This study aims to prove the effectiveness of traffic safety education program for traffic violators. Traffic
violators who finished the traffic safety education programs were tracked down. In order to analyze the
effectiveness of traffic safety education program, traffic violator’s data during ten-year period were used. This
study analyzed how traffic violators changed their attitudes about traffic law abidance. Also predicted social benefits from traffic
safety education program for traffic violators. Effectiveness of traffic accident prevention through traffic safety
education program is approximately 93%. In terms of social benefits, it shows more than $12 billion Even
though the effectiveness of traffic safety education program represents remarkable results, but this program is
made for traffic violators who have already committed traffic offenses in the past. So in order to prevent traffic
violations in advance, specific education program for potentially risky drivers is necessary.
Background: Research has limitedly focused on adolescents’ emotional–behavioral func- tioning preceding road collisions and on the role of family support. Objective: To verify whether the rates of motorbikes collisions among adolescents are associated with their emotional–behavioral functioning, their use of specific defense strategies and family sup- port. Method: N = 150 adolescents who visited an emergency department for road accidents were selected and completed self-report questionnaires assessing emotional–behavioral functioning, difficulty in identifying and describing emotions, use of defense strategies and perceived family support. Results: Higher rates of motorbike collisions are associated with more maladaptive emotional–behavioral functioning. Higher perceived family sup- port is associated with lower rates of collisions. Conclusions: Recidivism of motor vehicle collision among adolescents can be considered as a form of acting-out caused by their psy- chological difficulties.
Employment - Sample Writing - Undergraduate Research StudyKeli Gerling
The document summarizes a study that examined the effects of cell phone use on driving performance. Researchers observed 242 drivers at stop signs on a university campus and recorded whether they were using a cell phone and made a complete stop. The study found that drivers who were talking on a cell phone were less likely to make a complete stop at stop signs, indicating that cell phone use negatively impacts driving performance. The results support policies to restrict cell phone use while driving in order to improve safety.
This study was conducted with the aim of examining the effects of organizational
politics (OP) and emotional intelligence (EI) on Affective commitment..Cluster sampling
technique was used to select three public universities which is found in Amhara
region,Ethiopia.The participants(n=332) was selected from these public universities
using simple random sampling technique.The statistical analysis method includes
descriptive statistics and structural equation modelling(SEM) .IBM SPSS AMOS 23
software was employed for testing the hypotheses using the collected data from the
respondents at a particular point of time.To measure the relation that exists between the
independent and dependent variables this study employs self-reporting questionnaire
based on five point likert scale.The result of the study shows that perceptions of
organizational politics and Emotional intelligence predict affective commitment
negatively and positively respectively
Road rage is a deeply rooted social problem and has become a
common phenomenon among road users. Over 85% of New South
Wales (NSW) drivers interviewed reported of being a victim of various forms of road rage while this figure is even higher in Brisbane
with 95% [1]. Nine out of ten US drivers believe aggressive drivers
pose a threat to their personal safety while 78% of the drivers report of engaging in aggressive driving at least once in 2014 AAAFTS
[2]. The fact that road rage and aggressive driving is rated above
drink driving as the biggest safety concern reveals the seriousness
of the issue. Road rage can be defined as any hostile act conducted
by a road user towards another road user on the roadway, including
parking lots. These acts involve extreme forms of aggression like
physically assaulting road users (both driver/passenger), vehicles
or both. Road rage has become an easy medium to express anger,
frustration, and the annoyance of everyday conflicts and disagreements on situations arising both on and off the roadway due to
power, ease of escape, anonymity, and protection associated with
vehicles.
A Review Of Interventions To Increase Driving Safety Among Teenage DriversDustin Pytko
This document reviews interventions aimed at increasing driving safety among teenage drivers. It categorizes interventions according to the ABC model of behavior change as antecedent interventions, consequence interventions, or mixed interventions. Antecedent interventions like driver education and alcohol education aim to prevent risky driving behaviors, while consequence interventions like penalties enforce consequences for unsafe behaviors. The review finds that antecedent interventions are generally less effective than consequence interventions at changing behaviors. The most effective programs employ both antecedent and consequence approaches, instructing youth on safe driving while also enforcing consequences for unsafe behaviors. Multi-component interventions like graduated licensing that combine several approaches also show reductions in risk.
This document discusses using driver state monitoring and feedback systems to enhance traffic safety. It summarizes that driver state factors like distraction, impairment, and drowsiness contribute to a major portion of crashes. Monitoring technologies like eye tracking can assess driver state in real-time by measuring visual distraction, drowsiness, and impairment. Experiments show measures like total eyes-off-road time and reaction times correlate with degraded driving performance when distracted. Driver state monitoring has potential to prevent crashes by modifying risky behavior and integrating with other safety systems.
To Find out the Relationship between Errors, Lapses, Violations and Traffic A...inventionjournals
The document discusses a study that explored the relationship between errors, lapses, violations and traffic awareness among 500 drivers in Cuddalore district, India. The study found significant relationships between driving errors, lapses and violations, and significant relationships between these behaviors and participants' traffic awareness. Specifically, errors and lapses showed moderate positive correlations, as did errors and violations and lapses and violations, while lapses and violations showed weak negative correlations with traffic awareness.
This document outlines a distracted driving program aimed at 18-20 year olds. It begins by defining distracted driving and identifying it as a leading cause of crashes among young drivers. Specific contributing factors are identified, including cell phone use, passengers, and lack of experience. The program goals are to reduce distracted driving-related crashes through educational campaigns targeting students and increasing awareness of risks. A strategy team is proposed made up of program coordinators, university representatives, and community leaders to implement interventions like posters, screen savers, and speakers. A SWOT analysis evaluates strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in addressing this important issue.
Background: Research has limitedly focused on adolescents’ emotional–behavioral func- tioning preceding road collisions and on the role of family support. Objective: To verify whether the rates of motorbikes collisions among adolescents are associated with their emotional–behavioral functioning, their use of specific defense strategies and family sup- port. Method: N = 150 adolescents who visited an emergency department for road accidents were selected and completed self-report questionnaires assessing emotional–behavioral functioning, difficulty in identifying and describing emotions, use of defense strategies and perceived family support. Results: Higher rates of motorbike collisions are associated with more maladaptive emotional–behavioral functioning. Higher perceived family sup- port is associated with lower rates of collisions. Conclusions: Recidivism of motor vehicle collision among adolescents can be considered as a form of acting-out caused by their psy- chological difficulties.
