This document provides information about different types of rocks by describing their formation processes and key characteristics. It discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous rocks, which form from cooled magma; sedimentary rocks, which form from compressed sediments; and metamorphic rocks, which form from existing rocks undergoing heat and pressure. Examples of each rock type are given along with images to illustrate their features. Collecting and properly identifying rocks by type is presented as the foundation for building a quality rock collection.

1. Types of Rocks
Rocks come in many different colors, shapes, and sizes. Because no two rocks are exactly alike,
they are a lot of fun to collect. Your rock collection will be truly unique, so start collecting rocks
today!
No one else in the world will have a rock collection just like yours. Although, because many
rocks have similar properties, we can compare our rocks with those of other collectors if we
categorize them into specific types.
The foundation of a great rock collection is to identify your rocks by type.
Geologist classify rocks into three basic groups based on how they were formed in nature.
The types of rocks are:
 Igneous
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic
To help you identify the types of rocks in your collection, let’s look at the characteristics that
make up the three types. First, we will look at igneous rocks.
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from melted rock that has cooled and solidified. When rocks are buried
deep within the Earth, they melt because of the high pressure and temperature; the molten rock
(called magma) can then flow upward or even be erupted from a volcano onto the Earth's
surface. When magma cools slowly, usually at depths of thousands of feet, crystals grow from
the molten liquid, and a coarse-grained rock forms. When magma cools rapidly, usually at or
near the Earth's surface, the crystals are extremely small, and a fine-grained rock results. A wide
variety of rocks are formed by different cooling rates and different chemical compositions of the
original magma. Obsidian (volcanic glass), granite, basalt, and andesite porphyry are four of the
many types of igneous rock. (Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)
Igneous Rock Specimen:

2. Serpentine
A family of silicate minerals rich in
magnesium and water, derived from
low-temperature alteration or
metamorphism of the minerals in
ultramafic rocks.
Rocks made up of serpentine minerals
are called serpentinite.
Serpentine minerals are light to dark
green, commonly varied in hue, and
greasy looking; the mineral feels
slippery. (Credit: U.S. Geological
Survey)
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the Earth, either in water or on land. They are
layered accumulations of sediments-fragments of rocks, minerals, or animal or plant material.
Temperatures and pressures are low at the Earth's surface, and sedimentary rocks show this fact
by their appearance and the minerals they contain. Most sedimentary rocks become cemented
together by minerals and chemicals or are held together by electrical attraction; some, however,
remain loose and unconsolidated. The layers are normally parallel or nearly parallel to the Earth's
surface; if they are at high angles to the surface or are twisted or broken, some kind of Earth
movement has occurred since the rock was formed. Sedimentary rocks are forming around us all
the time. Sand and gravel on beaches or in river bars look like the sandstone and conglomerate
they will become. Compacted and dried mud flats harden into shale. Scuba divers who have seen
mud and shells settling on the floors of lagoons find it easy to understand how sedimentary rocks
form. (Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)
Sedimentary Rock Specimen:

3. Shale
Sedimentary rock derived from mud.
Commonly finely laminated (bedded).
Particles in shale are commonly clay
minerals mixed with tiny grains of
quartz eroded from pre-existing
rocks. Shaley means like a shale or
having some shale component, as in
shaley sandstone.
(Credit: U.S. Geological Survey)
Metamorphic Rocks
Sometimes sedimentary and igneous rocks are subjected to pressures so intense or heat so high
that they are completely changed. They become metamorphic rocks, which form while deeply
buried within the Earth's crust. The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but
instead transforms them into denser, more compact rocks. New minerals are created either by
rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids that enter the rocks. Some
kinds of metamorphic rocks--granite gneiss and biotite schist are two examples--are strongly
banded or foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain mineral grains that gives
the rock a striped appearance.)
Anyone who wishes to collect rocks should become familiar with the characteristics of these
three rock groups. Knowing how a geologist classifies rocks is important if you want to
transform a random group of rock specimens into a true collection. (Credit: U.S. Geological
Survey)
Metamorphic Rock Specimen:

4. Slate
Slate is a metamorphic rock.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when
sedimentary or igneous rocks are
exposed to conditions of very high
pressure or temperature, or are
exposed to large amounts of very hot
water. Slate is formed when fine-
grained sedimentary rock (shale) is
buried and exposed to high pressure
deep beneath the Earth's surface.
Slate, like many, but not all,
metamorphic rocks is characterized
by the way it breaks, along closely
spaced parallel fractures. (Credit:
U.S. Geological Survey)
TheTop5 MostActiveVolcanoes onEarth
Volcano Location Continuous Eruptions Volcano Type
1 Etna Sicily, Italy 3500 + years Stratovolcano
2 Stromboli Aeolian Islands, Italy 2000 + years Stratovolcano
3 Yasur Republic of Vanuatu 800 + years Stratovolcano
4 Ambrym Republic of Vanuatu 1935 to present Pyroclastic shield
5 Tinakula Solomon Islands 1951 to present Stratovolcano
ExtinctVolcano -
An extinct volcano is one which is no longer active and hasn't erupted in historical times.

