Derived Lipids
Derived lipids include the products obtained after the
hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which
possess the characteristics of lipids, e.g.
ï Fatty acids
ï Steroids
ï Cholesterol
ï Lipid soluble vitamins and hormones
ï Ketone bodies.
Classification of Lipids
There are many different methods of classifying lipids.
The most commonly used classification of lipids is
modified from Bloor as follows:
1. Simple lipids
2. Complex or compound lipids
3. Derived lipids.
INTRODUCTION
‘Cell’ means a small room or chamber, cells are the
structural and functional units of all living organisms. The
major parts of a cell are the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The electron microscope allowed classification of cells
into two major groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
based on the presence and absence of the true nucleus.
Eukaryotes
ï Eukaryotes have nucleus which is covered by
nuclear membrane. (Greek: Eue = true, karyon =
nucleus). Animals, plants and fungi belong to the
eukaryotes.
ï Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes.
ï Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a variety of
other membrane-bound organelles (subcellular
elements) in their cytoplasm, including:
Polysaccharides (Greek: Poly = many) or Glycans
Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of hundreds or
thousands of monosaccharide units. They are also called
glycans or complex carbohydrates. They may be either
linear, (e.g. cellulose) or branched, (e.g. glycogen) in
structure.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
ï Endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network
of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the
cytoplasm (Figures 1.4A and B).
ï Endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between
nucleus and cell membrane by connecting the cell
membrane at one end and the outer membrane of
the nucleus at the other end (see Figure 1.1).
ï A large number of minute granular particles called
Monosaccharides (Greek: Mono = one)
Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars. The term
sugar is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in
water and sweet to taste. They consist of a single
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit
Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo = few)
Oligosaccharides consist of a short chain of monosaccharide
units (2 to 10 units), joined together by a characteristic bond
called glycosidic bond which, on hydrolysis, gives two to
ten molecules of simple sugar (monosaccharide) units
Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body. There are three main types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates. Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive health.Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body. There are three main types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates. Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive health.
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies the rates of chemical reactions, the factors that influence these rates, and the mechanisms by which reactions occur. It provides insights into how reactants transform into products over time. Understanding chemical kinetics is crucial for optimizing reaction conditions, designing efficient industrial processes, and gaining insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms. Here are key concepts in chemical kinetics:
Classification of Lipids
There are many different methods of classifying lipids.
The most commonly used classification of lipids is
modified from Bloor as follows:
1. Simple lipids
2. Complex or compound lipids
3. Derived lipids.
INTRODUCTION
‘Cell’ means a small room or chamber, cells are the
structural and functional units of all living organisms. The
major parts of a cell are the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The electron microscope allowed classification of cells
into two major groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
based on the presence and absence of the true nucleus.
Eukaryotes
ï Eukaryotes have nucleus which is covered by
nuclear membrane. (Greek: Eue = true, karyon =
nucleus). Animals, plants and fungi belong to the
eukaryotes.
ï Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes.
ï Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a variety of
other membrane-bound organelles (subcellular
elements) in their cytoplasm, including:
Polysaccharides (Greek: Poly = many) or Glycans
Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of hundreds or
thousands of monosaccharide units. They are also called
glycans or complex carbohydrates. They may be either
linear, (e.g. cellulose) or branched, (e.g. glycogen) in
structure.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
ï Endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network
of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the
cytoplasm (Figures 1.4A and B).
ï Endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between
nucleus and cell membrane by connecting the cell
membrane at one end and the outer membrane of
the nucleus at the other end (see Figure 1.1).
ï A large number of minute granular particles called
Monosaccharides (Greek: Mono = one)
Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars. The term
sugar is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in
water and sweet to taste. They consist of a single
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit
Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo = few)
Oligosaccharides consist of a short chain of monosaccharide
units (2 to 10 units), joined together by a characteristic bond
called glycosidic bond which, on hydrolysis, gives two to
ten molecules of simple sugar (monosaccharide) units
Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body. There are three main types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates. Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive health.Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body. There are three main types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates. Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive health.
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies the rates of chemical reactions, the factors that influence these rates, and the mechanisms by which reactions occur. It provides insights into how reactants transform into products over time. Understanding chemical kinetics is crucial for optimizing reaction conditions, designing efficient industrial processes, and gaining insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms. Here are key concepts in chemical kinetics:
Reaction Order and Rate Determining Step:
Rate-Determining Step: The slowest step in a reaction mechanism, determining the overall rate of the reaction.