Employment - Sample Writing - Undergraduate Research StudyKeli Gerling
The document summarizes a study that examined the effects of cell phone use on driving performance. Researchers observed 242 drivers at stop signs on a university campus and recorded whether they were using a cell phone and made a complete stop. The study found that drivers who were talking on a cell phone were less likely to make a complete stop at stop signs, indicating that cell phone use negatively impacts driving performance. The results support policies to restrict cell phone use while driving in order to improve safety.
This study was conducted with the aim of examining the effects of organizational
politics (OP) and emotional intelligence (EI) on Affective commitment..Cluster sampling
technique was used to select three public universities which is found in Amhara
region,Ethiopia.The participants(n=332) was selected from these public universities
using simple random sampling technique.The statistical analysis method includes
descriptive statistics and structural equation modelling(SEM) .IBM SPSS AMOS 23
software was employed for testing the hypotheses using the collected data from the
respondents at a particular point of time.To measure the relation that exists between the
independent and dependent variables this study employs self-reporting questionnaire
based on five point likert scale.The result of the study shows that perceptions of
organizational politics and Emotional intelligence predict affective commitment
negatively and positively respectively
Road rage is a deeply rooted social problem and has become a
common phenomenon among road users. Over 85% of New South
Wales (NSW) drivers interviewed reported of being a victim of various forms of road rage while this figure is even higher in Brisbane
with 95% [1]. Nine out of ten US drivers believe aggressive drivers
pose a threat to their personal safety while 78% of the drivers report of engaging in aggressive driving at least once in 2014 AAAFTS
[2]. The fact that road rage and aggressive driving is rated above
drink driving as the biggest safety concern reveals the seriousness
of the issue. Road rage can be defined as any hostile act conducted
by a road user towards another road user on the roadway, including
parking lots. These acts involve extreme forms of aggression like
physically assaulting road users (both driver/passenger), vehicles
or both. Road rage has become an easy medium to express anger,
frustration, and the annoyance of everyday conflicts and disagreements on situations arising both on and off the roadway due to
power, ease of escape, anonymity, and protection associated with
vehicles.
A Review Of Interventions To Increase Driving Safety Among Teenage DriversDustin Pytko
This document reviews interventions aimed at increasing driving safety among teenage drivers. It categorizes interventions according to the ABC model of behavior change as antecedent interventions, consequence interventions, or mixed interventions. Antecedent interventions like driver education and alcohol education aim to prevent risky driving behaviors, while consequence interventions like penalties enforce consequences for unsafe behaviors. The review finds that antecedent interventions are generally less effective than consequence interventions at changing behaviors. The most effective programs employ both antecedent and consequence approaches, instructing youth on safe driving while also enforcing consequences for unsafe behaviors. Multi-component interventions like graduated licensing that combine several approaches also show reductions in risk.
This document discusses using driver state monitoring and feedback systems to enhance traffic safety. It summarizes that driver state factors like distraction, impairment, and drowsiness contribute to a major portion of crashes. Monitoring technologies like eye tracking can assess driver state in real-time by measuring visual distraction, drowsiness, and impairment. Experiments show measures like total eyes-off-road time and reaction times correlate with degraded driving performance when distracted. Driver state monitoring has potential to prevent crashes by modifying risky behavior and integrating with other safety systems.
To Find out the Relationship between Errors, Lapses, Violations and Traffic A...inventionjournals
The document discusses a study that explored the relationship between errors, lapses, violations and traffic awareness among 500 drivers in Cuddalore district, India. The study found significant relationships between driving errors, lapses and violations, and significant relationships between these behaviors and participants' traffic awareness. Specifically, errors and lapses showed moderate positive correlations, as did errors and violations and lapses and violations, while lapses and violations showed weak negative correlations with traffic awareness.
This document outlines a distracted driving program aimed at 18-20 year olds. It begins by defining distracted driving and identifying it as a leading cause of crashes among young drivers. Specific contributing factors are identified, including cell phone use, passengers, and lack of experience. The program goals are to reduce distracted driving-related crashes through educational campaigns targeting students and increasing awareness of risks. A strategy team is proposed made up of program coordinators, university representatives, and community leaders to implement interventions like posters, screen savers, and speakers. A SWOT analysis evaluates strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in addressing this important issue.
This document discusses factors that influence texting while driving behavior. It describes how texting while driving is a growing issue in the US that many teens and adults disregard despite risks. Statistics show high rates of texting while driving among teens and young adults. Texting while driving increases the risk of accidents by 23 times and is attributed to many injuries and deaths each year. The document then analyzes how intrapersonal factors like perceptions of risk, socioeconomic status, and age influence texting behavior. Interpersonal influences like learning from family members and friends are also examined. Finally, organizational efforts, policies, and community factors that can reduce texting while driving are outlined.
This study examines the driving behaviors of teenage males using a driving simulator. Teenage males will complete two simulated drives - one alone and one with a female passenger. Driving data such as speed, steering, and lane position will be recorded to compare risky driving behaviors between the solo and passenger drives. Preliminary results suggest teenage males may drive safer with a female passenger based on factors like braking and mirror/blind spot checking. However, the study has limitations like potential response and selection bias and using a single female confederate. Continued research is needed to fully understand risky driving behaviors linked to demographics.
Age And Gender Differences In Perceived Accident Likelihood And Driver Compet...Becky Gilbert
1) Younger male drivers perceived themselves and their peers as most likely to experience an accident and as having lower driving competence compared to other groups.
2) Younger groups showed little bias against older groups and vice versa, but gender-related bias was apparent.
3) The study aimed to examine how perceptions of risk and driving competence varied by age and gender of both the rater and those being rated ("target groups"). It found some evidence of demographic bias, stereotyping, group-specific bias, and self-appraisal bias.
1) The study examined how drivers' aversion to risk taking predicts self-reported speeding when controlling for other factors like personality traits and coping strategies.
2) The results showed that aversion to risk taking, confrontive coping, thrill seeking, worry/concern, and perceived likelihood of accidents uniquely predicted speeding and explained 50% of the variance.
