Classification of Lipids
There are many different methods of classifying lipids.
The most commonly used classification of lipids is
modified from Bloor as follows:
1. Simple lipids
2. Complex or compound lipids
3. Derived lipids.
lassification Based on Chemical Nature
of the Amino Acid in Solution
According to this type of classification, amino acids are
classified as follows:
i. Neutral amino acids
ii. Acidic amino acids
iii. Basic amino acids.
Simple Lipids
These are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
Depending on the type of alcohols, these are sub-
classified as:
1. Neutral fats or triacylglycerol or triglycerides
2. Waxes.
ow on damp nuts. Nut meats are frequently contaminated with molds especially the storage molds Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Fusarium. The mold composition changes from "field fungi" to "storage fungi" from harvest through processing to storage. Aflatoxin is a concern because of mold growth and mycot
ction that occurs in the body.
Proteins are linear chains of amino acids that are linked
together by covalent, peptide bonds. Each protein has
specific and unique sequence of amino acids that defines
both its three-dimensional structure and its biologic
function.
[2:40 pm, 31/12/2023] Aarav (@): Neutral amino acids
The amino acids which are neutral in solution and are
monoamino-monocarboxylic acids (i.e. having one
amino group and one carboxylic group), e.g.
[2:40 pm, 31/12/2023] Aarav (@): Acidic amino acid
These are acidic in solution and are monoamino dicarboxylic
acids, e.g.
ï Aspartic acid
Waxes
True waxes
These are esters of fatty acids with higher molecular
weight monohydric long chain alcohols. These com-
pounds have no importance as far as human metabolism
is concerned. For example,
ï Lanolin (from lamb’s wool)
ï Bees-wax
ï Spermacetic oil (from whales).
Complex or Compound Lipids
These are esters of fatty acids, with alcohol containing
additional (prosthetic) groups. These are subclassified
according to the type of prosthetic group present in the
lipid as follows:
1. Phospholipids
2. Glycolipids
3. Lipoproteins.
GENERAL NATURE OF AMINO ACIDS
ï There are approximately 300 amino acids present in
various animal, plant and microbial systems, but only
20 amino acids are involved in the formation of proteins.
ï All the 20 amino acids found in proteins (Table 4.1)
have a carboxyl group (-COOH) and an amino acid
group (-NH2) bound to the same carbon atom called
the α-carbon
lassification Based on Chemical Nature
of the Amino Acid in Solution
According to this type of classification, amino acids are
classified as follows:
i. Neutral amino acids
ii. Acidic amino acids
iii. Basic amino acids.
Simple Lipids
These are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
Depending on the type of alcohols, these are sub-
classified as:
1. Neutral fats or triacylglycerol or triglycerides
2. Waxes.
ow on damp nuts. Nut meats are frequently contaminated with molds especially the storage molds Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Fusarium. The mold composition changes from "field fungi" to "storage fungi" from harvest through processing to storage. Aflatoxin is a concern because of mold growth and mycot
ction that occurs in the body.
Proteins are linear chains of amino acids that are linked
together by covalent, peptide bonds. Each protein has
specific and unique sequence of amino acids that defines
both its three-dimensional structure and its biologic
function.
[2:40 pm, 31/12/2023] Aarav (@): Neutral amino acids
The amino acids which are neutral in solution and are
monoamino-monocarboxylic acids (i.e. having one
amino group and one carboxylic group), e.g.
[2:40 pm, 31/12/2023] Aarav (@): Acidic amino acid
These are acidic in solution and are monoamino dicarboxylic
acids, e.g.
ï Aspartic acid
Waxes
True waxes
These are esters of fatty acids with higher molecular
weight monohydric long chain alcohols. These com-
pounds have no importance as far as human metabolism
is concerned. For example,
ï Lanolin (from lamb’s wool)
ï Bees-wax
ï Spermacetic oil (from whales).
