Current international trends in education provision are tilted towards inclusive practices that place learners at the center of education by valuing their diverse needs, creating a sense of belonging and learning conditions that fosters the success of all. In Cameroon like other SSA countries, a large number of adolescents of secondary school age continue to remain unaccounted for by the educational system due to multifaceted reasons, but largely as a result of systems barriers related to the cost of education and the failure to address the inherent or innate disadvantages and disparities amongst individuals. Very often, policies on compulsory financing are based on grounds that it will augment the stock of educational financing and help close funding gaps. This paper places four key questions at the center of its discussion questions which require consideration by the government and policy makers Does the current obligatory financing policies and practices truly constitute an effective means to close the resource gaps that characterizes educational systems Are there potentials, including under effective governance and management of resources for developing countries secondary education systems to effectively accommodate the educational needs of all without relying on second stream funding to achieve this end Should the perpetual exclusion resulting from the inability of some individuals to meet the full cost of schooling be overlooked by the state although having a moral duty to fairly distribute existing opportunities or give a chance to all Does the socioeconomic context of household obligatory financing and the greater need for secondary education to equip large numbers of youths with the skills required to accelerate economic growth towards emergence, in congruence with many developing countries goals, not necessitate an urgent need to revisit and review the current policies Whatever the case may be, it is imperative that no one is excluded from benefiting from educational services of quality. The paper highlights the experiences and good practices in other developing countries, with significant schooling outcomes. A new policy approach to the financing of an inclusive secondary education project that values the needs of all is suggested in the recommendations. Prosper Mbelle Mekolle ""Towards Inclusive Education: Reconciling Household Obligatory Financing and the Problem of Access to Secondary Education in Cameroon"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23521.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/23521/towards-inclusive-education-reconciling-household-obligatory-financing-and-the-problem-of-access-to-secondary-education-in-cameroon/prosper-mbelle-mekolle
It is obvious to postulate that there is a linkage between youth and national development. Due to the challenges facing youths has been attributed to the lack of a comprehensive policy to provide a blueprint for youths. Therefore, this study interrogates the role of youths on national development in the Gambia and the intercourse is not only symbiotically connected; but, one depends on the other for its sustenance. The study is descriptive and data obtained from secondary and primary sources. The findings in the study revealed that hostile political environment, institutional settings and public policies among others has been major setback, however, the Gambia youths are still pertinent to national development due to self-help projects in various local governments in Gambia especially projects that involve trade, commerce, small and medium term enterprises and agriculture. Also, on religion awareness, conflict resolution and security, like the Youth Crime Watch The Gambia (YCWG) engage the necessary measures to address all vulnerabilities that may tend to destabilize the country. Since the wheel of development of any country lies on the shoulder of how productive and creative the youthful populations are with over 63.55% of 2.2 million populations. So, therefore, this quantum of population is a great asset for the Gambian state if they are harnessed and utilized in the right direction. The Gambia National Development Plan (2018-2021), constitution and policies should be pluralistic for youth representation, and just in their treatment of the Gambian citizens.
As many of you complete your University education and go out to face the challenges of the career which you may have in mind and plan for realization of the vision and dreams which many of you will have, there will be several impediments and difficulties in your way. You would face them well if you have a commitment to quality and excellence. Sometimes you may also feel unclear in your mind as to which path to adopt. Often you may face difficult decisions where the ideals that you have with you and the reality of life are widely different. These tough times will be your real test. I hope that when such occasions arise, you will stand by what is right, fair and just and promotes excellence. It is this ability and adherence to principles which in the long run will take you far. It is your dedication and commitment to your ideals which will shape your future life. Sometimes you may be tempted to give up your ideals for immediate gains. Such victories occasioned by these temptations would definitely be short lived and may cause you incalculable harm in the long run. Mr. Shaikh Matin Shaikh Husen ""Economic Growth and Human Capital"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23628.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/economics/development-economics/23628/economic-growth-and-human-capital/mr-shaikh-matin-shaikh-husen
It is obvious to postulate that there is a linkage between youth and national development. Due to the challenges facing youths has been attributed to the lack of a comprehensive policy to provide a blueprint for youths. Therefore, this study interrogates the role of youths on national development in the Gambia and the intercourse is not only symbiotically connected; but, one depends on the other for its sustenance. The study is descriptive and data obtained from secondary and primary sources. The findings in the study revealed that hostile political environment, institutional settings and public policies among others has been major setback, however, the Gambia youths are still pertinent to national development due to self-help projects in various local governments in Gambia especially projects that involve trade, commerce, small and medium term enterprises and agriculture. Also, on religion awareness, conflict resolution and security, like the Youth Crime Watch The Gambia (YCWG) engage the necessary measures to address all vulnerabilities that may tend to destabilize the country. Since the wheel of development of any country lies on the shoulder of how productive and creative the youthful populations are with over 63.55% of 2.2 million populations. So, therefore, this quantum of population is a great asset for the Gambian state if they are harnessed and utilized in the right direction. The Gambia National Development Plan (2018-2021), constitution and policies should be pluralistic for youth representation, and just in their treatment of the Gambian citizens.
As many of you complete your University education and go out to face the challenges of the career which you may have in mind and plan for realization of the vision and dreams which many of you will have, there will be several impediments and difficulties in your way. You would face them well if you have a commitment to quality and excellence. Sometimes you may also feel unclear in your mind as to which path to adopt. Often you may face difficult decisions where the ideals that you have with you and the reality of life are widely different. These tough times will be your real test. I hope that when such occasions arise, you will stand by what is right, fair and just and promotes excellence. It is this ability and adherence to principles which in the long run will take you far. It is your dedication and commitment to your ideals which will shape your future life. Sometimes you may be tempted to give up your ideals for immediate gains. Such victories occasioned by these temptations would definitely be short lived and may cause you incalculable harm in the long run. Mr. Shaikh Matin Shaikh Husen ""Economic Growth and Human Capital"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23628.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/economics/development-economics/23628/economic-growth-and-human-capital/mr-shaikh-matin-shaikh-husen
An Exploration of Programmes Offered by Universities in Lesotho and how they ...ijtsrd
Lesotho is an under developed economy and faces challenges of the HIV AIDS pandemic, political instability, high poverty levels, high unemployment rate, high public expenditure, declining revenues and inequalities. The country has got three universities. This study sought to analyse the programmes offered by the universities and how they contribute to the development of the national fiscal and establish gaps that need to be filled. The study is explorative and investigative and uses qualitative analysis of the data. Tawanda Mukurunge | Takura Bhila "An Exploration of Programmes Offered by Universities in Lesotho and how they Align with the National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP), Agenda 2063 and Strategic Development Goals (SDGs)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-1 , December 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd20243.pdf
http://www.ijtsrd.com/management/other/20243/an-exploration-of-programmes-offered-by-universities-in-lesotho-and-how-they-align-with-the-national-strategic-development-plan-nsdp-agenda-2063-and-strategic-development-goals-sdgs/tawanda-mukurunge
INFORMAL SECTOR TRAINING AND RESOURCES NETWORKDr Lendy Spires
1.1 SCHOOL LEAVER PROBLEM AND UNEMPLOYMENT PROBLEMS At independence Zimbabwe witnessed a tremendous expansion in the education system. Both government and the communities invested heavily in education in order to increase access and educational attainment. Zimbabweans had and continue to have high expectations of education. Parents invest a great deal in the education of their children in the hope that, when they complete school, will be gainfully employed and provide for themselves and for other members of the family.
Primary school enrolments which stood at 800 000 in 1980 increased to 2.5 million in 1995. Secondary school enrolment increased even more rapidly from 66 000 to 712 000 pupils during the same period. Promotion from primary to secondary school which was prior based on attainment of good grades in grade 7, became automatic. This allowed those inadequately prepared for secondary school to go through. While this shift in policy increased the number of school leavers with 4 years of secondary education it left many unable to access further education in tertiary institutions which require at last 5O level subjects for entry.
Statistics show that only 20% of the nearly 300 000 students completing O level have 5 "O" level passes. The remainder does not. Most of them cannot be absorbed into public tertiary education institutions which required a 5 "O" level entry. Some enrol in private sector colleges and institutions which are quite expensive. The majority of them does not enrol any further education institutions and stay at home. This leaves a very large number of school leavers without many options and opportunities for further studies. Because of the academic nature of the "O" level curriculum, they are not ill equipped to engage in economic activities, and continue to be a burden to their parents.
1.2 NATURE OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM As indicated most secondary schools in Zimbabwe write the Cambridge O and A level examinations. The curriculum is heavily academic and does not offer employment skills. Except for schools that were modelled after those established in refugee camps in Mozambique and Zambia, that adopted the education with production philosophy, the curriculum in the rest of the schools remained predominantly academic.
Some schools offer practical subjects such as woodwork, metalwork, home economics, dress making and art. The skills developed do not adequately prepare recipients to get into self-employment ventures because the training is not accompanied with business development skills. A further constraint is that the spread of practical subjects is very limited and not diverse enough to cater for all the possible self-employment opportunities that may exist in the economy. The education system has therefore over time been producing educated but unemployable graduates.
A Synopsis of the Trajectory of Politics in the Funding Of Nigerian Education...iosrjce
In recent years, funding for the Nigerian educational system has been in discourse for sundry
reasons, chief of which is the quest for sufficient and stable funding for the system, as poor funding which hit the
universities under the Nigerian jack-boot regimes has been a recurring decimal. Therefore, this paper is a
historical synopsis cum appraisal of the pattern of funding for education, mostly as it affects university
education, under an emerging democracy. The paper summits that lack of political will and government’s
refusal to prioritise the education sector for funding is remotely the major bane towards the much desired
appropriate funding for university education. It therefore advocates for a revolutionary mind-set in order for
government to correct the errors in funding university education.