3) For younger drivers and less frequent drivers, aversion to risk taking remained a significant predictor of speeding, but not for male drivers.
This document discusses the potential for adaptive vehicle safety through in-vehicle biomedical and biometric monitoring of drivers. It notes that medical conditions contributed to around 1.3% of crashes according to a 2009 study. Certain conditions like seizures, blackouts, and diabetic reactions preceded 84% of crashes caused by medical emergencies. The document proposes that monitoring a driver's health status could help identify impending medical issues and allow the vehicle to intervene or alert emergency services to prevent crashes. It reviews technologies for monitoring health indicators and identifying drivers biometrically. Finally, it discusses how monitoring could help optimize vehicle settings based on a driver's age, health conditions or emergencies.
Study on Driving Behaviors in Adults with Autism Spectrum DiagnosesRyan Wexelblatt, LCSW
This study investigated driving behaviors in adults with autism spectrum disorders compared to non-ASD adults. 78 licensed drivers with ASD and 94 non-ASD drivers completed a driving questionnaire. Drivers with ASD reported lower ability to drive and more traffic accidents/citations than non-ASD drivers. They also reported more difficulties with intentional violations, mistakes, and slips/lapses. This suggests adults with ASD may experience more problems driving and engage in riskier behaviors than non-ASD drivers.
Addressing The Texting And Driving Epidemic Mortality Salience Priming Effec...Courtney Esco
Mortality salience priming effects on attitudes and behavioral intentions toward texting while driving were examined in two studies. The first exploratory study identified factors influencing drivers' perceptions and behaviors regarding texting while driving. The second experimental study found that public service announcements using verbal and/or visual cues related to death reduced favorable attitudes and intentions to text and drive compared to a control group. The findings suggest mortality salience priming could be an effective approach for social marketing campaigns aimed at curbing texting while driving.
Researches have linked the cause of traffic accident to driver behavior and some studies
provided practical preventive measures based on different input sources. Due to its simplicity to collect,
speech can be used as one of the input. The emotion information gathered from speech can be used to
measure driver behavior state based on the hypothesis that emotion influences driver behavior. However,
the massive amount of driving speech data may hinder optimal performance of processing and analyzing
the data due to the computational complexity and time constraint. This paper presents a silence removal
approach using Short Term Energy (STE) and Zero Crossing Rate (ZCR) in the pre-processing phase to
reduce the unnecessary processing. Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficient (MFCC) feature extraction
method coupled with Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) classifier are employed to get the driver behavior state
recognition performance. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed approach can obtain
comparable performance with accuracy ranging between 58.7% and 76.6% to differentiate four driver
behavior states, namely; talking through mobile phone, laughing, sleepy and normal driving. It is envisaged
that such approach can be extended for a more comprehensive driver behavior identification system that
may acts as an embedded warning system for sleepy driver.
This annotated bibliography summarizes 8 scholarly articles that examine the effects of texting and driving. The studies found that texting while driving significantly increases the risk of car crashes and can impair drivers' ability to detect hazards. Statistics showed that over 90% of college students surveyed had texted while driving, and half had drifted into other lanes as a result. Experimental driving simulators demonstrated that reaction times were slower when texting compared to normal driving. While some drivers feel laws against texting and driving will not change their behavior, the studies found that emotional appeals using images and stories of deaths from texting and driving can influence attitudes. The research highlights the danger of texting while driving and the need for policies and education to address this
A Comparison Of The Cell Phone Driver And The Drunk DriverMartha Brown
This study compared the driving performance of drivers conversing on a cell phone (both handheld and hands-free) to drivers with a blood alcohol concentration at the legal limit of 0.08%. Using a high-fidelity driving simulator, drivers followed a pace car that intermittently braked. When drivers conversed on a cell phone, their braking reactions were delayed and they were more likely to be involved in traffic accidents compared to when not conversing. Drivers who were intoxicated at the legal limit drove more aggressively by following closer and braking harder. The impairments from cell phone use were found to be as profound as those from driving drunk.
McGill 1Annotated Bibliography Effect of C.docxandreecapon
McGill| 1
Annotated Bibliography: Effect of Cell Phone Use
Michael McGill
Cognitive Psychology
Professor: Cotrane Penn
Argosy Unversity
Annotated Bibliography: Effect of Cell Phone Use
1. Fitch, G. A., Soccolich, S. A., Guo, F., Mcclafferty, J., Fang, Y., Olson, R. L., Perez, M. A.,
Hanowski, R. J., Hankey, J. M., & Dingus, T. A. (2013, April). The effect of hand-held and hands-free cell phone use on driving execution and safety-critical event risk.
(Report No. Dab HS 811 757). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety-
Administration.
The purpose for this study was to examine the impacts of preoccupation from the utilization of three sorts of phones while driving: hand-held, and hands-free cellphones. A naturalistic driving investigation of drivers’ cellphone utilization was performed. Information was gathered from 204 drivers who every tuned in the study for 31 days (by and large) from February 2011 to November 2011. The drivers who reported chatting on a cell while driving in any event once every day were enrolled. Information procurement frameworks in the members' own particular vehicles ceaselessly recorded feature of the driver's face, the roadway, and different kinematic information, for example, the vehicle speed, quickening, range and extent rate to lead vehicles, controlling, and area. A key peculiarity of this study was that members gave their cell records to examination.
2. Bayly, M., Young, K., & Regan, M. A. (2008). Wellsprings of diversion inside the vehicle and
their consequences for driving execution. In M. A. Regan, J. D. Lee, & K. L. Adolescent (Eds.),Driver diversion: Theory, impacts and alleviation (pp. 191–213). Boca Raton, FL: CRC.
The journal expressed that, the test system information recommend that the accident hazard attributable to content informing while driving is very considerable. One potential clarification for the number is accidents is that content informing drivers have a tendency to decline least after separation in conjunction with a deferral in response time to basic occasions (i.e., average response time expanded by 30% when content informing contrasted and, e.g., a 9% increment while having a PDA discussion while driving; Strayer et al., 2006). Furthermore, content informing drivers show a professed weakness to vehicle control.
To be sure, this work documents a significant decrement in both forward and horizontal vehicle control as an issue of content informing. By and large, the consequences of this study give a first sight of a hypothetical skeleton to dissect driver diversion. It gives the idea that the kind of attentional interest consolidated with time of introduction decides the seriousness of driver preoccupation.