Complex or Compound Lipids
These are esters of fatty acids, with alcohol containing
additional (prosthetic) groups. These are subclassified
according to the type of prosthetic group present in the
lipid as follows:
1. Phospholipids
2. Glycolipids
3. Lipoproteins.
GENERAL NATURE OF AMINO ACIDS
ï There are approximately 300 amino acids present in
various animal, plant and microbial systems, but only
20 amino acids are involved in the formation of proteins.
ï All the 20 amino acids found in proteins (Table 4.1)
have a carboxyl group (-COOH) and an amino acid
group (-NH2) bound to the same carbon atom called
the α-carbon
Neutral fats or triacylglycerol or triglycerides
These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol glycerol, e.g.
tripalmitin. Because they are uncharged, they are termed
as neutral fat. The fat we eat are mostly triglycerides. A
fat in liquid state is called an oil, e.g. vegetable oils like
groundnut oil, mustard oil, corn oil, etc.
Derived Lipids
Derived lipids include the products obtained after the
hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which
possess the characteristics of lipids, e.g.
ï Fatty acids
ï Steroids
ï Cholesterol
ï Lipid soluble vitamins and hormones
ï Ketone bodies.
INTRODUCTION
Proteins are the most abundant macromolecules in
living cells. The term ‘protein’ was first used by
Berzelius in 1838 and was derived from the Greek word
“protos” which means primary or holding first place.
As the name indicates, protein is the most important of
cell constituents. They are responsible for almost every
function that occurs in the body.
This document provides an overview of biology and its key areas of study. It discusses biology as the scientific study of living organisms, their interactions, and their environments. It outlines the different levels of biological organization from molecular to cellular to organismal. It also covers genetics and heredity. The summary focuses on providing a high-level view of the scope and main topics within biology discussed in the document.
Amino acids differ from each other in their side
chains or R-groups, attached to the α-carbon.
ï The 20 amino acids of proteins are often referred to
as the standard or primary or normal amino acid
Polysaccharides (Greek: Poly = many) or Glycans
Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of hundreds or
thousands of monosaccharide units. They are also called
glycans or complex carbohydrates. They may be either
linear, (e.g. cellulose) or branched, (e.g. glycogen) in
structure.
INTRODUCTION
‘Cell’ means a small room or chamber, cells are the
structural and functional units of all living organisms. The
major parts of a cell are the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The electron microscope allowed classification of cells
into two major groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
based on the presence and absence of the true nucleus.
Eukaryotes
ï Eukaryotes have nucleus which is covered by
nuclear membrane. (Greek: Eue = true, karyon =
nucleus). Animals, plants and fungi belong to the
eukaryotes.
ï Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes.
ï Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a variety of
other membrane-bound organelles (subcellular
elements) in their cytoplasm, including:
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
ï Endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network
of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the
cytoplasm (Figures 1.4A and B).
ï Endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between
nucleus and cell membrane by connecting the cell
membrane at one end and the outer membrane of
the nucleus at the other end (see Figure 1.1).
ï A large number of minute granular particles called
Monosaccharides (Greek: Mono = one)
Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars. The term
sugar is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in
water and sweet to taste. They consist of a single
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit
Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo = few)
Oligosaccharides consist of a short chain of monosaccharide
units (2 to 10 units), joined together by a characteristic bond
called glycosidic bond which, on hydrolysis, gives two to
ten molecules of simple sugar (monosaccharide) units
Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body. There are three main types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates. Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive health.Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body. There are three main types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates. Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive health.
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies the rates of chemical reactions, the factors that influence these rates, and the mechanisms by which reactions occur. It provides insights into how reactants transform into products over time. Understanding chemical kinetics is crucial for optimizing reaction conditions, designing efficient industrial processes, and gaining insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms. Here are key concepts in chemical kinetics:
Reaction Order and Rate Determining Step:
Rate-Determining Step: The slowest step in a reaction mechanism, determining the overall rate of the reaction.
Overall Reaction Order: The sum of the individual orders of reactants in the rate-determining step.