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
The 28th African Union Summit declared “Harnessing the Demographic Dividend through investments in youth” as its theme, which connects the “Agenda 2063” that offers a comprehensive development vision for Africa. Regardless, African youth faces numerous challenges and opportunities in the fields of skills training, technology, entrepreneurship, agribusiness, advocacy, and political involvement. Hopes that Africa’s dramatic population bulge may create prosperity seem to have been overdone. It is time for development economists to look beyond the stylized facts to the dire realities of Africa’s frustrated youth and burgeoning informal economies. Although development economists talk about a demographic dividend for the continent of Africa, however, what the continent has now is not a ‘dividend’ but a youth population ‘bulge’.
https://crimsonpublishers.com/mcda/fulltext/MCDA.000579.php
For more open access journals in Crimson Publishers please click on link: https://crimsonpublishers.com
For more articles on journal of agronomy and crop science please click on below link: https://crimsonpublishers.com/mcda/
In addition to analyzing the characteristics of gender equality in tertiary education enrolment in Africa, this paper empirically studies the key drivers of gender equality in tertiary education enrolment, using cross-sectional time series data from 1970 to 2012. Our results show that the coefficient associated with the level of real GDP per capita is positive and statistically significant. Our results also suggest that higher domestic investment, increased economic globalization, the quadratic element of political globalization, economic globalization, ethnic fractionalization, increased democracy, and Christian dominance in a country increase gender equality in tertiary education enrolment in the continent. However, increases in the level of political globalization and increased incidence of civil wars tend to lower it. The policy implications and lessons of these results are discussed.
Economics of Education is the concept that lead us why do we go for education and what do we achieve from it. Please, take it only for your exploring your mind, keep in mind that your mental process can make better than this.
Effect of Government Spending on the Nigerian Educationijtsrd
Over the years, the quality of education offered in Nigeria has been affected by poor attendance and inadequate preparation by teachers at all levels. The morale of teachers has been low due to poor condition of service, low salaries and poor physical facilities such as libraries, laboratories, modern communication and Information technology equipments. The research work investigates the effect of government expenditure on the growth of the education sector in Nigeria. The research work employs both descriptive and inferential statistical analysis particularly the multiple regression estimating technique. Two models are formulated to examine this. The first model used average school enrollment as proxy for education growth while the share of the education sector in the GDP is used to proxy education sector growth in the second model. The independent variables are recurrent the total government recurrent expenditure, the total capital education and the GDP. The study made use of secondary data from 1987 2019. The result shows that recurrent expenditure does not have significant impact on the share of education sector in the GDP while it has significant and negative relationship with average school enrollment. On the other hand capital expenditure does not have significant impact on the average school enrolment but it does on share of education sector in the GDP. The implication of the result is that enrollment growth in the education sector in Nigeria does not correspond with the recurrent expenditure in Nigeria. Also the capital expenditure in terms of provision of educational and infrastructural facilities has not been having significant impact on the volume of school enrollment in Nigeria. This study has added to the literature calling for the increase in funding of the education sector in Nigeria. Oguntuase, Adeniyi "Effect of Government Spending on the Nigerian Education" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-3 , April 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd49484.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/49484/effect-of-government-spending-on-the-nigerian-education/oguntuase-adeniyi
Sub-Saharan Africa is on the brink of a demographic transition that could be a game-changer for its economies. However, to harness this potential, substantial investments in education are crucial.
An Exploration of Programmes Offered by Universities in Lesotho and how they ...ijtsrd
Lesotho is an under developed economy and faces challenges of the HIV AIDS pandemic, political instability, high poverty levels, high unemployment rate, high public expenditure, declining revenues and inequalities. The country has got three universities. This study sought to analyse the programmes offered by the universities and how they contribute to the development of the national fiscal and establish gaps that need to be filled. The study is explorative and investigative and uses qualitative analysis of the data. Tawanda Mukurunge | Takura Bhila "An Exploration of Programmes Offered by Universities in Lesotho and how they Align with the National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP), Agenda 2063 and Strategic Development Goals (SDGs)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-1 , December 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd20243.pdf
http://www.ijtsrd.com/management/other/20243/an-exploration-of-programmes-offered-by-universities-in-lesotho-and-how-they-align-with-the-national-strategic-development-plan-nsdp-agenda-2063-and-strategic-development-goals-sdgs/tawanda-mukurunge
INFORMAL SECTOR TRAINING AND RESOURCES NETWORKDr Lendy Spires
1.1 SCHOOL LEAVER PROBLEM AND UNEMPLOYMENT PROBLEMS At independence Zimbabwe witnessed a tremendous expansion in the education system. Both government and the communities invested heavily in education in order to increase access and educational attainment. Zimbabweans had and continue to have high expectations of education. Parents invest a great deal in the education of their children in the hope that, when they complete school, will be gainfully employed and provide for themselves and for other members of the family.
Primary school enrolments which stood at 800 000 in 1980 increased to 2.5 million in 1995. Secondary school enrolment increased even more rapidly from 66 000 to 712 000 pupils during the same period. Promotion from primary to secondary school which was prior based on attainment of good grades in grade 7, became automatic. This allowed those inadequately prepared for secondary school to go through. While this shift in policy increased the number of school leavers with 4 years of secondary education it left many unable to access further education in tertiary institutions which require at last 5O level subjects for entry.
Statistics show that only 20% of the nearly 300 000 students completing O level have 5 "O" level passes. The remainder does not. Most of them cannot be absorbed into public tertiary education institutions which required a 5 "O" level entry. Some enrol in private sector colleges and institutions which are quite expensive. The majority of them does not enrol any further education institutions and stay at home. This leaves a very large number of school leavers without many options and opportunities for further studies. Because of the academic nature of the "O" level curriculum, they are not ill equipped to engage in economic activities, and continue to be a burden to their parents.
1.2 NATURE OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM As indicated most secondary schools in Zimbabwe write the Cambridge O and A level examinations. The curriculum is heavily academic and does not offer employment skills. Except for schools that were modelled after those established in refugee camps in Mozambique and Zambia, that adopted the education with production philosophy, the curriculum in the rest of the schools remained predominantly academic.
Some schools offer practical subjects such as woodwork, metalwork, home economics, dress making and art. The skills developed do not adequately prepare recipients to get into self-employment ventures because the training is not accompanied with business development skills. A further constraint is that the spread of practical subjects is very limited and not diverse enough to cater for all the possible self-employment opportunities that may exist in the economy. The education system has therefore over time been producing educated but unemployable graduates.
A Synopsis of the Trajectory of Politics in the Funding Of Nigerian Education...iosrjce
In recent years, funding for the Nigerian educational system has been in discourse for sundry
reasons, chief of which is the quest for sufficient and stable funding for the system, as poor funding which hit the
universities under the Nigerian jack-boot regimes has been a recurring decimal. Therefore, this paper is a
historical synopsis cum appraisal of the pattern of funding for education, mostly as it affects university
education, under an emerging democracy. The paper summits that lack of political will and government’s
refusal to prioritise the education sector for funding is remotely the major bane towards the much desired
appropriate funding for university education. It therefore advocates for a revolutionary mind-set in order for
government to correct the errors in funding university education.
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
The 28th African Union Summit declared “Harnessing the Demographic Dividend through investments in youth” as its theme, which connects the “Agenda 2063” that offers a comprehensive development vision for Africa. Regardless, African youth faces numerous challenges and opportunities in the fields of skills training, technology, entrepreneurship, agribusiness, advocacy, and political involvement. Hopes that Africa’s dramatic population bulge may create prosperity seem to have been overdone. It is time for development economists to look beyond the stylized facts to the dire realities of Africa’s frustrated youth and burgeoning informal economies. Although development economists talk about a demographic dividend for the continent of Africa, however, what the continent has now is not a ‘dividend’ but a youth population ‘bulge’.
https://crimsonpublishers.com/mcda/fulltext/MCDA.000579.php
For more open access journals in Crimson Publishers please click on link: https://crimsonpublishers.com
For more articles on journal of agronomy and crop science please click on below link: https://crimsonpublishers.com/mcda/
In addition to analyzing the characteristics of gender equality in tertiary education enrolment in Africa, this paper empirically studies the key drivers of gender equality in tertiary education enrolment, using cross-sectional time series data from 1970 to 2012. Our results show that the coefficient associated with the level of real GDP per capita is positive and statistically significant. Our results also suggest that higher domestic investment, increased economic globalization, the quadratic element of political globalization, economic globalization, ethnic fractionalization, increased democracy, and Christian dominance in a country increase gender equality in tertiary education enrolment in the continent. However, increases in the level of political globalization and increased incidence of civil wars tend to lower it. The policy implications and lessons of these results are discussed.
Economics of Education is the concept that lead us why do we go for education and what do we achieve from it. Please, take it only for your exploring your mind, keep in mind that your mental process can make better than this.
Effect of Government Spending on the Nigerian Educationijtsrd
Over the years, the quality of education offered in Nigeria has been affected by poor attendance and inadequate preparation by teachers at all levels. The morale of teachers has been low due to poor condition of service, low salaries and poor physical facilities such as libraries, laboratories, modern communication and Information technology equipments. The research work investigates the effect of government expenditure on the growth of the education sector in Nigeria. The research work employs both descriptive and inferential statistical analysis particularly the multiple regression estimating technique. Two models are formulated to examine this. The first model used average school enrollment as proxy for education growth while the share of the education sector in the GDP is used to proxy education sector growth in the second model. The independent variables are recurrent the total government recurrent expenditure, the total capital education and the GDP. The study made use of secondary data from 1987 2019. The result shows that recurrent expenditure does not have significant impact on the share of education sector in the GDP while it has significant and negative relationship with average school enrollment. On the other hand capital expenditure does not have significant impact on the average school enrolment but it does on share of education sector in the GDP. The implication of the result is that enrollment growth in the education sector in Nigeria does not correspond with the recurrent expenditure in Nigeria. Also the capital expenditure in terms of provision of educational and infrastructural facilities has not been having significant impact on the volume of school enrollment in Nigeria. This study has added to the literature calling for the increase in funding of the education sector in Nigeria. Oguntuase, Adeniyi "Effect of Government Spending on the Nigerian Education" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-3 , April 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd49484.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/49484/effect-of-government-spending-on-the-nigerian-education/oguntuase-adeniyi
Sub-Saharan Africa is on the brink of a demographic transition that could be a game-changer for its economies. However, to harness this potential, substantial investments in education are crucial.
The State of Higher Education in the Middle EastWesley Schwalje
This article references a Tahseen Consulting study in which we explored the barriers facing women in entering science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields in the GCC in an article in Forbes Middle East. The original article is available at http://tahseen.ae/blog/?p=980.
2020 fact sheet reforming basic education in NigeriaYouthHubAfrica
Nigeria accounts for 45% of the growing number of out-of-school children in West Africa.