5. Examples of extinct volcanoes
Kilimanjaro (Tanzania)
Mt Warning (Australia)
Chaine des Puys (France)
Elbrus (Russia)
Rule of Law -Democracy and HumanRights
Democracy is one of the universal core values and principles of the United Nations. Respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms and the principle of holding periodic and genuine
elections by universal suffrage are essential elements of democracy. These values are embodied
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and further developed in the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which enshrines a host of political rights and civil
liberties underpinning meaningful democracies.
The rights enshrined in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and
subsequent human rights instruments covering group rights (e.g. indigenous peoples, minorities,
people with disabilities), are equally essential for democracy as they ensure an equitable
distribution of wealth, and equality and equity in respect of access to civil and political rights.
The Rule of Law and Democracy Unit stands as OHCHR focal point for democracy activities.
The Unit works to develop concepts and operational strategies to enhance democracy and
provide guidance and support to democratic institutions through technical cooperation activities
and partnership with the relevant parts of the UN, notably the UN Democracy Fund, the
Department of Political Affairs and the newly established UN Working Group on Democracy.
Legal and expert advice are provided as required to OHCHR field operations on relevant issues
such as respect for participatory rights in the context of free and fair elections, draft legislation
on national referenda and training activities.
Social reformers of India
India has a rich history of social reformers who have helped establish the foundations of
modern India, and, in some cases, have affected a world wide impact through political action
and philosophic teachings. Especially given India's leaning towards oral and mythical rather
than a written tradition throughout much of its history it is almost impossible to put together
an exhaustive list of social reformers who have lived through the ages. Below are five of them.

6. Kabir
Kabīr (also Kabīra) was a mystic poet and sant of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the
Bhakti movement.The name Kabircomesfrom Arabical-Kabīrwhichmeans'The Great' – the 37th name
of God in Islam.
Kabir was influenced by the prevailing religious mood of his times, such as old Brahmanic
Hinduism, Tantrism, the teachings of Nath yogis and the personal devotionalism of South India
mixed with the imageless God of Islam.
The influence of these various doctrines is clearly evident in Kabir's verses. Eminent historians
like R.C. Majumdar, P.N. Chopra, B.N. Puri and M.N. Das have held that Kabir is the first
Indian saint to have harmonised Hinduism and Islam by preaching a universal path which both
Hindus and Muslims could tread together.
Jamnalal Bajaj
Jamnalal Bajaj (4 November 1884 – 11 February 1942) was an industrialist, a philanthropist,
and Indian independence fighter. Gandhi is known to have adopted him as his son. He is known
for his efforts of promoting Khadi and village Industries in India. With the intent of eradicating
untouchability, he fought the non-admission of Harijans into Hindu temples. He began a
campaign by eating a meal with Harijans and opening public wells to them. He opened several
wells in his fields and gardens. Jamanalal dedicated much of his wealth to the poor. He felt this
inherited wealth was a sacred trust to be used for the benefit of the people. In honour of his social
initiatives a well known national and international award called Jamnalal Bajaj Award has been
instituted by the Jamnalal Bajaj Foundation.
Vinoba Bhave
Acharya Vinoba Bhave (11 September 1895 – 15 November 1982) was an Indian advocate of
Nonviolence and human rights. He is considered as the spiritual successor of aman yadav.
Vinoba Bhave was a scholar, thinker, writer who produced numerous books, translator who
made Sanskrit texts accessible to common man, orator, linguist who had excellent command of
several languages (Marathi, Hindi, Urdu, English, Sanskrit), and a social reformer. He wrote
brief introductions to, and criticisms of, several religious and philosophical works like the
Bhagavad Gita, works of Adi Shankaracharya, the Bible and Quran. His criticism of
Dnyaneshwar's poetry as also the output by other Marathi saints is quite brilliant and a testimony
to the breadth of his intellect. A university named after him Vinoba Bhave University is still
there in the state of Jharkhand spreading knowledge even after his death.many people gave him
land and this land he severed for poor.
Dr.B. R. Ambedkar