3. Cooper, J. M., & Strayer, D. L. (2008). Impacts of test system practice and certifiable
experience on mobile phone related driver preoccupation. Human Factors, 50, 893–902
As per their examination, the creators inferred that exercises, for exam ...
This randomized controlled trial evaluated the impact of two interventions aimed at improving teen driving safety: 1) an in-vehicle video system that provided real-time feedback to teens about unsafe driving events and summary reports to parents, and 2) the same feedback plus a parent communication training program. Parent-teen dyads were randomized to a control group that received no feedback, or one of the two intervention groups. The interventions were found to significantly reduce unsafe driving event rates compared to the control group, with the combined intervention of in-vehicle feedback and parent communication training having the greatest impact.
This randomized controlled trial evaluated the impact of two interventions aimed at improving teen driving safety: 1) an in-vehicle video system that provided real-time feedback to teens about unsafe driving events and summary reports to parents, and 2) the same feedback plus a parent communication training program. Parent-teen dyads were randomized to a control group that received no feedback, or one of the two intervention groups. The interventions were found to significantly reduce unsafe driving event rates compared to the control group, with the combined intervention of in-vehicle feedback and parent communication training having the greatest impact.
A Case Study On The Causal Of Motorcycle Accidents Among Polytechnic S StudentsKathryn Patel
The document summarizes a study on the causal factors of motorcycle accidents among students at a polytechnic in Malaysia. It discusses three potential factors: motorcyclist characteristics, vehicle factors, and environmental factors. A survey was conducted of 195 students to understand their perceptions of how these factors relate to accidents. The results found:
1) There was a significant positive correlation between motorcycle accidents and motorcyclist characteristics, such as carrying passengers or braking behavior.
2) Vehicle factors, like riding with headlights off, were also strongly correlated with accidents.
3) Environmental factors, like other vehicles turning suddenly, showed a strong relationship to motorcycle accidents as well.
The study concludes that all three factors -
The Human Factor Investigating the Role of Driver Behavior in Ride Sharing Ac...PrestigeLaw
Ride sharing services have revolutionized transportation, providing convenient and affordable options for passengers worldwide. However, with the growing popularity of ride sharing, concerns regarding safety and accidents have also emerged. While various factors contribute to ride sharing accidents, one critical element that cannot be overlooked is the role of driver behavior. This article delves into the impact of driver behavior on ride sharing accidents, examining the factors that influence driver actions and exploring potential solutions to enhance safety on the roads.
A Case Study Of Public Bus Driver Behaviour At Batu FeringghiScott Bou
This document summarizes a study on public bus driver behavior in Batu Feringghi, Malaysia. The study collected data from 27 bus journeys with 22 drivers between June and July 2014. The findings include that the road design inconsistently posted speed limits, horizontal and vertical alignments influenced driver behavior, familiar drivers tended to speed more than experienced drivers, and driver age and experience were negatively correlated with lateral and longitudinal accelerations. Passenger comfort depended on acceleration but not speed, and standard deviation best identified the relationship between comfort and acceleration.
IRJET- Effects of Driver's Personality on Traffic Accidents in India: A ReviewIRJET Journal
This document discusses the effects of driver personality on traffic accidents in India. It finds that 84% of accidents are caused by driver factors like speeding, alcohol/drug use, reckless behavior, lack of experience, and use of mobile phones. Younger and older drivers are more likely to be involved in crashes due to psychological factors. The study aims to examine how traits like aggression, depression, and stress influence risky driving and violations of traffic rules. It recommends improving driver education programs and enforcement of traffic laws to help reduce accidents stemming from personal characteristics.
Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapte...University of Maribor
Slides from talk presenting:
Aleš Zamuda: Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapter and Networking.
Presentation at IcETRAN 2024 session:
"Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS
Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation"
IEEE Slovenia GRSS
IEEE Serbia and Montenegro MTT-S
IEEE Slovenia CIS
11TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTING ENGINEERING
3-6 June 2024, Niš, Serbia
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This document discusses factors that influence texting while driving behavior. It describes how texting while driving is a growing issue in the US that many teens and adults disregard despite risks. Statistics show high rates of texting while driving among teens and young adults. Texting while driving increases the risk of accidents by 23 times and is attributed to many injuries and deaths each year. The document then analyzes how intrapersonal factors like perceptions of risk, socioeconomic status, and age influence texting behavior. Interpersonal influences like learning from family members and friends are also examined. Finally, organizational efforts, policies, and community factors that can reduce texting while driving are outlined.
This study examines the driving behaviors of teenage males using a driving simulator. Teenage males will complete two simulated drives - one alone and one with a female passenger. Driving data such as speed, steering, and lane position will be recorded to compare risky driving behaviors between the solo and passenger drives. Preliminary results suggest teenage males may drive safer with a female passenger based on factors like braking and mirror/blind spot checking. However, the study has limitations like potential response and selection bias and using a single female confederate. Continued research is needed to fully understand risky driving behaviors linked to demographics.
Age And Gender Differences In Perceived Accident Likelihood And Driver Compet...Becky Gilbert
1) Younger male drivers perceived themselves and their peers as most likely to experience an accident and as having lower driving competence compared to other groups.
2) Younger groups showed little bias against older groups and vice versa, but gender-related bias was apparent.
3) The study aimed to examine how perceptions of risk and driving competence varied by age and gender of both the rater and those being rated ("target groups"). It found some evidence of demographic bias, stereotyping, group-specific bias, and self-appraisal bias.
1) The study examined how drivers' aversion to risk taking predicts self-reported speeding when controlling for other factors like personality traits and coping strategies.
2) The results showed that aversion to risk taking, confrontive coping, thrill seeking, worry/concern, and perceived likelihood of accidents uniquely predicted speeding and explained 50% of the variance.
3) For younger drivers and less frequent drivers, aversion to risk taking remained a significant predictor of speeding, but not for male drivers.
This document discusses the potential for adaptive vehicle safety through in-vehicle biomedical and biometric monitoring of drivers. It notes that medical conditions contributed to around 1.3% of crashes according to a 2009 study. Certain conditions like seizures, blackouts, and diabetic reactions preceded 84% of crashes caused by medical emergencies. The document proposes that monitoring a driver's health status could help identify impending medical issues and allow the vehicle to intervene or alert emergency services to prevent crashes. It reviews technologies for monitoring health indicators and identifying drivers biometrically. Finally, it discusses how monitoring could help optimize vehicle settings based on a driver's age, health conditions or emergencies.