The number of out-of school children is highly contested - with data ranging from 13.2 million to 10.2 million out-of-school children at the primary level. The issue, however, is likely to be much greater as the government does not collect and report
on the number of out-of-school children at upper secondary school age. The true size of the education crisis in
Nigeria is therefore unknown.
Nigeria has to stay on track to deliver the fourth Sustainable Development Goal(SDG4) by2030. In that respect, extending compulsory, free and qualitative universal basic education (UBE) to12years is an essential step toward overcoming one of the current weaknesses of UBE in Nigeria. Making UBE compulsory, free and qualitativefor12years will align policy in Nigeria with SDG4and make education work for all children in the country.
Policy Brief-Universal Basic Education Finance in Nigeria.pdfYouthHubAfrica
Nigeria has to stay on track to deliver the fourth Sustainable Development Goal
(SDG4) by 2030. In that respect, extending compulsory, free and qualitative universal
basic education (UBE) to 12 years is an essential step toward overcoming one of the
current weaknesses of UBE in Nigeria. Making UBE compulsory, free and qualitative
for 12 years will align policy in Nigeria with SDG4 and make education work for all
children in the country.
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
Causes of poverty in world A Lecture by Mr Allah Dad Khan Former DG Agri Ext...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
Causes of poverty in world A Lecture by Mr Allah Dad Khan Former DG Agri Extension KPK/Visiting Professor the University of Agriculture Peshawar Pakistan
Development Finance Impact Project:Myanmar Investment ClimateAye Myat Mon Oo
This artifact intends to reach out to different investors and investment firms considering to invest in Myanmar either to reap the benefits of investing in the last frontier or to help develop the poor living conditions in Myanmar. With the knowledge of the roles of The World Bank Group and MDBs and different financial instruments that I have gained from Financing For Development Course, I would like to share a glimpse of Myanmar investment climate and propose some generic financial and non-financial solutions to tailor different risk appetite, desire to create impact and implement social missions by international and domestic investors.
Business Leaders for Michigan’s goal of helping Michigan become a Top Ten state will be impacted by the strength of our workforce. This paper summarizes research we conducted to identify economic trends that
will influence Michigan’s workforce needs, and suggests ways we can support state residents to meet those needs now and in the future. Three primary findings were drawn from the research:
South african welfare state and the demographic dividend's window of opportunityFabio Torreggiani
In this paper, I analysed the main characteristics of the South African Welfare State in terms of inputs and outputs of the key policies usually identified by the literature to be useful to exploit a demographic dividend. In particular, I focused on the state of the labour market, the social assistance policies and the education and healthcare systems. To do this I studied some quantitative indicators of both inputs and outputs and I reported the qualitative analysis of some other articles of these individuals sectors. The conclusion is that, despite some important progress made by the democratic governments, there are many improvements needed to create a consistent and inclusive growth.
‘Six Sigma Technique’ A Journey Through its Implementationijtsrd
The manufacturing industries all over the world are facing tough challenges for growth, development and sustainability in today’s competitive environment. They have to achieve apex position by adapting with the global competitive environment by delivering goods and services at low cost, prime quality and better price to increase wealth and consumer satisfaction. Cost Management ensures profit, growth and sustainability of the business with implementation of Continuous Improvement Technique like Six Sigma. This leads to optimize Business performance. The method drives for customer satisfaction, low variation, reduction in waste and cycle time resulting into a competitive advantage over other industries which did not implement it. The main objective of this paper ‘Six Sigma Technique A Journey Through Its Implementation’ is to conceptualize the effectiveness of Six Sigma Technique through the journey of its implementation. Aditi Sunilkumar Ghosalkar "‘Six Sigma Technique’: A Journey Through its Implementation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64546.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64546/‘six-sigma-technique’-a-journey-through-its-implementation/aditi-sunilkumar-ghosalkar
Edge Computing in Space Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space...ijtsrd
Edge computing, a paradigm that involves processing data closer to its source, has gained significant attention for its potential to revolutionize data processing and communication in space missions. With the increasing complexity and data volume generated by modern space missions, traditional centralized computing approaches face challenges related to latency, bandwidth, and security. Edge computing in space, involving on board processing and analysis of data, offers promising solutions to these challenges. This paper explores the concept of edge computing in space, its benefits, applications, and future prospects in enhancing space missions. Manish Verma "Edge Computing in Space: Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space Missions" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64541.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/64541/edge-computing-in-space-enhancing-data-processing-and-communication-for-space-missions/manish-verma
Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India Challenges and Prospectsijtsrd
Communal politics in India has evolved through centuries, weaving a complex tapestry shaped by historical legacies, colonial influences, and contemporary socio political transformations. This research comprehensively examines the dynamics of communal politics in 21st century India, emphasizing its historical roots, socio political dynamics, economic implications, challenges, and prospects for mitigation. The historical perspective unravels the intricate interplay of religious identities and power dynamics from ancient civilizations to the impact of colonial rule, providing insights into the evolution of communalism. The socio political dynamics section delves into the contemporary manifestations, exploring the roles of identity politics, socio economic disparities, and globalization. The economic implications section highlights how communal politics intersects with economic issues, perpetuating disparities and influencing resource allocation. Challenges posed by communal politics are scrutinized, revealing multifaceted issues ranging from social fragmentation to threats against democratic values. The prospects for mitigation present a multifaceted approach, incorporating policy interventions, community engagement, and educational initiatives. The paper conducts a comparative analysis with international examples, identifying common patterns such as identity politics and economic disparities. It also examines unique challenges, emphasizing Indias diverse religious landscape, historical legacy, and secular framework. Lessons for effective strategies are drawn from international experiences, offering insights into inclusive policies, interfaith dialogue, media regulation, and global cooperation. By scrutinizing historical epochs, contemporary dynamics, economic implications, and international comparisons, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of communal politics in India. The proposed strategies for mitigation underscore the importance of a holistic approach to foster social harmony, inclusivity, and democratic values. Rose Hossain "Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India: Challenges and Prospects" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64528.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/history/64528/dynamics-of-communal-politics-in-21st-century-india-challenges-and-prospects/rose-hossain
Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in...ijtsrd
Background and Objective Telehealth has become a well known tool for the delivery of health care in Saudi Arabia, and the perspective and knowledge of healthcare providers are influential in the implementation, adoption and advancement of the method. This systematic review was conducted to examine the current literature base regarding telehealth and the related healthcare professional perspective and knowledge in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods This systematic review was conducted by searching 7 databases including, MEDLINE, CINHAL, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, and ProQuest Central. Studies on healthcare practitioners telehealth knowledge and perspectives published in English in Saudi Arabia from 2000 to 2023 were included. Boland directed this comprehensive review. The researchers examined each connected study using the AXIS tool, which evaluates cross sectional systematic reviews. Narrative synthesis was used to summarise and convey the data. Results Out of 1840 search results, 10 studies were included. Positive outlook and limited knowledge among providers were seen across trials. Healthcare professionals like telehealth for its ability to improve quality, access, and delivery, save time and money, and be successful. Age, gender, occupation, and work experience also affect health workers knowledge. In Saudi Arabia, healthcare professionals face inadequate expert assistance, patient privacy, internet connection concerns, lack of training courses, lack of telehealth understanding, and high costs while performing telemedicine. Conclusions Healthcare practitioners telehealth perceptions and knowledge were examined in this systematic study. Its collection of concerned experts different personal attitudes and expertise would help enhance telehealths implementation in Saudi Arabia, develop its healthcare delivery alternative, and eliminate frequent problems. Badriah Mousa I Mulayhi | Dr. Jomin George | Judy Jenkins "Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in Saudi Arabia: A Systematic Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64535.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/64535/assess-perspective-and-knowledge-of-healthcare-providers-towards-elehealth-in-saudi-arabia-a-systematic-review/badriah-mousa-i-mulayhi
The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion ...ijtsrd
The impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has gained considerable attention in recent years. The adoption of digital technologies and the internet has resulted in declining influence and power for traditional gatekeepers such as publishing houses and news organizations. Simultaneously, digital media has facilitated the emergence of new voices and players in the media industry. Digital medias impact on power decentralization and gatekeeper erosion is visible in several ways. One significant aspect is the democratization of information, which enables anyone with an internet connection to publish and share content globally, leading to citizen journalism and bypassing traditional gatekeepers. Another aspect is the disruption of conventional media industry business models, as traditional organizations struggle to adjust to the decrease in advertising revenue and the rise of digital platforms. Alternative business models, such as subscription models and crowdfunding, have become more prevalent, leading to the emergence of new players. Overall, the impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has brought about significant changes in the media landscape and the way information is shared. Further research is required to fully comprehend the implications of these changes and their impact on society. Dr. Kusum Lata "The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion of Traditional Gatekeepers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64544.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64544/the-impact-of-digital-media-on-the-decentralization-of-power-and-the-erosion-of-traditional-gatekeepers/dr-kusum-lata
Online Voices, Offline Impact Ambedkars Ideals and Socio Political Inclusion ...ijtsrd
This research investigates the nexus between online discussions on Dr. B.R. Ambedkars ideals and their impact on social inclusion among college students in Gurugram, Haryana. Surveying 240 students from 12 government colleges, findings indicate that 65 actively engage in online discussions, with 80 demonstrating moderate to high awareness of Ambedkars ideals. Statistically significant correlations reveal that higher online engagement correlates with increased awareness p 0.05 and perceived social inclusion. Variations across colleges and a notable effect of college type on perceived social inclusion highlight the influence of contextual factors. Furthermore, the intersectional analysis underscores nuanced differences based on gender, caste, and socio economic status. Dr. Kusum Lata "Online Voices, Offline Impact: Ambedkar's Ideals and Socio-Political Inclusion - A Study of Gurugram District" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64543.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64543/online-voices-offline-impact-ambedkars-ideals-and-sociopolitical-inclusion--a-study-of-gurugram-district/dr-kusum-lata
Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship A Studyijtsrd
Noting calls for contextualizing Agro entrepreneurs problems and challenges of the agro entrepreneurs and for greater attention to the Role of entrepreneurs in agro entrepreneurship research, we conduct a systematic literature review of extent research in agriculture entrepreneurship to overcome the study objectives of complications of agro entrepreneurs through various factors, Development of agriculture products is a key factor for the overall economic growth of agro entrepreneurs Agro Entrepreneurs produces firsthand large scale employment, utilizes the labor and natural resources, This research outlines the problems of Weather and Soil Erosions, Market price fluctuation, stimulates labor cost problems, reduces concentration of Price volatility, Dependency on Intermediaries, induces Limited Bargaining Power, and Storage and Transportation Costs. This paper mainly devoted to highlight Problems and challenges faced for the sustainable of Agro Entrepreneurs in India. Vinay Prasad B "Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship - A Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64540.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64540/problems-and-challenges-of-agro-entreprenurship--a-study/vinay-prasad-b
Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies o...ijtsrd
Disclosure is a process through which a business enterprise communicates with external parties. A corporate disclosure is communication of financial and non financial information of the activities of a business enterprise to the interested entities. Corporate disclosure is done through publishing annual reports. So corporate disclosure through annual reports plays a vital role in the life of all the companies and provides valuable information to investors. The basic objectives of corporate disclosure is to give a true and fair view of companies to the parties related either directly or indirectly like owner, government, creditors, shareholders etc. in the companies act, provisions have been made about mandatory and voluntary disclosure. The IT sector in India is rapidly growing, the trend to invest in the IT sector is rising and employment opportunities in IT sectors are also increasing. Therefore the IT sector is expected to have fair, full and adequate disclosure of all information. Unfair and incomplete disclosure may adversely affect the entire economy. A research study on disclosure practices of IT companies could play an important role in this regard. Hence, the present research study has been done to study and review comparative analysis of total corporate disclosure of selected IT companies of India and to put forward overall findings and suggestions with a view to increase disclosure score of these companies. The researcher hopes that the present research study will be helpful to all selected Companies for improving level of corporate disclosure through annual reports as well as the government, creditors, investors, all business organizations and upcoming researcher for comparative analyses of level of corporate disclosure with special reference to selected IT companies. Dr. Vaibhavi D. Thaker "Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies of India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64539.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64539/comparative-analysis-of-total-corporate-disclosure-of-selected-it-companies-of-india/dr-vaibhavi-d-thaker
The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Right...ijtsrd
This study investigated the impact of educational background and professional training on human rights awareness among secondary school teachers in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India. The key findings reveal that higher levels of education, particularly a master’s degree, and fields of study related to education, humanities, or social sciences are associated with greater human rights awareness among teachers. Additionally, both pre service teacher training and in service professional development programs focused on human rights education significantly enhance teacher’s knowledge, skills, and competencies in promoting human rights principles in their classrooms. Baig Ameer Bee Mirza Abdul Aziz | Dr. Syed Azaz Ali Amjad Ali "The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Rights Awareness among Secondary School Teachers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64529.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64529/the-impact-of-educational-background-and-professional-training-on-human-rights-awareness-among-secondary-school-teachers/baig-ameer-bee-mirza-abdul-aziz
A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at t...ijtsrd
“One Language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way” Frank Smith English as a foreign language or as a second language has been ruling in India since the period of Lord Macaulay. But the question is how much we teach or learn English properly in our culture. Is there any scope to use English as a language rather than a subject How much we learn or teach English without any interference of mother language specially in the classroom teaching learning scenario in West Bengal By considering all these issues the researcher has attempted in this article to focus on the effective teaching learning process comparing to other traditional strategies in the field of English curriculum at the secondary level to investigate whether they fulfill the present teaching learning requirements or not by examining the validity of the present curriculum of English. The purpose of this study is to focus on the effectiveness of the systematic, scientific, sequential and logical transaction of the course between the teachers and the learners in the perspective of the 5Es programme that is engage, explore, explain, extend and evaluate. Sanchali Mondal | Santinath Sarkar "A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at the Secondary Level of West Bengal" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd62412.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/62412/a-study-on-the-effective-teaching-learning-process-in-english-curriculum-at-the-secondary-level-of-west-bengal/sanchali-mondal
The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching ...ijtsrd
This paper reports on a study which was conducted to investigate the role of mentoring and its influence on the effectiveness of the teaching of Physics in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. The study adopted the convergent parallel mixed methods design, focusing on respondents in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected, analysed separately, and the results were compared to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other. The quantitative analysis found that majority of the respondents 72 of Physics teachers affirmed that they had more experienced colleagues as mentors to help build their confidence, improve their teaching, and help them improve their effectiveness and efficiency in guiding learners’ achievements. Only 28 of the respondents disagreed with these statements. With majority respondents 72 agreeing with the statements, it implies that in most secondary schools, experienced Physics teachers act as mentors to build teachers’ confidence in teaching and improving students’ learning. The interview qualitative data analysis summarized how secondary school Principals use meetings with mentors and mentees to promote mentorship in the school milieu. This has helped strengthen teachers’ classroom practices in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. With the results confirming each other, the study recommends that mentoring should focus on helping teachers employ social interactions and instructional practices feedback and clarity in teaching that have direct measurable impact on students’ learning achievements. Andrew Ngeim Sumba | Frederick Ebot Ashu | Peter Agborbechem Tambi "The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Physics in Secondary Schools in the South West Region of Cameroon" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64524.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/management-development/64524/the-role-of-mentoring-and-its-influence-on-the-effectiveness-of-the-teaching-of-physics-in-secondary-schools-in-the-south-west-region-of-cameroon/andrew-ngeim-sumba
Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino Microcontroller Bas...ijtsrd
This study primarily focuses on the design of a high side buck converter using an Arduino microcontroller. The converter is specifically intended for use in DC DC applications, particularly in standalone solar PV systems where the PV output voltage exceeds the load or battery voltage. To evaluate the performance of the converter, simulation experiments are conducted using Proteus Software. These simulations provide insights into the input and output voltages, currents, powers, and efficiency under different state of charge SoC conditions of a 12V,70Ah rechargeable lead acid battery. Additionally, the hardware design of the converter is implemented, and practical data is collected through operation, monitoring, and recording. By comparing the simulation results with the practical results, the efficiency and performance of the designed converter are assessed. The findings indicate that while the buck converter is suitable for practical use in standalone PV systems, its efficiency is compromised due to a lower output current. Chan Myae Aung | Dr. Ei Mon "Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino-Microcontroller Based DC-DC High-Side Buck Converter for Standalone PV System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64518.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/64518/design-simulation-and-hardware-construction-of-an-arduinomicrocontroller-based-dcdc-highside-buck-converter-for-standalone-pv-system/chan-myae-aung
Sustainable Energy by Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadikuijtsrd
Energy becomes sustainable if it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Some of the definitions of sustainable energy include the considerations of environmental aspects such as greenhouse gas emissions, social, and economic aspects such as energy poverty. Generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel are renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectric power, solar, and geothermal energy sources. Worthy of note is that some renewable energy projects, like the clearing of forests to produce biofuels, can cause severe environmental damage. The sustainability of nuclear power which is a low carbon source is highly debated because of concerns about radioactive waste, nuclear proliferation, and accidents. The switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but could lead to delay in switching to more sustainable options. “Carbon capture and storage” can be built into power plants to remove the carbon dioxide CO2 emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. Leading non renewable energy sources around the world is fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Nuclear energy is usually considered another non renewable energy source, although nuclear energy itself is a renewable energy source, but the material used in nuclear power plants is not. The paper addresses the issue of sustainable energy, its attendant benefits to the future generation, and humanity in general. Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadiku "Sustainable Energy" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64534.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/64534/sustainable-energy/paul-a-adekunte
Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations Executive Regulations and Stand...ijtsrd
This paper aims to outline the executive regulations, survey standards, and specifications required for the implementation of the Sudan Survey Act, and for regulating and organizing all surveying work activities in Sudan. The act has been discussed for more than 5 years. The Land Survey Act was initiated by the Sudan Survey Authority and all official legislations were headed by the Sudan Ministry of Justice till it was issued in 2022. The paper presents conceptual guidelines to be used for the Survey Act implementation and to regulate the survey work practice, standardizing the field surveys, processing, quality control, procedures, and the processes related to survey work carried out by the stakeholders and relevant authorities in Sudan. The conceptual guidelines are meant to improve the quality and harmonization of geospatial data and to aid decision making processes as well as geospatial information systems. The established comprehensive executive regulations will govern and regulate the implementation of the Sudan Survey Geomatics Act in all surveying and mapping practices undertaken by the Sudan Survey Authority SSA and state local survey departments for public or private sector organizations. The targeted standards and specifications include the reference frame, projection, coordinate systems, and the guidelines and specifications that must be followed in the field of survey work, processes, and mapping products. In the last few decades, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of geomatics activities and measurements on the Earths surface in space and time, together with observing and mapping the changes. In such cases, data must be captured promptly, standardized, and obtained with more accuracy and specified in much detail. The paper will also highlight the current situation in Sudan, the degree to which survey standards are used, the problems encountered, and the errors that arise from not using the standards and survey specifications. Kamal A. A. Sami "Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations - Executive Regulations and Standards" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63484.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63484/concepts-for-sudan-survey-act-implementations--executive-regulations-and-standards/kamal-a-a-sami
Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model Khartoum Sta...ijtsrd
The discussions between ellipsoid and geoid have invoked many researchers during the recent decades, especially during the GNSS technology era, which had witnessed a great deal of development but still geoid undulation requires more investigations. To figure out a solution for Sudans local geoid, this research has tried to intake the possibility of determining the geoid model by following two approaches, gravimetric and geometrical geoid model determination, by making use of GNSS leveling benchmarks at Khartoum state. The Benchmarks are well distributed in the study area, in which, the horizontal coordinates and the height above the ellipsoid have been observed by GNSS while orthometric heights were carried out using precise leveling. The Global Geopotential Model GGM represented in EGM2008 has been exploited to figure out the geoid undulation at the benchmarks in the study area. This is followed by a fitting process, that has been done to suit the geoid undulation data which has been computed using GNSS leveling data and geoid undulation inspired by the EGM2008. Two geoid surfaces were created after the fitting process to ensure that they are identical and both of them could be counted for getting the same geoid undulation with an acceptable accuracy. In this respect, statistical operation played an important role in ensuring the consistency and integrity of the model by applying cross validation techniques splitting the data into training and testing datasets for building the geoid model and testing its eligibility. The geometrical solution for geoid undulation computation has been utilized by applying straightforward equations that facilitate the calculation of the geoid undulation directly through applying statistical techniques for the GNSS leveling data of the study area to get the common equation parameters values that could be utilized to calculate geoid undulation of any position in the study area within the claimed accuracy. Both systems were checked and proved eligible to be used within the study area with acceptable accuracy which may contribute to solving the geoid undulation problem in the Khartoum area, and be further generalized to determine the geoid model over the entire country, and this could be considered in the future, for regional and continental geoid model. Ahmed M. A. Mohammed. | Kamal A. A. Sami "Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model (Khartoum State Case Study)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63483.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63483/towards-the-implementation-of-the-sudan-interpolated-geoid-model-khartoum-state-case-study/ahmed-m-a-mohammed