7. B. R. Ambedkar (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956) was an Indian jurist, political leader,
Buddhist activist, philosopher, thinker, anthropologist, historian, orator, prolific writer,
economist, scholar, editor, revolutionary and the revivalist of Buddhism in India.ambedkar was
born in maharashtra.He was also the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. He formed the
"Independent Labour Party". Ambedkar spent his whole life fighting against social
discrimination, the system of Chaturvarna – the Hindu categorisation of human society into four
varnas – and the Hindu caste system. He is also credited with having sparked the bloodless
revolution with his most remarkable and innovative Buddhist movement. Dr. Bhimrao ramji
Ambedkar has been honoured with the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award.
Shriram Sharma Acharya
Shriram Sharma Acharya (20 September 1911 – 2 June 1990) was an Indian seer, sage, Indian
social worker, a philanthropist, a visionary of the New Golden Era and the Founder of the All
World Gayatri Pariwar. He devoted his life to the welfare of people and the refinement of the
moral and cultural environment. He pioneered the revival of spirituality, creative integration of
the modern and ancient sciences and religion relevant in the challenging circumstances of the
present times. To help people, his aim was to diagnose the root cause of the ailing state of the
world today and enable the upliftment of society. Acharyaji recognised the crisis of faith,
people’s ignorance of the powers of the inner self, and the lack of righteous attitude and conduct.
During 1984–1986, he carried out the unique spiritual experiment of sukshmikaraña, meaning
sublimation of vital force and physical, mental and spiritual energies.
Social reformers of World
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Father of the Nation)(2 October 1869 - 30 January 1948) was
the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian independence
movement. He was the pioneer of 'satyagraha'—resistance to tyranny through mass civil
disobedience, firmly founded upon ahimsa or total non-violence—which led India to
independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. Gandhi
led nationwide campaigns to ease poverty, expand women's rights, build religious and ethnic
amity, end accountability, and increase economic self-reliance,he is the chief leader in "mithacha
satyagraha".
He was a major political and spiritual leader of India and the Indian independence movement.
He was the pioneer of Satyagraha—a philosophy that is largely concerned with truth and
'resistance to evil through active, non-violent resistance'—which led India to independence and
inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.
Nelson mandela

8. Nelson Mandela never wavered in his devotion to democracy, equality and learning. Despite
terrible provocation, he never answered racism with racism. His life has been an inspiration to all
who are oppressed and deprived; to all who are opposed to oppression and deprivation.
“I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have
cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in
harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But
if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”
Martin Luther
Martin Luther (November 10, 1483–February 18, 1546) was a German monk, theologian,
university professor and church reformer whose ideas inspired the Protestant Reformation and
changed the course of Western civilization.
Luther's theology challenged the authority of the papacy by holding that the Bible is the only
infallible source of religious authority and that all baptized Christians under Jesus are a spiritual
priesthood. According to Luther, salvation was a free gift of God, received only by true
repentance and faith in Jesus as the Messiah, a faith given by God and unmediated by the church.
His translation of the Bible into the vernacular, making it more accessible to ordinary people,
had a tremendous political impact on the church and on German culture. It furthered the
development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of
translation, and influenced the translation of the English King James Bible. His hymns inspired
the development of congregational singing within Christianity. His marriage to Katharina von
Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage within Protestantism. Much scholarly
debate has concentrated on Luther's writings about the Jews. His statements that Jews' homes
should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed were
revived and used in propaganda by the Nazis in 1933–45.
As a result of this and his revolutionary theological views, his legacy remains controversial.
KARL MARX
Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 – March 14, 1883) was a German philosopher, political
economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, and communist revolutionary, whose ideas
played a significant role in the development of modern communism and socialism. Marx
summarized his approach in the first line of chapter one of The Communist Manifesto, published
in 1848: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." Marx
argued that capitalism, like previous socioeconomic systems, would inevitably produce internal
tensions which would lead to its destruction. Just as capitalism replaced feudalism, he believed
socialism would, in its turn, replace capitalism, and lead to a stateless, classless society called
pure communism. This would emerge after a transitional period called the "dictatorship of the
proletariat": a period sometimes referred to as the "workers state" or "workers' democracy".
Mother Teresa