Study on Driving Behaviors in Adults with Autism Spectrum DiagnosesRyan Wexelblatt, LCSW
This study investigated driving behaviors in adults with autism spectrum disorders compared to non-ASD adults. 78 licensed drivers with ASD and 94 non-ASD drivers completed a driving questionnaire. Drivers with ASD reported lower ability to drive and more traffic accidents/citations than non-ASD drivers. They also reported more difficulties with intentional violations, mistakes, and slips/lapses. This suggests adults with ASD may experience more problems driving and engage in riskier behaviors than non-ASD drivers.
Addressing The Texting And Driving Epidemic Mortality Salience Priming Effec...Courtney Esco
Mortality salience priming effects on attitudes and behavioral intentions toward texting while driving were examined in two studies. The first exploratory study identified factors influencing drivers' perceptions and behaviors regarding texting while driving. The second experimental study found that public service announcements using verbal and/or visual cues related to death reduced favorable attitudes and intentions to text and drive compared to a control group. The findings suggest mortality salience priming could be an effective approach for social marketing campaigns aimed at curbing texting while driving.
Researches have linked the cause of traffic accident to driver behavior and some studies
provided practical preventive measures based on different input sources. Due to its simplicity to collect,
speech can be used as one of the input. The emotion information gathered from speech can be used to
measure driver behavior state based on the hypothesis that emotion influences driver behavior. However,
the massive amount of driving speech data may hinder optimal performance of processing and analyzing
the data due to the computational complexity and time constraint. This paper presents a silence removal
approach using Short Term Energy (STE) and Zero Crossing Rate (ZCR) in the pre-processing phase to
reduce the unnecessary processing. Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficient (MFCC) feature extraction
method coupled with Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) classifier are employed to get the driver behavior state
recognition performance. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed approach can obtain
comparable performance with accuracy ranging between 58.7% and 76.6% to differentiate four driver
behavior states, namely; talking through mobile phone, laughing, sleepy and normal driving. It is envisaged
that such approach can be extended for a more comprehensive driver behavior identification system that
may acts as an embedded warning system for sleepy driver.
This annotated bibliography summarizes 8 scholarly articles that examine the effects of texting and driving. The studies found that texting while driving significantly increases the risk of car crashes and can impair drivers' ability to detect hazards. Statistics showed that over 90% of college students surveyed had texted while driving, and half had drifted into other lanes as a result. Experimental driving simulators demonstrated that reaction times were slower when texting compared to normal driving. While some drivers feel laws against texting and driving will not change their behavior, the studies found that emotional appeals using images and stories of deaths from texting and driving can influence attitudes. The research highlights the danger of texting while driving and the need for policies and education to address this
A Comparison Of The Cell Phone Driver And The Drunk DriverMartha Brown
This study compared the driving performance of drivers conversing on a cell phone (both handheld and hands-free) to drivers with a blood alcohol concentration at the legal limit of 0.08%. Using a high-fidelity driving simulator, drivers followed a pace car that intermittently braked. When drivers conversed on a cell phone, their braking reactions were delayed and they were more likely to be involved in traffic accidents compared to when not conversing. Drivers who were intoxicated at the legal limit drove more aggressively by following closer and braking harder. The impairments from cell phone use were found to be as profound as those from driving drunk.
McGill 1Annotated Bibliography Effect of C.docxandreecapon
McGill| 1
Annotated Bibliography: Effect of Cell Phone Use
Michael McGill
Cognitive Psychology
Professor: Cotrane Penn
Argosy Unversity
Annotated Bibliography: Effect of Cell Phone Use
1. Fitch, G. A., Soccolich, S. A., Guo, F., Mcclafferty, J., Fang, Y., Olson, R. L., Perez, M. A.,
Hanowski, R. J., Hankey, J. M., & Dingus, T. A. (2013, April). The effect of hand-held and hands-free cell phone use on driving execution and safety-critical event risk.
(Report No. Dab HS 811 757). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety-
Administration.
The purpose for this study was to examine the impacts of preoccupation from the utilization of three sorts of phones while driving: hand-held, and hands-free cellphones. A naturalistic driving investigation of drivers’ cellphone utilization was performed. Information was gathered from 204 drivers who every tuned in the study for 31 days (by and large) from February 2011 to November 2011. The drivers who reported chatting on a cell while driving in any event once every day were enrolled. Information procurement frameworks in the members' own particular vehicles ceaselessly recorded feature of the driver's face, the roadway, and different kinematic information, for example, the vehicle speed, quickening, range and extent rate to lead vehicles, controlling, and area. A key peculiarity of this study was that members gave their cell records to examination.
2. Bayly, M., Young, K., & Regan, M. A. (2008). Wellsprings of diversion inside the vehicle and
their consequences for driving execution. In M. A. Regan, J. D. Lee, & K. L. Adolescent (Eds.),Driver diversion: Theory, impacts and alleviation (pp. 191–213). Boca Raton, FL: CRC.
The journal expressed that, the test system information recommend that the accident hazard attributable to content informing while driving is very considerable. One potential clarification for the number is accidents is that content informing drivers have a tendency to decline least after separation in conjunction with a deferral in response time to basic occasions (i.e., average response time expanded by 30% when content informing contrasted and, e.g., a 9% increment while having a PDA discussion while driving; Strayer et al., 2006). Furthermore, content informing drivers show a professed weakness to vehicle control.
To be sure, this work documents a significant decrement in both forward and horizontal vehicle control as an issue of content informing. By and large, the consequences of this study give a first sight of a hypothetical skeleton to dissect driver diversion. It gives the idea that the kind of attentional interest consolidated with time of introduction decides the seriousness of driver preoccupation.
3. Cooper, J. M., & Strayer, D. L. (2008). Impacts of test system practice and certifiable
experience on mobile phone related driver preoccupation. Human Factors, 50, 893–902
As per their examination, the creators inferred that exercises, for exam ...