Activating Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment Mapijtsrd
Sudan is witnessing an acceleration in the processes of development and transformation in the performance of government institutions to raise the productivity and investment efficiency of the government sector. The development plans and investment opportunities have focused on achieving national goals in various sectors. This paper aims to illuminate the path to the future and provide geospatial data and information to develop the investment climate and environment for all sized businesses, and to bridge the development gap between the Sudan states. The Sudan Survey Authority SSA is the main advisor to the Sudan Government in conducting surveying, mappings, designing, and developing systems related to geospatial data and information. In recent years, SSA made a strategic partnership with the Ministry of Investment to activate Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment and in particular, for the preparation and implementation of the Sudan investment map, based on the directives and objectives of the Ministry of Investment MI in Sudan. This paper comes within the framework of activating the efforts of the Ministry of Investment to develop technical investment services by applying techniques adopted by the Ministry and its strategic partners for advancing investment processes in the country. Kamal A. A. Sami "Activating Geospatial Information for Sudan's Sustainable Investment Map" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63482.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/information-technology/63482/activating-geospatial-information-for-sudans-sustainable-investment-map/kamal-a-a-sami
Educational Unity Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Societyijtsrd
In a rapidly changing global landscape, the importance of education as a unifying force cannot be overstated. This paper explores the crucial role of educational unity in fostering a stronger and more inclusive society through the embrace of diversity. By examining the benefits of diverse learning environments, the paper aims to highlight the positive impact on societal strength. The discussion encompasses various dimensions, from curriculum design to classroom dynamics, and emphasizes the need for educational institutions to become catalysts for unity in diversity. It highlights the need for a paradigm shift in educational policies, curricula, and pedagogical approaches to ensure that they are reflective of the diverse fabric of society. This paper also addresses the challenges associated with implementing inclusive educational practices and offers practical strategies for overcoming barriers. It advocates for collaborative efforts between educational institutions, policymakers, and communities to create a supportive ecosystem that promotes diversity and unity. Mr. Amit Adhikari | Madhumita Teli | Gopal Adhikari "Educational Unity: Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Society" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64525.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64525/educational-unity-embracing-diversity-for-a-stronger-society/mr-amit-adhikari
Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management Prospects and...ijtsrd
The diversity of indigenous knowledge systems in India is vast and can vary significantly between different communities and regions. Preserving and respecting these knowledge systems is crucial for maintaining cultural heritage, promoting sustainable practices, and fostering cross cultural understanding. In this paper, an overview of the prospects and challenges associated with incorporating Indian indigenous knowledge into management is explored. It is found that IIKS helps in management in many areas like sustainable development, tourism, food security, natural resource management, cultural preservation and innovation, etc. However, IIKS integration with management faces some challenges in the form of a lack of documentation, cultural sensitivity, language barriers legal framework, etc. Savita Lathwal "Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management: Prospects and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63500.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/accounting-and-finance/63500/integration-of-indian-indigenous-knowledge-system-in-management-prospects-and-challenges/savita-lathwal
DeepMask Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in...ijtsrd
The COVID 19 pandemic has highlighted the crucial need of preventive measures, with widespread use of face masks being a key method for slowing the viruss spread. This research investigates face mask identification using deep learning as a technological solution to be reducing the risk of coronavirus transmission. The proposed method uses state of the art convolutional neural networks CNNs and transfer learning to automatically recognize persons who are not wearing masks in a variety of circumstances. We discuss how this strategy improves public health and safety by providing an efficient manner of enforcing mask wearing standards. The report also discusses the obstacles, ethical concerns, and prospective applications of face mask detection systems in the ongoing fight against the pandemic. Dilip Kumar Sharma | Aaditya Yadav "DeepMask: Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in the COVID-19 Era" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64522.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/64522/deepmask-transforming-face-mask-identification-for-better-pandemic-control-in-the-covid19-era/dilip-kumar-sharma
Streamlining Data Collection eCRF Design and Machine Learningijtsrd
Efficient and accurate data collection is paramount in clinical trials, and the design of Electronic Case Report Forms eCRFs plays a pivotal role in streamlining this process. This paper explores the integration of machine learning techniques in the design and implementation of eCRFs to enhance data collection efficiency. We delve into the synergies between eCRF design principles and machine learning algorithms, aiming to optimize data quality, reduce errors, and expedite the overall data collection process. The application of machine learning in eCRF design brings forth innovative approaches to data validation, anomaly detection, and real time adaptability. This paper discusses the benefits, challenges, and future prospects of leveraging machine learning in eCRF design for streamlined and advanced data collection in clinical trials. Dhanalakshmi D | Vijaya Lakshmi Kannareddy "Streamlining Data Collection: eCRF Design and Machine Learning" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63515.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/biotechnology/63515/streamlining-data-collection-ecrf-design-and-machine-learning/dhanalakshmi-d
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
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approach to the financing of an inclusive secondary
education project that places equal value to the needs of all.
BACKGROUND
Country context
Cameroon is a lower-middle-incomecountryinSub-Saharan
Africa (SSA). The country which aspires to reach economic
emergence by 2035 stands out as the largest economyinthe
Central African Economic and Monetary Community
(CEMAC) with a population of circa 24.5 million, and an
annual growth rate of about 2.6 percent; more than 60
percent are youths under the age of 25 who requires access
to basic services such as education. Cameroon is endowed
with rich natural resources, including oil and gas, minerals,
timber, and agricultural products such as coffee, cotton,
cocoa, maize and cassava. The 2019 African Economic
Outlook (AfDB, 2019) describes the country’s economy as
the most resilient in Central Africa in terms of
diversification. Agriculture is the backbone of the economy.
It employs about 60 percent of the active population and
contributed 22.8 percent of GDP in the 2015(Cameroon NIS,
2017).
Although having abundance of humanand naturalresources,
Cameroon has been unable to record significant economic
development, mainly due to the high level of corruption and
the weak governance system in place that discourage both
national and foreign investors. Cameroon ranked 152nd out
of 180 countries in the 2018 Transparency International
Corruption Perception Index and163rd outof 190 economies
in the World Bank’s 2018 Doing Business report. The
country is characterized by high rates of youth
unemployment, underemployment,poverty,and inadequacy
of basic social services such as education and healthcare,
with marked regional and rural-urban disparities. The
unemployment rate increased from 3.8 percent in 2007 to
4.3 percent in 2014, while the underemployment rate
increased from 68.7 percent in 2010 to 77 percent in 2014
(World Bank, 2018a). With the creation of thousandsof new
jobs over the past few years, especially in the public sector,
unemployment rate is expected to reduce, but the recent
socio-political turn of events in the country stands to
challenge this claim.
The activities of Boko Haram in the Far North, the Ex-Seleka
rebels in CAR and the armed conflict in the Anglophone
regions of the country have interfered with the relative
peace and stability which Cameroon has enjoyed in the
region for many decades and further aggravatedthepoverty
situation of the country. Poverty rate was 21.8 percent in
2017 based on the international poverty line of $1.9 per day
(World Bank, 2018b). Poverty affects mainly peoplelivingin
rural areas and it is particularlyconcentratedinthecrisis-hit
regions of the country notably East and Adamawa (30% and
41.7% respectively) which hosts about 252,000 refugees
from CAR; the northern regions, particularly Far North
(74% altogether) with about 250,000 internally displaced
persons (IDPs), 101,000 returnees and 100,000 Nigerian
refugees; and recently the two Anglophone Regions (North
West and South West) wherean ongoingarmed conflicthave
caused the fastest population displacement inAfricain2018
since it started in late 2017 (OCHA, 2019).
Cameroon had a GDP value of US$35.0 billion in 2017 with
an account deficit of 2.5% of GDP, projected to level off at
3.1% in 2019 and 2020. Real GDP growth rate fell from 5.7
percent in 2015 to 3.5 percent in 2017 but started rising
again in 2018 and is forecasted to accelerate to 4.5% in
2020. While medium term economic prospects are
favourable judging from the current growth lens, the future
of the country’s economy and its security and stability is
somehow uncertain and will largely depend on the
government’s ability to successfully handle the worsening
Anglophone crisis as the regions involved house important
areas of agricultural production and the country’s largest
agribusiness―the Cameroon Development Corporation, the
largest employer after the state (World Bank, 2018b; AfDB,
2019).
The case for inclusive secondary education
The second Millennium Development Goal which requires
primary education to account fortheschoolingneed of every
child irrespective of their backgrounds has today been
achieved almost universally. The importance of primary
education to the life of the child cannot be overemphasized,
however, for individuals and societies to benefit most from
education, learning endeavours must go beyond primary
schooling. The World Bank (2005) hasextensivelydiscussed
reasons why countries that have achieve universal primary
education or so, but still have low enrolment at the
secondary level need to invest in secondary education
development. These include contribution to economic
growth and poverty reduction, improvements in health and
living condition, achievement of the MDGs and the SDGs,
realization of democracy and peacefulsocieties, contribution
to growth in primary and tertiary education, etc.
In terms of contribution to economic growth, the World
Bank, referencing research by Goldin (1999) notes how
secondary education development in the United States
between 1910 and 1940 gave the country ahalf-century lead
over European nations that were still lagging in terms of
development in secondary education. The Bank also
highlights research findings based on analysis of a panel of
about 100 countries observed between 1960 and 1995
which showed that economic growth is positively related to
the (1960) starting level of average years of adult male
school attainment at secondary and higher levels but is
insignificantly related to yearsof primaryattainment(Barro,
1999). Besides, the rapid growth which East-Asiancountries
experienced in the 1970s and 1980s, it has been argued, had
much to do with investment in secondary schooling (ADB,
1997). In the same light, many scholars are harmonious in
the belief that today’s fast growing and competitive
economies depend on a workforce that is equipped with
knowledge, skills and competenciesassociated with abstract
reasoning, analysis, language and communication, and the
application of science and technology―competencies better
acquired through secondary education. At the individual
level, secondary education is vitalforpovertyalleviationand
income distributional justice to the benefit of people from
lower socioeconomic strata by equipping them with
knowledge, skills and attitudes which facilitates their
absorption into better jobs upon completion of schooling.