Overall Reaction Order: The sum of the individual orders of reactants in the rate-determining step.
Enzymes are biological molecules that act as catalysts, facilitating and accelerating chemical reactions within living organisms. They play a crucial role in various physiological processes, contributing to the maintenance and regulation of cellular functions. Here are key features and functions of enzymes:
Biology is the scientific study of living organisms. It examines different levels of organization, from molecules to cells to entire organisms. Key areas include molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, genomics, and organismal biology. Biology aims to understand the structure and function of life as well as the complex interactions between organisms and their environments.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It emerged in the early 20th century by applying principles of chemistry to biological systems. The four main types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are made up of monomers linked together into polymers. The goal of biochemistry is to describe and explain all chemical processes that occur within living cells on a molecular level in order to understand functions of life. Knowledge of biochemistry is essential to fields like genetics, physiology, pharmacology and pathology.
This document provides an overview of biology and its key aspects. It discusses how biology is the scientific study of living organisms, including their molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. It also covers genetics and heredity. The document outlines the levels of biological organization from molecular to cellular to organismal levels. It also discusses genetics and genomics.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in biology by summarizing 7 points:
1) New properties emerge at higher levels of biological organization from molecules to ecosystems.
2) Organisms interact with their physical environment and other organisms in complex relationships.
3) Life requires the transfer and transformation of energy to carry out functions.
4) Structure and function are closely related at all levels from cells to organisms.
5) The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in organisms.
6) The continuity of life is based on heritable DNA containing genetic information.
7) Feedback mechanisms allow biological processes to self-regulate themselves.
Biology lecture 1 and 2_e6c1908877387bfcb9829159160b7c89.pptxREECHBOLKUOLREECH
This document outlines the content of a biology course, including introductions to key topics like cell biology, chemicals of life, and ecology. The course covers cell structure and organelles, characteristics of living things, and levels of biological organization. Cell structure is defined, including the cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles. The cell theory is introduced along with early observations of cells by Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, and Schwann that led to its development.
This document provides an introduction to physiology by discussing what physiology is, its importance for medical students, and how it relates to other biological sciences. It defines physiology as the scientific study of normal function in living systems. Key points made include:
- Physiology is a branch of biology that focuses on functions and mechanisms in living systems.
- Understanding physiology provides the foundation for medicine and improves comprehension of pathology.
- Physiology is closely related to and informs fields like anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, and ecology.
- The document outlines the major human body systems and cellular organization of tissues before discussing cellular physiology and structure.
This document provides an overview of biology and science. It discusses biology as the study of living organisms at different levels of organization, including molecular, cellular, and organismal biology. It also covers genetics and heredity. The document then defines science as a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It outlines key features of science such as empirical evidence, systematic observation, testability, predictive power, and reproducibility. Finally, it briefly discusses the major branches of science, including physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, environmental sciences, and social sciences.
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.
Biology is the scientific study of living organisms, their interactions, and their environments. It examines life at multiple levels of organization, from molecules to ecosystems. Key areas of biology include molecular and cell biology, genetics and heredity, and organismal biology. Science is a systematic approach to understanding nature through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It relies on empirical evidence, reproducible results, and testable theories that can make accurate predictions. The main branches of science are the physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, environmental sciences, and social sciences.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry. It begins by defining biochemistry as the science concerned with the chemical nature of living matter. Biochemistry has two branches - descriptive biochemistry which qualitatively and quantitatively characterizes cell components, and dynamic biochemistry which elucidates the nature and mechanisms of reactions between these components. The document then discusses the hierarchy of molecular organization within cells from basic precursors to macromolecules and organelles. It provides details on the structure and functions of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells as well as some of the major organelles found in eukaryotic cells like the plasma membrane, cytoskeleton, and cytoplasm.
This document provides an overview of biology and its branches from an introductory lecture. It defines biology and lists its main branches such as anatomy, ecology, molecular biology, and physiology. It also outlines characteristics of living things like homeostasis, adaptation, reproduction, growth and response to stimuli. Finally, it discusses the levels of cellular organization and provides a brief tour of the cell.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry. It defines biochemistry as the study of biological processes at the cellular and molecular levels by applying principles of chemistry. Biochemistry emerged in the early 20th century by combining biology, chemistry and physiology. The document outlines that cells are the basic units of living organisms and discusses the structures and functions of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It also summarizes the major classes of small biomolecules like amino acids, sugars, fatty acids and the types of biochemical reactions that occur in cells, including how cells obtain and use energy.