Enzymes are biological molecules that act as catalysts, facilitating and accelerating chemical reactions within living organisms. They play a crucial role in various physiological processes, contributing to the maintenance and regulation of cellular functions. Here are key features and functions of enzymes:
This document provides an overview of biology and its key aspects. It discusses how biology is the scientific study of living organisms, including their molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. It also covers genetics and heredity. The document outlines the levels of biological organization from molecular to cellular to organismal levels. It also discusses genetics and genomics.
Biology is the scientific study of living organisms. It examines different levels of organization, from molecules to cells to entire organisms. Key areas include molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, genomics, and organismal biology. Biology aims to understand the structure and function of life as well as the complex interactions between organisms and their environments.
This document provides an overview of biology and science. It discusses biology as the study of living organisms at different levels of organization, including molecular, cellular, and organismal biology. It also covers genetics and heredity. The document then defines science as a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It outlines key features of science such as empirical evidence, systematic observation, testability, predictive power, and reproducibility. Finally, it briefly discusses the major branches of science, including physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, environmental sciences, and social sciences.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It emerged in the early 20th century by applying principles of chemistry to biological systems. The four main types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are made up of monomers linked together into polymers. The goal of biochemistry is to describe and explain all chemical processes that occur within living cells on a molecular level in order to understand functions of life. Knowledge of biochemistry is essential to fields like genetics, physiology, pharmacology and pathology.
Biology lecture 1 and 2_e6c1908877387bfcb9829159160b7c89.pptxREECHBOLKUOLREECH
This document outlines the content of a biology course, including introductions to key topics like cell biology, chemicals of life, and ecology. The course covers cell structure and organelles, characteristics of living things, and levels of biological organization. Cell structure is defined, including the cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles. The cell theory is introduced along with early observations of cells by Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, and Schwann that led to its development.
Biology is the scientific study of living organisms, their interactions, and their environments. It examines life at multiple levels of organization, from molecules to ecosystems. Key areas of biology include molecular and cell biology, genetics and heredity, and organismal biology. Science is a systematic approach to understanding nature through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It relies on empirical evidence, reproducible results, and testable theories that can make accurate predictions. The main branches of science are the physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, environmental sciences, and social sciences.
Neutral fats or triacylglycerol or triglycerides
These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol glycerol, e.g.
tripalmitin. Because they are uncharged, they are termed
as neutral fat. The fat we eat are mostly triglycerides. A
fat in liquid state is called an oil, e.g. vegetable oils like
groundnut oil, mustard oil, corn oil, etc.
Derived Lipids
Derived lipids include the products obtained after the
hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which
possess the characteristics of lipids, e.g.
ï Fatty acids
ï Steroids
ï Cholesterol
ï Lipid soluble vitamins and hormones
ï Ketone bodies.
INTRODUCTION
Proteins are the most abundant macromolecules in
living cells. The term ‘protein’ was first used by
Berzelius in 1838 and was derived from the Greek word
“protos” which means primary or holding first place.
As the name indicates, protein is the most important of
cell constituents. They are responsible for almost every
function that occurs in the body.
This document provides an overview of biology and its key areas of study. It discusses biology as the scientific study of living organisms, their interactions, and their environments. It outlines the different levels of biological organization from molecular to cellular to organismal. It also covers genetics and heredity. The summary focuses on providing a high-level view of the scope and main topics within biology discussed in the document.
Amino acids differ from each other in their side
chains or R-groups, attached to the α-carbon.
ï The 20 amino acids of proteins are often referred to
as the standard or primary or normal amino acid
Polysaccharides (Greek: Poly = many) or Glycans
Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of hundreds or
thousands of monosaccharide units. They are also called
glycans or complex carbohydrates. They may be either
linear, (e.g. cellulose) or branched, (e.g. glycogen) in
structure.
INTRODUCTION
‘Cell’ means a small room or chamber, cells are the
structural and functional units of all living organisms. The
major parts of a cell are the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The electron microscope allowed classification of cells
into two major groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
based on the presence and absence of the true nucleus.