Although gender-based earning differentials mostly favour
males than females for all levels of education, nevertheless,
females with secondary education experience are less
disadvantaged than those with only primary educationlevel
(World Bank, 2009).
Good health is life most important assert and secondary
education has been shown to contribute enormously to the
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betterment of individual and family health, in both
developed and developing countries. Females with
secondary education gets married late relative to thosewith
primary education, and much educated women often give
birth to fewer children and tends to adopt better child
rearing and family nutrition practices. These in turn leadsto
lower child and maternal mortality, better education for
children, improved family health, and lower population
growth. Also, evidence related to HIV infection suggeststhat
those with secondary schooling are less at risk than those
with lower levels of educational achievement, both because
they are in school and because they are likely to be more
receptive to health education messages. Secondary
education builds critical thinking skills in young people that
enable them to be more prudent about their lives.
For countries that are yet to fully achieve universal primary
education, investing in secondary educationshould facilitate
the realization of this goal through its potential to boost
completion rates in primary education. It is likelythatpupils
would be motivated to complete primary schooling if they
see the possibility of continuing studies at secondary school
level. Secondary education also builds a range of socialskills
and capabilities that enables individuals to participate
effectively in the democratic processes and political life of
their societies. It is instrumental in the fight against social
vices and for the prevalence of peace and quiet with
important financial implications for societies (Mekolle,
2018).
The importance of secondary education highlighted above
constitute basis for the ongoing advocacy for expanded
coverage which this paper seeks to further. Secondary
education expansion need to be prioritized on the education
agenda of developing countries, while maintaining
appropriate education policies at the primary level as
growth in either sector depends on thesituationattheother.
Historical evidence show that countries that have
experienced the most rapid and sustainable increases in
educational attainment, as well as outstanding economic
performance, have pursued balanced upgrading of the
primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education.
Dynamics in household financing policies in Cameroon
(1961- present)
The decolonization process of Cameroon ended in 1961
when British Southern Cameroons (now North West and
South West Regions) gained her independence by joining
The Republic of Cameroon―a former French colony that
became independent a year earlier. At independence,
education was held as the best means to build skills and
attitudes in young Cameroonians who would subsequently
serve in governance for sustainable progress of the new
independent state. This idea was emphasized in the first
Five-Year Development Plan (1961-1966) of the federated
state, and echoed in the second Five-Year DevelopmentPlan
(1966-1971). To enhance access, schoolfeewasabolished in
all public primary and secondary schools in the country,
many being mission schools taken over by the government
for the same reason, meanwhile privateschools continued to
charge fees at various amounts.
The free public education policy lasted for three decades, up
to 1992 when it could no longer be maintained having
regard to increasing demand foreducation and theeconomic
crisis that started a few years earlier. Assuch,CircularLetter
no.30/BI/1464/MINEDUC/SG/SAPPS of 2nd November
1992 from the Ministry of NationalEducation sanctionedthe
payment of school fees in government schools. The need to
mobilize educational finances through compulsory levies
was subsequently reiterated in other legal instruments
containing directives regarding the financing of the
education system. Article 5 of Chapter 3 of Decree No.
96/016/PM of 13 February 1996, setting the modalities of
application of Law No. 95/010 of 1st July 1995 on the
finance act of the Republic of Cameroon for the 1995/1996
fiscal year states that the sources of income of national
education shall among others include pupils and students
annual compulsory levies, registration fees at all certificate
and competitive examinations, examination levies,
contribution of beneficiaries to the running cost of
education, indemnity paidbypupil/studentsand thestafffor
properties damaged by them, and proceeds from sales
organized by pupils/students.
Today, general secondary education students pay an annual
fee of 7,500FCFA and 10,000FCFA, while those in technical
education pay 10,000FCFA and 15,000FCFA for first and
second cycles respectively. PTA levy on its part differs from
one school to another, and the amounts can be varied yearly
even for the same school, depending on the nature of
projects planned for the year, but it usually range from
10,000FCFA to 15,000FCFA, with all students paying the
same amount irrespective of their school cycle or grade. In
addition to school fees, PTA and other levies, household
spend overwhelmingly through purchaseof schoolmaterials
such as uniforms, textbooks, exercisebooks, schoolbags,and
through provision for transportation, healthcare, meals and
rents for accommodation.
For faith-based and lay private institutions, the government
has allowed school authorities to charge fee at their
discretion. Although schools in this category are entitled to
annual public subventions to assist with their major
operational costs such as teacher salaries, the amounts are
usually small and irregular. As such, because schools tend to
rely mainly on tuition and other levies for their operations,
the amounts charged are usually very high thereby limiting
access mainly to students from households in the highest
consumption quintiles who can afford to pay. For the
purpose of this paper, two private secondary schools―one
typical denominational and the other lay private were
studied by the researcher in Fako Division of the SouthWest
Region of Cameroon in December 2018 with purpose to
determine the nature of cost items and associated charges
for none state secondary institutions. In both schools
studied, the amounts charged per student per annum varied
with grades. Students in the upper grades paid more than
those in the lower grades and fees were highest at the
second cycle or upper secondary level. The total amount
ranged from 356,500FCFA to 391,500FCFA in the
denominational secondary school, and from 51,000FCFA to
82,500FCFA in the lay private institution. These amounts
were spread over a number of cost items as shown in the
tables below. Total fees did not cover the cost of texts and
exercise books which parents have to buy separately, and in
lay private schools, the other incidental costs like house
rents, transportation and feeding allowances.
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Table 1: Annual average charges per education cost item for a typical denominational secondary school in Cameroon
Cost Item Amounts in FCFA for 1st Cycle Amounts in FCFA for 2nd Cycle
Registration fee 5,000 6,000
Tuition 100,000 115,000
Boarding and meals 200,000 200,000
Internal examination fees 7,000 7,000
FENASCO dues 2,500 2,500
Special subjects practical and other dues 50,000 50,000
Total 364,500 380,500
Table 2: Annual average charges per education cost item for a typical lay private secondary school in Cameroon
Cost Item Amounts in FCFA for 1st Cycle Amounts in FCFA for 2nd Cycle
Registration fee 5,700 6,500
Tuition fee 60,800 73,000
Others 6,100 8,500
Total 72600 88,000
Textbooks constitute an important schooling requirement. Secondary schools generally operate school libraries, butsupplies
often fall below the minimum quantity necessary for effective teaching/learningprocess. Consequently,familiesareobliged to
purchase the textbooks designated by the ministry for a givengradefortheir childrenalthough prices areusually veryhighand
prohibitive. Unit price of primary education textbooks falls between US$5.5-9, much higher than US$1-3 obtained in most
comparable countries. Cameroon is therefore classified among the countries with lowest textbook-to-student ratios in the
world, averaging 1:14 nationally and reaching as high as 1:30 in some regions (World Bank, 2018a).Thefollowingtableshows
approximated total costs of textbooks in FCFA per grade for the 2018/2019 academicyearforgeneralsecondary andtechnical
secondary education. Again, household expenses on textbooks are usually separate from the total fee charged by schools,
regardless of the type.
Table 3: Total costs of textbooks (approx.) in FCFA for secondary education in Cameroon
School Cycle/Grade
Lower Secondary Upper Secondary
Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4 Form 5 Lower and Upper 6th
Total cost of textbooks
(General Secondary)
36,100 35,800 62,000 57,500 43,500 52,000
Total cost of textbooks
(Technical Secondary)
41,200 38,600 68,000 52,800 51,000 61,000
Source: Adapted from MINESEC Communications No.02/18MINESEC/CAB of 12 June 2018 based on secondary education
official textbooks lists for 2018/2019 academic year, and reports from interviews with some technical education school
authorities.
In addition to the above expenses, students at the terminal grades of the first and second cycles of secondary education are
required to pay for public examination marking their end of course. The unit cost of taking the GeneralCertificateofEducation
(GCE) examination organized for English-speaking students is presented in Table 4 below.
Table 4: GCE examination cost for Ordinary and Advance Level students in Cameroon
Type of Education Examination Cost Item
Cost for Ordinary Level
(in FCFA)
Cost for Advance Level
(in FCFA)
Technical education
Registration fee 8000 9000
Fee per subject 1000 2000
Practical fee per subject 5000 5000
Specialty practical fee (industrial) 12000 12000
Franking of form B3/G3/T3 1000 1000
General education
Registration fee 8000 9000
Fee per subject 1000 2000
Practical fee per subject 5000 5000
Franking of form B3/G3/T3 1000 1000
Source: Cameroon GCE Board DecisionsNo.0406 /A/2018/GCEB/DRE/ED-ALT/EO-OLT and No.0406
/B/2018/GCEB/DRE/EO-OLG/EO-ALG of 18 December 2018 bearing on information to candidates for the 2019 registration
Expenses on examination when put together, areoftenfairly
large considering the fact that candidates are required to
register from 5-11 subjects for Ordinary Level, while those
for Advance level register 3-5 subjects per session of the
examination. Thesameappliestothetotalexpenses incurred
by households to educate eachchildoveragivenschoolyear.
The findings of the Fourth Cameroonian Household Survey
(Cameroon NIS, 2014) that held in 2017 shows that in the
2013/14 school year, household spending national average
were only a little less than 50,000 FCFA (US$102) per
student at the secondary level. Averages were 29,000 FCFA
among public schools, and 99,000 FCFA among private
schools. No significant difference existed in spending levels
between the Francophone and Anglophone education
subsectors, but marked difference were noted acrossthe ten
regions, with families in the wealthier center, Littoral and
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South West Regions spending much more per child than
families in the poorer Northern Regions.