L1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY & BODY FLUIDS COMPARTMENTS.pptxJoseph KUNDA
Human physiology is the study of the function of body parts.
this an introductory lecture that introduces learners to the exciting discovery of an exciting subject in the study of medicine.
Biochemistry, Biomolecules and Cell: An IntroductionPrincy Agarwal
This document provides a list of contents for a biochemistry textbook. It covers topics such as an introduction to biochemistry, biomolecules, cells, organelles, transport across cell membranes, and endocytosis and exocytosis. The key topics are cells as the basic unit of life, the structures and functions of major organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. It also summarizes the different mechanisms of transport across the cell membrane, including passive transport by diffusion and facilitated diffusion, and active transport like primary and secondary active transport.
2 Packaging_Introduction presentation for studentsAmitKasaudhan7
Packaging plays a key role in the modern food industry by acting as a barrier between foods and potential contaminants like oxygen, moisture, smells, and microbes. It helps retain foods' sensory characteristics and extends shelf life by protecting products from external influences. The major functions of food packaging are containment, maintenance of clean and hygienic conditions, conservation by shelf life extension, protection from physical and chemical harm, and dissemination of information to consumers. Effective packaging is essential for safely distributing foods and reducing wastage throughout the supply chain.
ow on damp nuts. Nut meats are frequently contaminated with molds especially the storage molds Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Fusarium. The mold composition changes from "field fungi" to "storage fungi" from harvest through processing to storage. Aflatoxin is a concern because of mold growth and mycot
This document provides an overview of biology and its key areas of study. It discusses biology as the scientific study of living organisms, their interactions, and their environments. It outlines the different levels of biological organization from molecular to cellular to organismal. It also covers genetics and heredity. The summary focuses on providing a high-level view of the scope and main topics within biology discussed in the document.
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Similar to ttttttttttteeeeeeeeeeeeecccccccccccccccccchhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnoooooooooooooooooolllllllllllllggggggggggggyyyyyyyyyyyyy.pptx
Reaction Order and Rate Determining Step:
Rate-Determining Step: The slowest step in a reaction mechanism, determining the overall rate of the reaction.
Overall Reaction Order: The sum of the individual orders of reactants in the rate-determining step.
Enzymes are biological molecules that act as catalysts, facilitating and accelerating chemical reactions within living organisms. They play a crucial role in various physiological processes, contributing to the maintenance and regulation of cellular functions. Here are key features and functions of enzymes:
Biology is the scientific study of living organisms. It examines different levels of organization, from molecules to cells to entire organisms. Key areas include molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, genomics, and organismal biology. Biology aims to understand the structure and function of life as well as the complex interactions between organisms and their environments.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It emerged in the early 20th century by applying principles of chemistry to biological systems. The four main types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are made up of monomers linked together into polymers. The goal of biochemistry is to describe and explain all chemical processes that occur within living cells on a molecular level in order to understand functions of life. Knowledge of biochemistry is essential to fields like genetics, physiology, pharmacology and pathology.
This document provides an overview of biology and its key aspects. It discusses how biology is the scientific study of living organisms, including their molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. It also covers genetics and heredity. The document outlines the levels of biological organization from molecular to cellular to organismal levels. It also discusses genetics and genomics.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in biology by summarizing 7 points:
1) New properties emerge at higher levels of biological organization from molecules to ecosystems.
2) Organisms interact with their physical environment and other organisms in complex relationships.
3) Life requires the transfer and transformation of energy to carry out functions.
4) Structure and function are closely related at all levels from cells to organisms.
5) The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in organisms.
6) The continuity of life is based on heritable DNA containing genetic information.
7) Feedback mechanisms allow biological processes to self-regulate themselves.
Biology lecture 1 and 2_e6c1908877387bfcb9829159160b7c89.pptxREECHBOLKUOLREECH
This document outlines the content of a biology course, including introductions to key topics like cell biology, chemicals of life, and ecology. The course covers cell structure and organelles, characteristics of living things, and levels of biological organization. Cell structure is defined, including the cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles. The cell theory is introduced along with early observations of cells by Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, and Schwann that led to its development.