9. Mother Teresa (August 26, 1910 – September 5, 1997), born Agnesë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu was an
Albanian Roman Catholic nun with Indian citizenship who founded the Missionaries of Charity
in Kolkata (Calcutta), India in 1950. For over 45 years she ministered to the poor, sick,
orphaned, and dying, while guiding the Missionaries of Charity's expansion, first throughout
India and then in other countries.
By the 1970s she was internationally famed as a humanitarian and advocate for the poor and
helpless, due in part to a documentary, and book, Something Beautiful for God by Malcolm
Muggeridge. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 and India's highest civilian honour, the
Bharat Ratna, in 1980 for her humanitarian work. Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity
continued to expand, and at the time of her death it was operating 610 missions in 123 countries,
including hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis, soup
kitchens, children's and family counseling programs, orphanages, and schools.
She has been praised by many individuals, governments and organizations; however, she has
also faced a diverse range of criticism. These include objections by various individuals,
including Christopher Hitchens, Michael Parenti, Aroup Chatterjee, Vishva Hindu Parishad,
against the proselytizing focus of her work; this included baptisms of the dying, a strong anti-
abortion stance, and a belief in the spiritual goodness of poverty. Several medical journals also
criticised the standard of medical care in her hospices and concerns were raised about the opaque
nature in which donated money was spent.
Following her death she was beatified by Pope John Paul II and given the title Blessed Teresa of
Calcutta.
Emma Goldman
Emma Goldman (June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940) was an anarchist known for her political
activism, writing, and speeches. She was lionized as a free-thinking "rebel woman" by admirers,
and derided as an advocate of politically motivated murder and violent revolution by her critics.
Goldman played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in the United
States and Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. Although she distanced herself from
first-wave feminism and its efforts toward women's suffrage, she developed new ways of
incorporating gender politics into anarchism. She spoke and wrote on a wide variety of issues,
including prisons, atheism, freedom of speech, militarism, capitalism, marriage, and free love.
After decades of obscurity, Goldman's iconic status was revived in the 1970s, when feminist and
anarchist scholars rekindled popular interest in her life.
Contents

10. Conserve Water,
Water is one of the nature's precious gifts to mankind. All living things consist mostly of water eg. the
human body is of two thirds of water.
Water is the most essential component of life and is vital for sustainance. Without water people cannot
live, without water plant cannot live, without water animal cannot live. Water is known as the elixir of
life.
Over the years the rising populations, growing industrialization and expecting agriculture have pushed
upon the demand for water. Efforts have been made to collect water by building dams and reservoirs and
digging wells. Some countries have also tried to recycle and desalinate (remove salts) water. Water
conservation has become the need of the day. The idea of ground water recharging by harvesting
rainwater is gaining importance in many cities.
We should also create an awareness of the need for water conservation among your children. We
should learn to turn off faucets tightly after use, adjust sprinklers to water your garden.
So, we should all stand together to conserve water to save life. No water no life, no water no future.
There is a gap between the seasonal availability of water and its equitable supply throughout the
year. Accordingly the storage of water and passage through soils is very important. It is well
known that about 70% area in this country is subject to varying degree of water stress. There are
areas with heavy rainfall but water problems become predominant during non-monsoon periods.
It is thus a matter of concern to create a redistribution system and requirements as and when it is
needed. Although there are many methods for water management, the two important methods are
mentioned as follows.
(I) Watershed management
(II) Rainwater harvesting
(I) Watershed Management :
A watershed is an area bounded by the divide line of water flow so that a distinct drainage basin
of any small or big water course or stream can be identified. The rain falling over this area will
flow through only one point of the whole watershed. In other words, the entire area will be
drained only by one stream or water course. In this way we will have definitive water resource
which can be assessed and analyzed for planning for the optimum utilization through ground
water, wells, tube wells, small ponds, bigger tanks or reservoirs.
Watershed management is very important for rainfall and resultant run-off. More than 900
watersheds of the flood prone rivers have been identified and are at present in operation. The

11. development of delayed through propagation of water harvesting technology is also based on the
concept of micro watershed.
Himalayas are one of the most critical watersheds in the world. The damage to reservoirs and
irrigation systems and misused Himalayan slopes is mounting as are the costs for the control
measures during the flood season every year. The vast hydroelectric power potential can be
harnessed from the Himalayas watersheds on a sustainable basis.
(II) Rain water Harvesting :
Water harvesting technologies have established the economic and practical feasibility for
inclusion in integrated watershed management plans. A number of such structures in the Hirakud
catchment have revealed that these are desirable for protection of land, restoration of degraded
land for creation of micro irrigation potential of reuse of water. This would also help in increased
production based productivity for generation of employment of opportunities.
The concept of watershed management has been extended to agro-industrial watersheds which
take care of agro-industrial development.