At the primary sector, a Presidential declaration of February
10th, 2000 abolished school fees in public primaryschools as
policy strategy to boost enrolment towards universal
primary education. However, and in addition to where fee is
paid, parents purchase school materials such as uniforms
and books, provide transportation, healthcare, meals, and
pay for registration and examination. At the higher
education level, a Presidential decree introduced the
payment of fees from the 1991/92 academic year. Students
attending the eight state universities and some higher
professional training institutions pay a registration fee of
50,000 FCFA per annum plus other charges, but the amount
are much higher for some special professional coursesatthe
postgraduate level. In privatehigherinstitutions,the amount
of tuition ranges between 250,000 FCFA to about 800,000
FCFA per student per annum depending on institutional
type, programmes and level of study.
From the forgoing analysis, it can be seen that householdsin
Cameroon incur considerableexpenditures for theeducation
of their children. Compared to what obtains in developed
countries where compulsory education is free up to upper
secondary level, in most developing countries, households
spend enormously in education financing at all levels. Their
contributions have been measured at some points to equal,
or even outweigh public expenditure. Data for SSA for
instance shows that between 2001 and 2006, households
contributed 49 % of total expenditure for lower secondary
and 44% of total expenditure forupper secondary education,
meanwhile 51% and 56% respectively camefrom publicand
other private sources during the same period (UNESCO,
2011). Wherever householdsspend moreoneducation,their
action does not imply willingness to pay, but rather the
compulsory need to do so. “Families feel compelled to spend
on education as governments do not spend adequately on
providing education, quality teachers, textbooks and
stationery, libraries, and other incentives and student welfare
activities” (UNESCO, 2013: 21).
Policies on user charges and other household obligatory
financing of education in developing countries were
informed mainly by World Bank's recommendations calling
on governments to explore alternative ways of financing
education in the face of limitedpublicresources and growing
demand for school places. Tembon (1994) points out a
number of earlier studies financed by the Bank with focus,
inter alia, on the possible introduction of user fees at the
primary and secondary levels of education as a way of cost
sharing with households, and a means to source the much
needed additional funding. She notes that the researchersof
the studies drew conclusions in favour of the imposition of
school fees, on grounds that people will pay and the
resources generated would help to improve the quality of
education and also increase the supply of school places for
more student intake. The studies further recommended the
use of government subsidies that targets the poor or those
who cannot afford fees and other user charges in order not
to exclude these from benefiting from education services.
Generally, the argumentfor costsharingiscentered basically
on the need for efficiency in education. Proponents opine
that effective assumption of the financial burdens by
students is instrumental in reducingtheproblemof resource
wastage. The view is that students who pay directly for their
studies are likely to make efficient use of resources, attach
more value to their education and take learning activities
seriously, while those who receive relatively highly
subsidized education, especiallyrich studentsarelikelytobe
wasteful. Other schools of thoughts submit that institutions
tend to serve political interest than give attention to
students’ needs where education is funded solely by the
state, and that schools tend to be more efficient under calls
for more accountability by interest groups such as families
and communities when these contribute to educational
financing.
Questions for Consideration
Cost sharing policies are efficient in countries where the
government encourage private financing by demonstrating
strong commitment to educational development through
adequate public spending on education, and where
household are economically empowered so that they
ambitiously complement public expenditure. The issues
requiring reflection by Cameroon and other SSA
governments who owes the responsibility of providing
education to their citizens and which are of concern to this
study are four folds: Does the current obligatory financing
policies and practices truly constitute an effective means to
close the resource gaps characteristicof countryeducational
systems? Are there potentials, including under effective
governance and management of resources for developing
countries secondary education systems to effectively
accommodate the educational needs of allqualified students
without relying on second stream funding to achieve this
end? Should the perpetual exclusion resulting from the
inability of some individuals tomeetthefullcostofschooling
be overlooked by the state although having a moral duty to
fairly distribute existing opportunities or give a chance to
all? Does the socioeconomic context of household obligatory
financing and the greater need for secondary education to
equip large numbers of youths with the skills required to
accelerate economic growth towards emergence, in
congruence with many developing countries goals, not
necessitate an urgent need to revisit and review the current
policies? Answers to these questions are highly imperative,
especially having regard to some peculiar evidence in the
literature. A study conducted in Ghana (Penrose, 1998)
found that cost sharing with households did not improve
educational quality, rather it contributed to a drop in
enrolment at secondary level and it did not augment
educational resources in a real sense.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Inclusive and equitable quality education is widely
recognized as the most effective means to improve the lives
and future prospects of every individual and society on
earth. On the basis of this understanding, world leaders,
meeting at the third session of the UN General Assembly in
1948 in Paris, France, declared education as a basic human
right (Article 26), among the other inalienable entitlements
of every human being contained in theUniversalDeclaration
of Human Right (Resolution 217A) proclaimed by the
assembly. The human right factor of education and the need
for states to avoid all forms of discrimination and adopt
policies that promote growth of the sector and
universalization of access to account for the needs of all
persons has been stated in a number of subsequent
international instruments. These include the 1959 United
Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child (Principle 7),
1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in
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Education (Article 4), and the 1989 United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child (articles 29 and 30)
among others. With respect to secondary education, Article
13(2b) of the UN InternationalCovenanton Economic,Social
and Cultural Rights states that “secondary education in its
different forms, including technical and vocational secondary
education, shall be made generally available and accessibleto
all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the
progressive introduction of free education”. These provisions
have been ratified by the Cameroon governmentand further
echoed in the country’s constitution and other legal
instruments.
Although much has been said to this regard, Cameroon and
other SSA countries’ governments continue to demonstrate
inadequate commitment towards inclusive secondary
education as reflected by the lack of consideration for
expansion in their Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers and
other policy documents. In Cameroon, althoughgovernment
education spending prioritizes the secondary level, total
spending on education in proportion to the national budget
over the past two decades has been slightly below the most
recent available SSA average of 16.6 percent recorded in
2013. It shrank from 14.6 percent of the national budget in
2014 to 12.5 percent in 2016; far below the 20 percent
Education Sector Strategy planned spending mark. Besides,
most of the education budget is devoted to operational
spending, particularly teacher salaries, with relatively little
assigned for investment. This phenomenon leads to the
educational system in turn devoting little amounts of
resources for school supplies and facility upgrade and
expansion, with negative implications for education quality
and student intake (World Bank 2018a).
As a result, SSA continue to remain home for a largemajority
of the world’s out-of-school children, many of them being
youths of secondary school age (approx. 12–18 years) and
mainly girls. Although factors such as domestic
responsibilities, sexual harassment, unwanted pregnancy,
socio-cultural biases and early marriage contributes topoor
enrolment, poverty and consequently lack of resources to
meet up with user charges and other schooling needs
constitute main cause of exclusion. Of all comparative
variables, income was associated with the biggest disparity
among youths of secondary school age who were out of
school; 44 percent camefromthepoorestquintile, compared
to only 9 percent from the richest quintile (Education Policy
and Data Center, 2018). Exclusive secondary education and
inequity in access constitute a major barrier human
development, economic growth and poverty reduction. It is
therefore necessary that Cameroon and otherSSA countries’
governments demonstrate greater commitment towards
expansion of secondary education coveragetoprovide every
individual the equal opportunity to reach their greatest
potential, and to enhance the achievement of planned
national development goals. Todosorequiretheelimination
of financial barriers that directly or indirectly impedes
access to secondary education services for students from
poor communities, ethnic minorities, indigenouspeopleand
other disadvantaged groups.
1. CONCEPTUAL REVIEW
Obligatory Contributions
Directly or indirectly (through opportunity costs),
households pay for the overwhelminglylargestshareof total
private financing. Obligatory contributions constitute
expenses that families must make because theirchildrenare
in school. Tuition fees is perhaps the most common form of
obligatory financing as it usually applies to all enrolled
pupils and students. It refers to the money pupils and
students pay for receiving teachingservices.Generally, apart
from fees paid for tuition, households pay other educational
charges such as PTA levies, examination fees, books, school
uniforms and also provides for such needs as children’s
accommodation, meals,transportation, etc. Themoneyspent
by households on the education of children usually comes
from three main sources including remittances, educational
loans and family income.
Remittances
Remittances include monetary transfers from oversea
nonresident and resident individuals to their families and
friends back home, or to countries other than where they
currently reside, for mainly investment purposes.
Remittance constitutes an important resource andmakesup
a significant share of GDP, particularly in lower middle
income countries (LMICs) and low-income countries (LICs),
as families here increasingly send their children to
economically more advanced countriesforgreenerpastures.
World Bank estimates shows that in 2017 for example, the
share of GDP which came from personal remittances in
LMICs such as Ghana, Lesotho and Senegal stood at 6.0%,
15.6% and 10.6% respectively. Cameroon received 0.9%,
much lower than the average (4.10%) for LMICs. Available
data also shows that some countries are heavily dependent
on personal remittances, with about 25 countries having
inflows exceeding 10% of GDP in 2015.
It is difficult to be precise on the percentage of educational
inputs that comes from remittances due to the scarcity of
data. However, remittances constitute an important source
of obligatory financing in most developing countries. With
scarce resources and opportunities at home, many school
children depend entirely on remittances for their education
and healthcare services. A study of theimpactofremittances
on health and education outcomes in 18 SSA countries
revealed that migrant remittances have significant positive
impacts on secondary education outcome. Increasing
remittances by 10 percent will on the average, increase
secondary education outcome by 8.8 percent (Amakom &
Iheoma. 2014). Calero et al. (2009) also shows that in
Ecuador, the receipt of remittances increased school
enrolment for children, especially forgirlsinruralareas. The
problem with remittances has to do with the negative,
mainly psychological effects of migration on children’s
schooling, especially when it concerns the migration of a
close relative.
Loans
Like public sources of financing, in many countries,
obligatory contributions by households and students also
comes from educational loans. Money used to sponsor
children in schools can be borrowed from government
financial institutions or from private financial institutions
and cooperatives. A review of international experience of
student loan found official loan programmes that are run by
government agencies or backed by government guarantees
in more than thirty countries (WorldBank,2008). Infact,the
use of educational loans is becoming a worldwide trend,
especially at the level of higher education. In many
developed ones, students are given what is referred to as
income contingency loans to help finance their education on
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condition that repayment would be done when they start
earning an income.
Loan schemes have been praised for their role in enhancing
quality, equity, and efficiency of the education system, as
well as the overall management of the sector. They provide
opportunities for access to education to poor students who
find it difficult to pay upfront and so often excluded from
education. They also motivate and increase the level of
commitment of beneficiaries to their studies since they
understand the obligatory need to repay the debts in future.