This document provides an introduction to physiology by discussing what physiology is, its importance for medical students, and how it relates to other biological sciences. It defines physiology as the scientific study of normal function in living systems. Key points made include:
- Physiology is a branch of biology that focuses on functions and mechanisms in living systems.
- Understanding physiology provides the foundation for medicine and improves comprehension of pathology.
- Physiology is closely related to and informs fields like anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, and ecology.
- The document outlines the major human body systems and cellular organization of tissues before discussing cellular physiology and structure.
This document provides an overview of biology and science. It discusses biology as the study of living organisms at different levels of organization, including molecular, cellular, and organismal biology. It also covers genetics and heredity. The document then defines science as a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It outlines key features of science such as empirical evidence, systematic observation, testability, predictive power, and reproducibility. Finally, it briefly discusses the major branches of science, including physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, environmental sciences, and social sciences.
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.
Biology is the scientific study of living organisms, their interactions, and their environments. It examines life at multiple levels of organization, from molecules to ecosystems. Key areas of biology include molecular and cell biology, genetics and heredity, and organismal biology. Science is a systematic approach to understanding nature through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It relies on empirical evidence, reproducible results, and testable theories that can make accurate predictions. The main branches of science are the physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, environmental sciences, and social sciences.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry. It begins by defining biochemistry as the science concerned with the chemical nature of living matter. Biochemistry has two branches - descriptive biochemistry which qualitatively and quantitatively characterizes cell components, and dynamic biochemistry which elucidates the nature and mechanisms of reactions between these components. The document then discusses the hierarchy of molecular organization within cells from basic precursors to macromolecules and organelles. It provides details on the structure and functions of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells as well as some of the major organelles found in eukaryotic cells like the plasma membrane, cytoskeleton, and cytoplasm.
This document provides an overview of biology and its branches from an introductory lecture. It defines biology and lists its main branches such as anatomy, ecology, molecular biology, and physiology. It also outlines characteristics of living things like homeostasis, adaptation, reproduction, growth and response to stimuli. Finally, it discusses the levels of cellular organization and provides a brief tour of the cell.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry. It defines biochemistry as the study of biological processes at the cellular and molecular levels by applying principles of chemistry. Biochemistry emerged in the early 20th century by combining biology, chemistry and physiology. The document outlines that cells are the basic units of living organisms and discusses the structures and functions of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It also summarizes the major classes of small biomolecules like amino acids, sugars, fatty acids and the types of biochemical reactions that occur in cells, including how cells obtain and use energy.
L1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY & BODY FLUIDS COMPARTMENTS.pptxJoseph KUNDA
Human physiology is the study of the function of body parts.
this an introductory lecture that introduces learners to the exciting discovery of an exciting subject in the study of medicine.
Biochemistry, Biomolecules and Cell: An IntroductionPrincy Agarwal
This document provides a list of contents for a biochemistry textbook. It covers topics such as an introduction to biochemistry, biomolecules, cells, organelles, transport across cell membranes, and endocytosis and exocytosis. The key topics are cells as the basic unit of life, the structures and functions of major organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. It also summarizes the different mechanisms of transport across the cell membrane, including passive transport by diffusion and facilitated diffusion, and active transport like primary and secondary active transport.
Similar to ttttttttttteeeeeeeeeeeeecccccccccccccccccchhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnoooooooooooooooooolllllllllllllggggggggggggyyyyyyyyyyyyy.pptx (19)
2 Packaging_Introduction presentation for studentsAmitKasaudhan7
Packaging plays a key role in the modern food industry by acting as a barrier between foods and potential contaminants like oxygen, moisture, smells, and microbes. It helps retain foods' sensory characteristics and extends shelf life by protecting products from external influences. The major functions of food packaging are containment, maintenance of clean and hygienic conditions, conservation by shelf life extension, protection from physical and chemical harm, and dissemination of information to consumers. Effective packaging is essential for safely distributing foods and reducing wastage throughout the supply chain.
ow on damp nuts. Nut meats are frequently contaminated with molds especially the storage molds Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Fusarium. The mold composition changes from "field fungi" to "storage fungi" from harvest through processing to storage. Aflatoxin is a concern because of mold growth and mycot
This document provides an overview of biology and its key areas of study. It discusses biology as the scientific study of living organisms, their interactions, and their environments. It outlines the different levels of biological organization from molecular to cellular to organismal. It also covers genetics and heredity. The summary focuses on providing a high-level view of the scope and main topics within biology discussed in the document.