Eukaryotes
ï Eukaryotes have nucleus which is covered by
nuclear membrane. (Greek: Eue = true, karyon =
nucleus). Animals, plants and fungi belong to the
eukaryotes.
ï Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes.
ï Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a variety of
other membrane-bound organelles (subcellular
elements) in their cytoplasm, including:
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
ï Endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network
of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the
cytoplasm (Figures 1.4A and B).
ï Endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between
nucleus and cell membrane by connecting the cell
membrane at one end and the outer membrane of
the nucleus at the other end (see Figure 1.1).
ï A large number of minute granular particles called
Monosaccharides (Greek: Mono = one)
Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars. The term
sugar is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in
water and sweet to taste. They consist of a single
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit
Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo = few)
Oligosaccharides consist of a short chain of monosaccharide
units (2 to 10 units), joined together by a characteristic bond
called glycosidic bond which, on hydrolysis, gives two to
ten molecules of simple sugar (monosaccharide) units
Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body. There are three main types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates. Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive health.Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body. There are three main types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates. Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive health.
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies the rates of chemical reactions, the factors that influence these rates, and the mechanisms by which reactions occur. It provides insights into how reactants transform into products over time. Understanding chemical kinetics is crucial for optimizing reaction conditions, designing efficient industrial processes, and gaining insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms. Here are key concepts in chemical kinetics:
Reaction Order and Rate Determining Step:
Rate-Determining Step: The slowest step in a reaction mechanism, determining the overall rate of the reaction.
Overall Reaction Order: The sum of the individual orders of reactants in the rate-determining step.
Enzymes are biological molecules that act as catalysts, facilitating and accelerating chemical reactions within living organisms. They play a crucial role in various physiological processes, contributing to the maintenance and regulation of cellular functions. Here are key features and functions of enzymes:
This document provides an overview of biology and its key aspects. It discusses how biology is the scientific study of living organisms, including their molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. It also covers genetics and heredity. The document outlines the levels of biological organization from molecular to cellular to organismal levels. It also discusses genetics and genomics.
Biology is the scientific study of living organisms. It examines different levels of organization, from molecules to cells to entire organisms. Key areas include molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, genomics, and organismal biology. Biology aims to understand the structure and function of life as well as the complex interactions between organisms and their environments.
This document provides an overview of biology and science. It discusses biology as the study of living organisms at different levels of organization, including molecular, cellular, and organismal biology. It also covers genetics and heredity. The document then defines science as a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It outlines key features of science such as empirical evidence, systematic observation, testability, predictive power, and reproducibility. Finally, it briefly discusses the major branches of science, including physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, environmental sciences, and social sciences.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It emerged in the early 20th century by applying principles of chemistry to biological systems. The four main types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are made up of monomers linked together into polymers. The goal of biochemistry is to describe and explain all chemical processes that occur within living cells on a molecular level in order to understand functions of life. Knowledge of biochemistry is essential to fields like genetics, physiology, pharmacology and pathology.
Biology lecture 1 and 2_e6c1908877387bfcb9829159160b7c89.pptxREECHBOLKUOLREECH
This document outlines the content of a biology course, including introductions to key topics like cell biology, chemicals of life, and ecology. The course covers cell structure and organelles, characteristics of living things, and levels of biological organization. Cell structure is defined, including the cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles. The cell theory is introduced along with early observations of cells by Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, and Schwann that led to its development.
Biology is the scientific study of living organisms, their interactions, and their environments. It examines life at multiple levels of organization, from molecules to ecosystems. Key areas of biology include molecular and cell biology, genetics and heredity, and organismal biology. Science is a systematic approach to understanding nature through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It relies on empirical evidence, reproducible results, and testable theories that can make accurate predictions. The main branches of science are the physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, environmental sciences, and social sciences.