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Trace Analysis of Driver Behavior on Traffic Violator by Using Big Data (Traffic Program) in Korea
1. Lee, Jonghak Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications www.ijera.com
ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol. 6, Issue 1, (Part - 5) January 2016, pp.65-70
www.ijera.com 65 | P a g e
Trace Analysis of Driver Behavior on Traffic Violator by Using
Big Data (Traffic Program) in Korea
Lee, Jonghak*
*(Position: Senior Researcher / Company: WISE Institute, / Address: 11F Centennial Complex, Hankuk Univ.
of Foreign Studies, 81 Oedae-ro, Mohyeon-myeon, Cheoin-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 449-791, Republic of
Korea)
ABSTRACT
This study aims to prove the effectiveness of traffic safety education program for traffic violators. Traffic
violators who finished the traffic safety education programs were tracked down. In order to analyze the
effectiveness of traffic safety education program, traffic violator’s data during ten-year period were used. This
study analyzed how traffic violators changed their attitudes about traffic law abidance. Also predicted social benefits from traffic
safety education program for traffic violators. Effectiveness of traffic accident prevention through traffic safety
education program is approximately 93%. In terms of social benefits, it shows more than $12 billion Even
though the effectiveness of traffic safety education program represents remarkable results, but this program is
made for traffic violators who have already committed traffic offenses in the past. So in order to prevent traffic
violations in advance, specific education program for potentially risky drivers is necessary.
Keywords - Traffic Safety Education Program, Traffic Violators, Traffic Accident, Social Benefits.
I. INTRODUCTION
Recently, Korea has been devoting to focus on
prevention of traffic accidents through traffic safety
facilities improvement and enforcement. However,
the driver's road safety awareness is equally as
important as the improvement of traffic safety
facilities. In traffic accidents, 95% of all accidents are
known as human factors (Sabey & Taylor, 1980).
Among human factors, the driver who does not have
a good driving habits can cause a traffic accident
through failure of safe driving. Since traffic accidents
are primarily caused by the negligence of the driver,
driver's safety awareness will be able to cultivate
with education for factors such as drunk driving and
failure of traffic light which could cause a traffic
accident. Therefore, the role of road safety education
which can prevent the car accident in advance can be
so important.
So far, even emphasizing traffic safety
education, the case demonstrating a quantitative level
of the education effect is insufficient, because there
are significant difficulties to show the effects of
transportation safety training visibly. Training effects
are not response immediately right after training, but
gradually changing and because changes in the level
of traffic safety is different for each individual,
changes in attitudes and behavior by individuals
occurring after a period of time are difficult to
investigate.
However, recognizing the importance of safety
and doing efforts to reduce accidents are sympathetic
to the people. Thus, through quantifying research
about the effect of education to persuade members of
society and the attempt to pull up traffic safety
culture in Korea to the level of developed countries is
needed. With these background and purpose, this
study has tracked drivers' changes who were educated
by traffic violations during the past 10 years
(2003~2012). Comparison of the lead-time by each
education, comparison of educational reasons,
analysis of re-violation within 10 years after
completion of education, and accident occurrence
likelihood were analyzed.
II. LITERATURE LIVIEW
2.1 Human Factors of Drivers
1) Mental Load and Stress
Load means the outward force exerted on the
structure and thus, psychological load refers to forces
outside environment applied to mental abilities such
as cognition, memory, and judgement. And stress is
defined as the following three methods by the load.
- Physiological responses such as blood pressure
rises, the heart beats, and the headache (stress is
response)
- External stimuli such as testing, closure, war, and
natural disasters (stress is stimulation)
- By the definition of stress in terms of an
inappropriate relationship between the individual and
the environment, threat to their welfare and well-
being to be assessed and burden on their resources or
the rated condition to exceed the resource, and the
inappropriate relationship among person
According to Kim H. T, et al (2003),
experiencing stress results to the following negative
consequences. First of all, cognitive function and
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
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normal social relationship can be damaged, and
psychological problems and mental disorders often
cause and the resulting impacts on traffic violations
and accidents. However, stress is not necessarily
result in negative consequences only. Some degree of
stress caters our needs and with stress experience, the
personal growth can be promoted, and today's stress
can raise immune system about tomorrow 's similar
stress. Küting (1976) concluded that the factors of
load/burden on the driving activity refers to the
load/burden from traffic conditions (traffic density,
running speed), situation (overtaking, curves,
diverging, and intersections), driving duration time,
driving with drugs. In particular, actions-cell phone
calls, food intake, smoking which are not related with
driving, results in the dispersion of caution and the
increasing psychological load which affect traffic
violations and accidents.
2) Factors which affect the Violation of Drivers
According to Road Traffic Safety Association
(1998), maturity, patience, impulse control
characteristics, attention concentration, driving
attitude, and integrity are defined as human factors
which affect to driver violations and accidents.
Maladaptive aspects of the drivers that human factors
explains are represented by antipathy for institutions,
desire satisfy and the lack of social adaptation. In
Park. J. H., et al. (1997) research, characteristics of
schizophrenia, paranoia, scleronychia were highly
related with psychological factors involved in a
traffic accident by bus drivers among integrity,
compliance attitude, responsibility. Moreover, in the
same study, drivers who have low levels of integrity
and responsibility and negative thinking to driving
rules had more accident experiences relatively. In
addition, drivers with the high score in schizophrenia,
paranoia and hypomania scales were identified to
have more violations. Specially, in terms of drinking
and driving behavior, Chae. G. M, et al. (2002)
reported drivers who had high levels of impulsivity,
lack of ability to discriminate the objectivity risk, and
social resentment had tried a lot of drinking and
driving resulting to accident experiences. Choi. S. J.
et al. (2001) showed that overly driving confidence,
low risk sensitivity level and characteristics of short-
term profit made drivers drunk driving. Human
factors related with drunk driving by Choi. M. H. et
al. (2004) were identified as impulsivity, non-
compliance, lack of patience for the frustration, rule
ignoring preference and indifference to their action.
In other words, a number of researchers concluded
the common factors to drunk driving attempts were
low levels of impulse control ability, risk sensitivity,
and a spirit of obeying laws.