[2:40 pm, 31/12/2023] Aarav (@): Neutral amino acids
The amino acids which are neutral in solution and are
monoamino-monocarboxylic acids (i.e. having one
amino group and one carboxylic group), e.g.
[2:40 pm, 31/12/2023] Aarav (@): Acidic amino acid
These are acidic in solution and are monoamino dicarboxylic
acids, e.g.
ï Aspartic acid
lassification Based on Chemical Nature
of the Amino Acid in Solution
According to this type of classification, amino acids are
classified as follows:
i. Neutral amino acids
ii. Acidic amino acids
iii. Basic amino acids.
Amino acids differ from each other in their side
chains or R-groups, attached to the α-carbon.
ï The 20 amino acids of proteins are often referred to
as the standard or primary or normal amino acid
GENERAL NATURE OF AMINO ACIDS
ï There are approximately 300 amino acids present in
various animal, plant and microbial systems, but only
20 amino acids are involved in the formation of proteins.
ï All the 20 amino acids found in proteins (Table 4.1)
have a carboxyl group (-COOH) and an amino acid
group (-NH2) bound to the same carbon atom called
the α-carbon
ction that occurs in the body.
Proteins are linear chains of amino acids that are linked
together by covalent, peptide bonds. Each protein has
specific and unique sequence of amino acids that defines
both its three-dimensional structure and its biologic
function.
INTRODUCTION
Proteins are the most abundant macromolecules in
living cells. The term ‘protein’ was first used by
Berzelius in 1838 and was derived from the Greek word
“protos” which means primary or holding first place.
As the name indicates, protein is the most important of
cell constituents. They are responsible for almost every
function that occurs in the body.
Complex or Compound Lipids
These are esters of fatty acids, with alcohol containing
additional (prosthetic) groups. These are subclassified
according to the type of prosthetic group present in the
lipid as follows:
1. Phospholipids
2. Glycolipids
3. Lipoproteins.
Waxes
True waxes
These are esters of fatty acids with higher molecular
weight monohydric long chain alcohols. These com-
pounds have no importance as far as human metabolism
is concerned. For example,
ï Lanolin (from lamb’s wool)
ï Bees-wax
ï Spermacetic oil (from whales).
Neutral fats or triacylglycerol or triglycerides
These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol glycerol, e.g.
tripalmitin. Because they are uncharged, they are termed
as neutral fat. The fat we eat are mostly triglycerides. A
fat in liquid state is called an oil, e.g. vegetable oils like
groundnut oil, mustard oil, corn oil, etc.
Simple Lipids
These are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
Depending on the type of alcohols, these are sub-
classified as:
1. Neutral fats or triacylglycerol or triglycerides
2. Waxes.
Science is a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and logical reasoning. Key aspects of science include developing hypotheses and theories that can be tested and either verified or falsified through empirical evidence and reproducible experiments. The major branches of science are the physical sciences like physics and chemistry; the life sciences like biology; earth sciences like geology; and environmental and social sciences.
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Dahua provides a comprehensive guide on how to install their security camera systems. Learn about the different types of cameras and system components, as well as the installation process.
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Our services include:
Crane Rental: Whether you need a crawler crane for heavy lifting or a hydraulic crane for versatile operations, we have a diverse fleet of well-maintained cranes available for rent. Our rental options are flexible and can be customized to suit your project requirements.
Crane Sales: Looking to invest in a crane for your business? We offer a wide selection of new and used cranes from leading manufacturers, ensuring you find the perfect equipment to match your needs and budget.
Crane Maintenance and Repair: To ensure optimal performance and safety, regular maintenance and timely repairs are essential for cranes. Our team of skilled technicians provides comprehensive maintenance and repair services to keep your equipment running smoothly and minimize downtime.
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2. Biology
1.Biology is the scientific study of living organisms and their
interactions with each other and their environments. It is a diverse
and dynamic field that encompasses a wide range of topics, from the
molecular and cellular levels to ecosystems and the biosphere. Here
are some key aspects of biology:
Levels of Organization:
1. Molecular Biology: Examines the structure and function of biological
molecules, such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids.