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RoHS stands for Restriction of Hazardous Substances, which is also known as t...vijaykumar292010
RoHS stands for Restriction of Hazardous Substances, which is also known as the Directive 2002/95/EC. It includes the restrictions for the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. RoHS is a WEEE (Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment).
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...Joshua Orris
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
2. Biology
1.Biology is the scientific study of living organisms and their
interactions with each other and their environments. It is a diverse
and dynamic field that encompasses a wide range of topics, from the
molecular and cellular levels to ecosystems and the biosphere. Here
are some key aspects of biology:
Levels of Organization:
1. Molecular Biology: Examines the structure and function of biological
molecules, such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids.
2. Cell Biology: Focuses on the structure and function of cells, the basic units
of life.
3. Organismal Biology: Investigates the structure, function, and behavior of
entire organisms.
Genetics and Heredity:
4. Genetics: Studies the principles of inheritance and variation in living
organisms.
5. Genomics: Involves the study of entire genomes, including the identification
and mapping of genes.
3. Introduction
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes
knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions
about the universe. It is a disciplined and methodical approach to
understanding the natural world and the underlying principles that
govern its behavior. The primary goal of science is to uncover the
patterns and regularities in nature through observation,
experimentation, and logical reasoning.
4. Key features of science include:
1.Empirical Evidence: Scientific knowledge is based on
empirical evidence obtained through observation and
experimentation. This evidence is gathered using the five
senses or through the use of instruments that extend human
perception.
2.Systematic Observation: Scientists carefully observe and
gather data in a systematic manner. This involves developing
hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing results to
draw meaningful conclusions.
5. • Testability: Scientific hypotheses and theories must be testable
and falsifiable. This means that there must be a way to
experimentally verify or refute a hypothesis based on
observable evidence.
Predictive Power: Successful scientific theories not only
explain past observations but also have the ability to make
accurate predictions about future events or phenomena.
6. Reproducibility: Scientific findings should be reproducible,
meaning that other researchers should be able to conduct similar
experiments and obtain similar results. This helps validate the
reliability of scientific claims.
Universal Principles: Scientific principles and laws are often
universal, applying consistently across different contexts and
environments. This contributes to the development of a unified
understanding of the natural world.
7. Branches of science
• Physical Sciences:
• Physics: The study of matter, energy, and the fundamental
forces that govern the universe.
• Chemistry: The study of the composition, properties, and
behavior of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during
chemical reactions.
• Astronomy: The study of celestial objects, including stars,
planets, galaxies, and the universe as a whole.
8. • Life Sciences (Biology):
• Biology: The study of living organisms, their structure, function,
growth, evolution, and distribution.
• Botany: Focuses on the study of plants, including their
structure, growth, reproduction, and classification.
• Zoology: Concentrates on the study of animals, including their
behavior, physiology, classification, and evolution.
9. • Earth Sciences:
• Geology: The study of the Earth's structure, composition, and
processes, including the study of rocks, minerals, and the
forces that shape the Earth's surface.
• Meteorology: Investigates the Earth's atmosphere, weather
patterns, and climate.
• Oceanography: Examines the physical and biological aspects
of the oceans, including their currents, ecosystems, and
geology.
10. 1.Environmental Sciences:
1.Environmental Science: Focuses on the study of the environment,
including the impact of human activities on ecosystems, conservation,
and sustainable practices.
2.Social Sciences:
1.Psychology: The study of the human mind and behavior.
2.Sociology: Examines human society, social relationships, and
institutions.
3.Anthropology: Studies human cultures, societies, and their
development.
