introduction to qualitative research. London, UK: Sage Publication
Sarantakos, S. (2013) Social research, 4th Edition. London, UK: Palgrove Macmillan
Sharp, V. F. (1979) Statistics for the social sciences. Boston, MA: Little Brown & Co.
Stone, D., Maxwell, S. and Keating, M. (2001) Bridging research and policy. A Paper Presented at an International Workshop Funded by the UK
Department of International Development, Radcliffe House, Warwick University, 16-17, July
Scioli, F. P. (1979) Problems and prospects for policy evaluation. Public Administration Review, 39(1), Jan/Feb, 41-45
Tar, U. A. (2017) Lecture and Class Notes: Advanced Research methodology PDS 912, Post Graduate School, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, June 19.
Trochim, W. M. and Donnelly, J. P. (2005) The research methods knowledge base (2nd Edition). Mason, OH: Thomson Custom Publishers
Trochim, W. M. and Donnelly, J. P. (2006) The Research method knowledge base (3rd Edition). Mason, OH: Thomson Custom Publishers
Udo-Akang, D. (2013) Ethical orientation for new and prospective researchers. American Journal of Social Science, 2(1), 54-64
https://www.edglossary.org/action-research/
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100047/chapters/what-is-action-research%C2%A2.aspx
https://www.researchgate.net/
https://www.qualtrics.com/blog/research-quotes/

UNDERSTANDING POLICY (SOCIAL) RESEARCH

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (15)

Similar to UNDERSTANDING POLICY (SOCIAL) RESEARCH

Similar to UNDERSTANDING POLICY (SOCIAL) RESEARCH (20)

More from TANKO AHMED fwc

More from TANKO AHMED fwc (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (10)

UNDERSTANDING POLICY (SOCIAL) RESEARCH