2. Cell Biology: Focuses on the structure and function of cells, the basic units
of life.
3. Organismal Biology: Investigates the structure, function, and behavior of
entire organisms.
Genetics and Heredity:
4. Genetics: Studies the principles of inheritance and variation in living
organisms.
5. Genomics: Involves the study of entire genomes, including the identification
and mapping of genes.
3. Introduction
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes
knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions
about the universe. It is a disciplined and methodical approach to
understanding the natural world and the underlying principles that
govern its behavior. The primary goal of science is to uncover the
patterns and regularities in nature through observation,
experimentation, and logical reasoning.
4. Key features of science include:
1.Empirical Evidence: Scientific knowledge is based on
empirical evidence obtained through observation and
experimentation. This evidence is gathered using the five
senses or through the use of instruments that extend human
perception.
2.Systematic Observation: Scientists carefully observe and
gather data in a systematic manner. This involves developing
hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing results to
draw meaningful conclusions.
5. • Testability: Scientific hypotheses and theories must be testable
and falsifiable. This means that there must be a way to
experimentally verify or refute a hypothesis based on
observable evidence.
Predictive Power: Successful scientific theories not only
explain past observations but also have the ability to make
accurate predictions about future events or phenomena.
6. Reproducibility: Scientific findings should be reproducible,
meaning that other researchers should be able to conduct similar
experiments and obtain similar results. This helps validate the
reliability of scientific claims.
Universal Principles: Scientific principles and laws are often
universal, applying consistently across different contexts and
environments. This contributes to the development of a unified
understanding of the natural world.
7. Branches of science
• Physical Sciences:
• Physics: The study of matter, energy, and the fundamental
forces that govern the universe.
• Chemistry: The study of the composition, properties, and
behavior of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during
chemical reactions.
• Astronomy: The study of celestial objects, including stars,
planets, galaxies, and the universe as a whole.
8. • Life Sciences (Biology):
• Biology: The study of living organisms, their structure, function,
growth, evolution, and distribution.
• Botany: Focuses on the study of plants, including their
structure, growth, reproduction, and classification.
• Zoology: Concentrates on the study of animals, including their
behavior, physiology, classification, and evolution.
9. • Earth Sciences:
• Geology: The study of the Earth's structure, composition, and
processes, including the study of rocks, minerals, and the
forces that shape the Earth's surface.
• Meteorology: Investigates the Earth's atmosphere, weather
patterns, and climate.
• Oceanography: Examines the physical and biological aspects
of the oceans, including their currents, ecosystems, and
geology.
10. 1.Environmental Sciences:
1.Environmental Science: Focuses on the study of the environment,
including the impact of human activities on ecosystems, conservation,
and sustainable practices.
2.Social Sciences:
1.Psychology: The study of the human mind and behavior.
2.Sociology: Examines human society, social relationships, and
institutions.
3.Anthropology: Studies human cultures, societies, and their
development.
11. Physics
• Physics is the branch of science that studies the fundamental
principles governing the behavior of matter and energy in the
universe. It seeks to understand the nature of the physical
world, from the smallest particles at the quantum level to the
vast expanses of the cosmos. Here are some key aspects of
physics:
12. Chemistry
• Chemistry is the branch of science that explores the properties,
composition, structure, reactions, and changes of matter. It is
often referred to as the "central science" because it connects
and overlaps with other scientific disciplines, such as physics,
biology, and environmental science. Here are key aspects of
chemistry:
13. Biochemistry
• Biochemistry is the branch of science that combines principles
of biology and chemistry to study the chemical processes and
substances that occur within living organisms. It focuses on the
molecular mechanisms that underlie various biological functions
and processes. Biochemistry seeks to understand the structure,
function, and interactions of biomolecules, as well as the
metabolic pathways and signaling networks that regulate
cellular activities. Here are key aspects of biochemistry:
14. Enzymes
• Enzymes are biological molecules that act as catalysts,
facilitating and accelerating chemical reactions within living
organisms. They play a crucial role in various physiological
processes, contributing to the maintenance and regulation of
cellular functions. Here are key features and functions of
enzymes:
15. Chemical kinetics
• Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies the
rates of chemical reactions, the factors that influence these
rates, and the mechanisms by which reactions occur. It provides
insights into how reactants transform into products over time.