11. Physics
• Physics is the branch of science that studies the fundamental
principles governing the behavior of matter and energy in the
universe. It seeks to understand the nature of the physical
world, from the smallest particles at the quantum level to the
vast expanses of the cosmos. Here are some key aspects of
physics:
12. Chemistry
• Chemistry is the branch of science that explores the properties,
composition, structure, reactions, and changes of matter. It is
often referred to as the "central science" because it connects
and overlaps with other scientific disciplines, such as physics,
biology, and environmental science. Here are key aspects of
chemistry:
13. Biochemistry
• Biochemistry is the branch of science that combines principles
of biology and chemistry to study the chemical processes and
substances that occur within living organisms. It focuses on the
molecular mechanisms that underlie various biological functions
and processes. Biochemistry seeks to understand the structure,
function, and interactions of biomolecules, as well as the
metabolic pathways and signaling networks that regulate
cellular activities. Here are key aspects of biochemistry:
14. Enzymes
• Enzymes are biological molecules that act as catalysts,
facilitating and accelerating chemical reactions within living
organisms. They play a crucial role in various physiological
processes, contributing to the maintenance and regulation of
cellular functions. Here are key features and functions of
enzymes:
15. Chemical kinetics
• Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies the
rates of chemical reactions, the factors that influence these
rates, and the mechanisms by which reactions occur. It provides
insights into how reactants transform into products over time.
Understanding chemical kinetics is crucial for optimizing
reaction conditions, designing efficient industrial processes, and
gaining insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms.
Here are key concepts in chemical kinetics:
16. • Reaction Order and Rate Determining Step:
• Rate-Determining Step: The slowest step in a reaction
mechanism, determining the overall rate of the reaction.
• Overall Reaction Order: The sum of the individual orders of
reactants in the rate-determining step.
17. • Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprising carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. They serve as a primary energy source for the body.
There are three main types:Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g.,
glucose, fructose).Disaccharides: Two linked sugar units (e.g., sucrose,
lactose).Polysaccharides: Long chains of sugar units (e.g., starch,
glycogen, cellulose).Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with
salivary amylase breaking down starch into smaller sugars. In the
small intestine, pancreatic enzymes further digest carbohydrates.
Absorbed sugars enter the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose
levels. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Dietary fiber, a non-digestible polysaccharide, promotes digestive
health.
18. • INTRODUCTION
• ‘Cell’ means a small room or chamber, cells are the
• structural and functional units of all living organisms. The
• major parts of a cell are the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• The electron microscope allowed classification of cells
• into two major groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
• based on the presence and absence of the true nucleus.
• Eukaryotes
• ï Eukaryotes have nucleus which is covered by
• nuclear membrane. (Greek: Eue = true, karyon =
• nucleus). Animals, plants and fungi belong to the
• eukaryotes.
• ï Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes.
• ï Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a variety of
• other membrane-bound organelles (subcellular
• elements) in their cytoplasm, including:
19. • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• ï Endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network
• of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the
• cytoplasm (Figures 1.4A and B).
• ï Endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between
• nucleus and cell membrane by connecting the cell
• membrane at one end and the outer membrane of
• the nucleus at the other end (see Figure 1.1).
• ï A large number of minute granular particles called
20. • Monosaccharides (Greek: Mono = one)
• Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars. The term
• sugar is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in
• water and sweet to taste. They consist of a single
• polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit
21. • Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo = few)
• Oligosaccharides consist of a short chain of monosaccharide
• units (2 to 10 units), joined together by a characteristic bond
• called glycosidic bond which, on hydrolysis, gives two to
• ten molecules of simple sugar (monosaccharide) units
22. • Polysaccharides (Greek: Poly = many) or Glycans
• Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of hundreds or
• thousands of monosaccharide units. They are also called
• glycans or complex carbohydrates. They may be either
• linear, (e.g. cellulose) or branched, (e.g. glycogen) in
• structure.
23. • INTRODUCTION
• Lipids are a major source of energy for the body besides
• their various other biochemical function and their role in
• cellular structure. Lipids are a heterogenous group of
• water insoluble (hydrophobic) organic molecules. Lipids
• include fats, oils, steroids, waxes and related compounds
24. • DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION AND
• FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
• Definition of Lipids
• Lipids may be defined as organic substances insoluble
• in water but soluble in organic solvents like chloroform,
• ether and benzene. They are esters of fatty acids with
• alcohol esters and are utilizable by the living organism