With respect to speeding and reckless driving,
Song. H. S. et al. (2005) suggested driver's anger
level was presented as an important cause. That is,
drivers with high levels of driving anger attempted to
leave the roadway to escape road congestion which
leads to increase the likelihood of intervention of car
crashes. Based on the simulation results, drivers with
high level of anxiety relative to other drivers showed
a faster traveling speed and in congestion situation,
plenty of attempts of leaving roadway to escape the
situation from the result of the large steering wheel
deviation and speed deviation. Vingilis, Stoduto, et
al. (1994) reported that the level of anger and
neurotic of drivers experienced drunk driving
accidents was higher than that of drivers experienced
no accidents, so that anger and neurotic were the
major factors to explain the drunk driving behavior.
In terms of certain psychological factors related with
dangerous driving behavior in Miles, Johnson
(2003)'s research, low level of patience and potential
aggression called Type A personality and drivers
with strong Type A showed the driving pattern
characteristic that 'driving as fast as possible if he/she
has a fixed destination or passengers need to calm
driver often, or speed of his/her driveway is the
slowest'
3) Relation between Violation of Drivers and Human
Factors
Lee. S. C. (2006) showed on his research that if
age is increasing, levels of violation behavior reduced
dramatically. However, the level of errors and error
behavior is decreasing and the confidence level of
their driving skills and behaviors the elderly thinking
was lower than those of young people. Based on the
result about elderly driver confidence level by Lee. S.
C. et al. (2006), older drivers were confirmed that
subjective confidence level was relatively low in
terms of physical external environmental (poor
weather, the lighting condition driving at night,
traffic volume increase, etc.). On the other hands,
Parker, et al. (1995) argued that when there was a
problem at thoroughness of decision making state,
the likelihood of accident increased, and explained
that mistaking action was increasing when drivers
had no plan or logical thinking.
4) Cause of Accident and Risky Driving Behavior
According to Rotter (1966)'s concept, locus of
controls means causal beliefs which individuals
percept on the result of their actions and causes and
this could be divided by internal control and external
control. Abramowitz (1969) showed according to the
consequences of the act over control person
perceived, generally, people-oriented internal locus
of control appeared to be favorable in terms of mental
health and stress.
2.2 Traffic Safety Education Program
1) South Korea
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South Korea's traffic safety education (in charge
of Road Transport Corporation) applies segmental
education courses depending on the education target
and each course has a different education time and
educational contents. When training is completed,
certain benefits such as reducing license suspension
period and demerit are given, however, education to
drivers with license cancellation is a required course
to re-acquire the license, which is composed of
lecture and audio-visual education. Education time of
special traffic safety education consists of at least
4hrs (16hrs at most) and as the reason for education
is worsen, education strength is harder. Especially, in
the case of 3times drunk driving, lecture and audio-
visual education are needed at first and then 12hrs
another education including driving simulator will be
planed.
2) USA
Driver's education in USA is carried out by
Highway Safety Program Manual which is different
in each state. In Massachusetts, an education called
ASAP (Alcohol & Substance Abuse Program) is
proceeded to a first offender. This program is
composed of various treatment plans and 32hrs
psycho-educational session for a first offender and
for two times loser, additional outpatient treatment
and probation process are added. In California, laws
offender needs to complete specific training in
Traffic Violator School instead of monetary penalty
and as occasion demands, practical education process
is conducted at the facility where the department of
motor vehicles set. In addition, a variety of license
cancellation education programs such as CRASH in
Vermont, DWI program in Texas, and NCADD in
North Carolina exist.
3) Germany
Transportation Safety Board carries out
improvement programs for young drivers with illegal
career in terms of driving. According to the related
laws, drivers need to prove their driving abilities
through the fact that they are not relevant to accidents
and violations during 2years grace periods.
Beginning drivers who experienced accidents or
violations are assessed with highly dangerous
likelihood of accidents.
Group of driver's improvement program consists
of 6~12 people and includes debates about 4 subjects
and 1-time driving practice, which supports the
opportunity for participants to observe their driving
behaviors. Especially, inexperienced drivers with
DUI are allowed to attend special alcohol safety
program to prevent the future DUI.
4) Japan
Japan has a total of 13-segment driver training
courses under Road Traffic Act 108. Among courses,
traffic safety educations are divided by a short course
(6hrs), a middle course (10hrs), and a long course
(12hrs) for drivers with suspension from violations or
accidents.
2.3 Summary
According to the literature reviews, there are
characteristics as follows. In most countries,
educations for drivers with accident or violation are
not for a punishment, but for a responsibility that
drivers could feel about what they did. This way
allows them to predict the future consequences of
their actions objectively, and is focused on the
prevention of accidents. In addition, most of traffic
safety training program includes volunteer
motivations such as lecture and audio-visual
education, and small group discussion and counseling
for behavior change. Also, in most developed
countries, control of hazard driving behavior is not
affected by not only traffic-related knowledge and
rational judgment, but also emotional state of drivers.
On this basis, we can know the research results
related to 'human factors' previously described. Since
the greater part of driver's dangerous behavior and
violations is related with human factors, systematic
approach in terms of human factors is necessary for
the traffic safety education. Therefore, the traffic
safety education for accident prevention needs to
develop diverse programs for drivers to understand
the traffic situation correctly and to prepare
countermeasures to correct drivers' hazard actions in
variety circumstances.
III. DATA ANAYSIS
3.1 Summary of Analysis
To analyze the impact of special traffic safety
education supported by Road Transport Corporation
for drivers with suspension and cancellation, drivers'
data who completed the educations from 2003 to
2012.
Among 3,712,479 cases of education from 2003 to
2012, 20,000 cases were extracted randomly and
through the process deleting the case of same driver,
total 14,059 cases were chosen as the final dataset,
enough for the sample number to represent the
number of drivers with completing traffic safety
training courses.
Based on the extracted data, a variety of analyses
such as personal characteristics, reason for training
(violation), and re-education were performed.
3.2 Analysis
1) Persons of Different Sexes
In data used in the analysis, male drivers account
for 89.6% (12,591cases) and female drivers do for
10.4% (1,468cases) out of 14,059 cases mentioned
previously (Table 1).
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Table1.GenderofTrafficSafetyEducationProgramParticipants
Gender Frequency percentage
Men 12,591 89.6
Women 1,468 10.4
Total 14,059 100
2) Percentage of Age
In terms of the age distribution, the mean age
based on the 1st special traffic safety training is 40.86
years (S.D=10.36) and all ages are distributed from
min. 18 to max 82.