Understanding chemical kinetics is crucial for optimizing
reaction conditions, designing efficient industrial processes, and
gaining insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms.
Here are key concepts in chemical kinetics:
16. • Reaction Order and Rate Determining Step:
• Rate-Determining Step: The slowest step in a reaction
mechanism, determining the overall rate of the reaction.
• Overall Reaction Order: The sum of the individual orders of
reactants in the rate-determining step.
17. • Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body.
There are three main types:Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g.,
glucose, fructose).Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose,
lactose).Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch,
glycogen, cellulose).Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with
salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the
small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates.
Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose
levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive
health.
18. • INTRODUCTION
• ‘Cell’ means a small room or chamber, cells are the
• structural and functional units of all living organisms. The
• major parts of a cell are the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• The electron microscope allowed classification of cells
• into two major groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
• based on the presence and absence of the true nucleus.
• Eukaryotes
• ï Eukaryotes have nucleus which is covered by
• nuclear membrane. (Greek: Eue = true, karyon =
• nucleus). Animals, plants and fungi belong to the
• eukaryotes.
• ï Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes.
• ï Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a variety of
• other membrane-bound organelles (subcellular
• elements) in their cytoplasm, including:
19. • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• ï Endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network
• of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the
• cytoplasm (Figures 1.4A and B).
• ï Endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between
• nucleus and cell membrane by connecting the cell
• membrane at one end and the outer membrane of
• the nucleus at the other end (see Figure 1.1).
• ï A large number of minute granular particles called
20. • Monosaccharides (Greek: Mono = one)
• Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars. The term
• sugar is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in
• water and sweet to taste. They consist of a single
• polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit
21. • Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo = few)
• Oligosaccharides consist of a short chain of monosaccharide
• units (2 to 10 units), joined together by a characteristic bond
• called glycosidic bond which, on hydrolysis, gives two to
• ten molecules of simple sugar (monosaccharide) units
22. • Polysaccharides (Greek: Poly = many) or Glycans
• Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of hundreds or
• thousands of monosaccharide units. They are also called
• glycans or complex carbohydrates. They may be either
• linear, (e.g. cellulose) or branched, (e.g. glycogen) in
• structure.
23. • INTRODUCTION
• Lipids are a major source of energy for the body besides
• their various other biochemical function and their role in
• cellular structure. Lipids are a heterogenous group of
• water insoluble (hydrophobic) organic molecules. Lipids
• include fats, oils, steroids, waxes and related compounds
24. • DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION AND
• FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
• Definition of Lipids
• Lipids may be defined as organic substances insoluble
• in water but soluble in organic solvents like chloroform,
• ether and benzene. They are esters of fatty acids with
• alcohol esters and are utilizable by the living organism
25. • Classification of Lipids
• There are many different methods of classifying lipids.
• The most commonly used classification of lipids is
• modified from Bloor as follows:
• 1. Simple lipids
• 2. Complex or compound lipids
• 3. Derived lipids.
26. • Neutral fats or triacylglycerol or triglycerides
• These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol glycerol, e.g.
• tripalmitin. Because they are uncharged, they are termed
• as neutral fat. The fat we eat are mostly triglycerides. A
• fat in liquid state is called an oil, e.g. vegetable oils like
• groundnut oil, mustard oil, corn oil, etc.
27. • Waxes
• True waxes
• These are esters of fatty acids with higher molecular
• weight monohydric long chain alcohols. These com-
• pounds have no importance as far as human metabolism
• is concerned. For example,
• ï Lanolin (from lamb’s wool)
• ï Bees-wax
• ï Spermacetic oil (from whales).
28. • Complex or Compound Lipids
• These are esters of fatty acids, with alcohol containing
• additional (prosthetic) groups. These are subclassified
• according to the type of prosthetic group present in the
• lipid as follows:
• 1. Phospholipids
• 2. Glycolipids
• 3. Lipoproteins.
29. • Derived Lipids
• Derived lipids include the products obtained after the
• hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which
• possess the characteristics of lipids, e.g.
• ï Fatty acids
• ï Steroids
• ï Cholesterol
• ï Lipid soluble vitamins and hormones
• ï Ketone bodies.