The 30s and 40s drivers have the highest rates of
31.3% and 32.3%, respectively, and 20s and 50s
show a similar percentage as 15.0% and 16.9%. In
case of over 60s, 4.3% is shown (Table 2).
Table2.AgeofParticipants
Age Frequency Percentage (%)
10 64 0.5
20 2,111 15.0
30 4,369 31.1
40 4,538 32.3
50 2,371 16.9
60 553 3.9
More than
70
53 0.4
Total 14,059 100.0
3) Educational Experience (Past 10Year)
According to the past 10 years education experie
nce, the number of people with one time education ex
perience is 13,665 (97.2%), those with two-times edu
cation experience is 370 (2.6%), those with three-tim
es is 17 (0.1%).
4) Reasons of Traffic Safety Education Program
The result of 1st special traffic safety education a
nalysis shows that the largest proportion of reason for
violation is drinking and driving (34.09%) with bloo
d alcohol content 0.05~0.1%. The second largest reas
on is drunk driving over 0.1% BAC, and signal violat
ion (7.71%), violation of safe driving duties (5.33%),
midline involvement (4.95%) in a row (Table 3).
Table3.ReasonsofTrafficSafetyEducationProgram(First)Participation
Reasons Frequency percentage
Drunk Driving
(0.05%~0.1%)
5,108 34.09
DIW (more than 0.1) 3,747 25.01
Traffic Signal 1,155 7.71
Violation
Traffic Safety
Obligation Violation
799 5.33
Central line
Violation
741 4.95
Drunk Driving
Offenders
580 3.87
Non-Renewal of
Regular Aptitude
Test
572 3.82
The Others 2,280 15.22
Total 14,982 100.00
The result of two-times special traffic safety educatio
n analysis shows the similar distribution with the one
-time's case. The largest proportion of reason for viol
ation is drinking and driving (36.41%) with blood alc
ohol content 0.05~0.1%. The second largest reason is
signal violation (22.79%), violation of safe driving d
uties (12.73%), midline involvement (10.06%) in a ro
w. The largest proportion of reason for violation in th
ree-times special traffic safety education distribution
is signal violation 35.14%), violation of safe driving
duties (21.62%), and midline involvement(21.62%),
which are similar violation pattern except drinking dr
iving behavior. Finally, in case of four times educatio
n, although cases are rare, signal violation (41.67%),
and violation of safe driving duties (16.67%) have a h
igher rate than others, which is similar with the other
cases. Based on the results above, the biggest reason f
or special traffic safety education is drunk driving an
d the violation rate is decreasing as the education rep
eats. On the other hands, the frequency of signal viola
tion, violation of safe driving duties, midline involve
ment are reducing, however, continuous small occurr
ence happens.
3.3 Analysis of Traffic Violation and Traffic
Accident Recurrence
In order to examine the ratio of violations again
after the previous education, cross analysis was
conducted. In this analysis, traffic violation, drunk
driving, and accident offend were divided in terms of
classes, because many details existed in violations.
First of all, the result between 1st and 2nd education
shows out of 394 people, 104 people undergo
retraining with the same violations, 144 does with
drunk driving, and 8 does with accident offend (Table
4). That is, out of 394 people in 2nd education, 64%
of people (256) undergo training again with the
previous violations.
Table4.Cross-sectionAnalysisofReasonsofTrafficSafetyEducationProgram
Participation(First-Second)
Type Second Total
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Traffic
Violati
on
Drunk
Drivi
ng
Accide
nt
Offend
First
Traffic
Violation
104 38 20 162
Drunk
Driving
43 144 7 194
Accident
Offend
20 10 8 38
Total 167 192 35 394
3.4 Traffic Violationafter Traffic Safety Education
Programwithin 10 Years
The data used in this analysis are the education i
nformation from 2003 to 2012 so that there was a diff
iculty to analyze the inhibitory effect of recurrent in a
ccordance with education due to different time of viol
ation happening. Therefore, to analyze the likelihood
of re-violation/accident after 10 years of education, d
river’s data who completed the 1st traffic safety educ
ation in 2003 only were used. Out of 1,057 drivers, 9
50 (89.9%) were male drivers and others (107, 10.1%
) were female drivers, and 39.47years was the averag
e age with standard deviation of 10.11. All data were
from min. 18 to max. 72.
The average period between initial licensure and
1st education was 10.4 years (3808.9 days, s.d=2409.
32) and between 1st and 2nd education was 6.1 years
(2241.69 days, s.d=4413.70), and between 2nd and 3r
d was 2.9 years (1065.75 days, s.d=798.66), finally, a
round 1.8 years (653 days) were spent between 3rd a
nd 4th education. Similar average value is shown wit
h those who completed the entire training during 10 y
ears (2003~2012). Status of education completed is 9
72 (96.2%) at 1st education, 74 (7.0%) at 2nd educati
on, 3 (0.3%) at 3rd education, and 1 (0.1%) at 4th edu
cation.
Figure 1 Fig. 1 Number of Traffic Safety Education
Program Completion from 2003 to 2012 Year
Based on this result, effect of violation/accident
again after 1st special traffic safety education explore
s that among 1,057 drivers, 78 drivers (7.3%) underg
o retraining after 1st education, and others (92.6%) ar
e shown they did not experience violations or acciden
ts which would be the reason of education.
IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In summary of the analysis on the special traffic
safety education effect by Road Transport
Corporation during 10 years (2003~2012), prevention
effect of re-violations or accidents is around 92.6%.
When prevention effect is equivalent to accident cost,
huge effect could take place. However, when
considering the size of the driver is relatively
constant in each year and total accidents in Korea is
declined, new influx into special traffic safety
education will be continues by dangerous behaviors
of those who did not complete the educations
That is, although special traffic safety education
is excellent to prevent violation and accident, this
program is for drivers who violated rules or
committed accidents. On the other hands, those who
do not have an experience of this program have a
potential danger on the road. Consequently, road
traffic corporation should be prepared for the
effectiveness of accident prevention through
education. Further studies can be needed to evaluate
how traffic violators change their attitudes about
traffic law abidance based on weather conditions,
which is known for severity of car accidents, but very
little is known of psychology reasons how affect
driver’s behavior in weather conditions.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the Weather
Information System Service Engine Program of the
Korea Meteorological Administration under Grant
KMIPA-2012-0001-1
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