Higher education loans create the possibility for
governments to limit spending on higher education and
reallocate more resources for secondary and primary
education expansion and improvement. However, much
effort is usually required by loaners for beneficiaries to
repay back the loans especially where collaterals are not
requested and the use of loans have been observed to have a
minimal effect on increase in students enrollment compared
to student grants.
Family income
Family income constitutes the most fundamental source of
obligatory financing. Annual incomes are often used as the
criteria for socio-economic classification of households into
quintiles from the poorest to the riches, whereby we have
the 1st quintile which constitute the poorest 20%, followed
by the 2nd quintile, 3rd quintile, 4th quintile and the 5th
quintile which comprise the richest 20%. Household
expenditure on education varies and depends more on the
socio-economic group to which they belong: the poorer the
family, the greater the burden of education financing. Data
for Cameroon shows that in 2001, the proportion of
households’ disposable income spent on education by
income quintile was as follows: 3.8% for the 1st quintile,
4.9% for the 2nd quintile, 5.7% for the 3rd quintile, 7.2% for
the 4th quintile and 8.1% for the 5th quintile(UNESCO,2011).
These spending patterns can be explained in many ways.
Children from lowest-income families often do not go
beyond basic education where schooling is often tuition free
or less expensive. They also tend to attend public or
community schools where charges are comparatively lower.
Therefore, education expenditure among poor families is
mainly on unavoidable items like materials associated with
attending school and school supplies.On theotherhand high
income earning families that often send their children to
more prestigious and expensiveinstitutionsanduptohigher
education spend more on education in terms of tuition fees,
school supplies, private tutoring, etc. Nevertheless, low
income families in an effort to maximize the benefits of
education and improve upon their socio-economic status
sometimes arrive at decision whereby they sacrifice a larger
share of their incomes to provide quality education to their
children right up to the level of higher education. In such
instances, the relationship between household incomes and
expenditures on educationbecomesnegativesothatfamilies
that are lower on the socio-economic scale spend a higher
percentage of their income on education than those higher
on the scale as observed in Cameroon (World Bank 2018a).
Payment of schools fees, PTA levies, examination fees and
other school charges to educational institutions by students
and their families constitutesmoredirectobligatoryformsof
private financing. Apart from these, parents are obliged to
finance education through other informal means such as
payment for private supplementary tutoring which is
common practice in Cameroon and other developing
countries. In Uzbekistan for example, private tutoring is
reported to be the second largest education cost item for
households (UNESCO, 2013). Students and households pay
for private tutoring directly to the individual tutor or to a
group of teachers depending on who isinvolved and howthe
practice is organized at the supply side
.
Obligatory household contributions are generally perceived
as a very reliable private source of educational financing.
However, this means of financing education skew
disproportionally on lower and middle income families as it
tend to take a greater share of theirincome,especiallywhere
expenditure on education is not subsidized by the
government. As such and unless accompanied by carefully
selected policies, obligatory contributions often leads to
exclusion of children from poor households thereby
perpetuation of the gap between the rich and the poor.
Inclusive Education
The term inclusive education has frequently appeared in
educational discourse and policy documents ever since the
wake of the disability movement from which it got its roots.
However, scholars, governments and other educational
stakeholders in differentcountries varyin opinionastowhat
comprises inclusive practices in education. Some view it
solely from the perspective of acceptance and participation
of persons with disabilities or special educational needs in
mainstream schools, while to others, it encompasses school
coverage of the economically unprivileged students and
persons from rural and marginalized communities. Butthere
are more barriers to learning that begs for redress other
than the conventional ones. Learning barriers are usually
intrinsic or extrinsic in nature, or both, and may include age,
gender, ethnicity, language, health status, etc. For better
understanding and to avoid misconstructions which often
lead to misguided educational policies and system
underperformance, it is imperative to attempt an in-depth
conceptualization of inclusiveeducation. Inclusive education
has to do with the full and equal participation of all
individuals to quality educational opportunitiesirrespective
of their pre-entry or actual disadvantaged conditions. It
requires that the educationalsystemcorrectstheinherent or
innate disadvantages and disparities amongst individuals
through the indiscriminate provision of quality learning
opportunities that enables everyone reach their greatest
potential. The following excerpt drawn from theoperational
guideline for inclusive schools as prescribed by The
Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special
Needs Education (UNESCO & MES, 1994) highlightsthemain
aspects of inclusive education.
schools should accommodate all children regardless of their
physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other
conditions. This should include disabled and gifted children,
street and working children, children from remote or
nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or
cultural minoritiesand childrenfromotherdisadvantaged or
marginalized areas or groups…Inclusive schools must
recognize and respond to the diverseneedsof theirstudents,
accommodating both different styles and rates of learning
and ensuring quality education to all... (pp. 6, 11-12).
According to the National Council for Special Education
(NCSE, 2011), inclusion in education is a process that has to
do with:
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Addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of
learners through enabling participation in learning,
cultures, and communities and,
Dismantling the barriers to access to education, and
within education through the accommodation of all
students and provision of appropriate structures and
programmes to enable each learner achieve the
maximum benefit from his/her schooling.
Inclusive educational systems avoids discrimination of any
kind, whether within or outside the school system. It
transcends integration (the accommodation of all persons
within the corresponding school age group by the
educational system irrespective of their backgrounds), to
learner-centered education, and is concerned with the
maximum participation and academic achievement of all
students. In other words, it places equal priority to the
wellbeing of all students, with quality as the yardstick of
operation. This usually necessitates that the educational
system strengthen partnership with communities and
undergo transformation or adjustments through the
diversification of school curricular and learning materials,
teaching strategies, provision of remedial services,adoption
of multiple assessment practices, and adjustment of
academic timetables to carter for the diverse needs of
learners.
Educational systems that do not exhibit inclusive values are
discriminatory or exclusiveinnature. Theyare characterised
by discrimination against students of certain social
conditions, disabilities, ethnic origin, cultural backgrounds,
gender, sexual orientation, etc. Thesebiasesare experienced
by students on a daily basis in different school systems
across the world. Such systems also suffer low transition
rates to succeeding grade and levels, high ratesofrepetition,
out-of-school youths and dropout, high disparity in
enrolment with regard to gender, location and
socioeconomic situations, low quality of inputs and services
and poor learning outcomes. This is common with
educational systems in developing countries. Discussing on
the achievement of basic skills taught at the primary level of
education, the UN notes thateven thoughmorechildrenthan
ever are going to school, many do not acquire basic skills;
only about half of students at the end of primary education
attained minimum proficiency levels in reading or
mathematics in many countries in SSA and Latin America
and the Caribbean between the period 2007-2015 (UN,
2017). The results of the 2014 Programme for the Analysis
of Education Systems, known in its French acronym as
PASEC (Programme d’Analyse des Systèmes Éducatifs de la
Confemen) ―a standardized testadministered tosecond and
sixth-grade students in French-speaking countries all over
the world shows that just over 50 percent of Cameroons’
sixth-grade students scored above “sufficient” in language,
while nearly one-quarter scored in the two lowest levels.
Sixth-grade students scored belowaverageformathematics,
with close to 65 percent of the candidates scoring in the two
lowest levels (PASEC, 2016).
These traces of exclusion in primary educationin developing
countries coupled with the lows in enrolment in secondary
and higher education, poses a great challenge to the
achievement of the goal of inclusive primary and secondary
education as set forth in SDG number 4. The need for
developing countries to adopt and accord privilege position
to policies that aim towards a system of mass secondary
education is of immediate importance. Such a system must
be responsive to countries’ socioeconomic needs and
capabilities, should be able to retain all enrolled students
and effectively satisfy their diverse needs, and should help
school leavers acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and
experiences needed to exercise their choices beyond
secondary education (World Bank, 2005).
THEORETICAL UNDERPININGS
The growing advocacy for inclusive education which has
characterized educational discourse and global policy over
the past few decades have been rested mainly on the
paradigms which holds that human rights and social justice
claim shouldoccupy centralplacein educationalendeavours.
This study adopts the social model of disability and the
postulation of access theory which suggests that ‘ability’
rather than ‘right’ or ‘entitlement’ is what guarantees
benefits from things.
The social model of disability focuses on the systemic
barriers which prevents people from participating in the
society and seeks to know what can be done to dismantle
barriers to inclusion. The model holds societal attitudes as
the main problem to access to services for the disabled. For
example, the way organizations produce information;
conforming only to how it suits the use or interest of the
majority rather than offering it in variety of formats such as
braille and large texts, etc. to equally serve the needs of the
visually impaired. People with impairment or disability are
therefore disabled by the way societies treat them and not
because they cannot engage in certain actions or achieve
certain goals under their respectiveconditions.Ineducation,
barriers to learning and participation are created by society
to the detriment of people who do not conform to the
expectations of the majority in terms of appearance,
behaviour and/orsocioeconomicsituation (Lorna, 2017).An
inclusive education system must recognize individuals’
uniqueness and differencesincircumstances andexperience,
and strive to provide appropriate solutions to their
respective challenges to ensure equitable participation.
Access theory looks at how individuals benefit from things,
including those in the hands of other individuals in complex
social relationships. It shifts from the theoretical constructs
that views ‘right’ as basis to derive benefit from things, to
‘ability' to do so, with the argument that a person may be
entitled to certain rights but unable to enjoy them due their
relative position vis-à-vis the good or service (Ribot &
Peluso, 2003). An individual mayhavetherighttoeducation,
but may be physically, emotionally or financially impaired
from accessing educational services.Thetheorysuggests the
need for those who wield power over education to treat
education not just as a human right, but to equally provide
enabling conditions for access to inclusive education
services.
EMERGING GOOD PRACTICES IN SOME DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF THAILAND AND KENYA
Although progress in secondary educationdevelopmentand
coverage in developingcountriesisgenerallyslowcompared
to most developed countries at the time when they were at
the same level of economic development, notwithstanding,
many countries are progressively giving attention to the
importance of inclusive practices, and the need to enhance
the full participation of all, with special consideration forthe
socioeconomically disadvantaged groups. In brief,
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compulsory secondary education is gradually becoming the
norm. Cameroon could be commended for the large and
growing government allocation to secondary education―49
percent of the education budget in 2017, compared to the
average for SSA countries measured at 32 percent in 2009,
but the potential effects of such allocationarewatereddown
by the inefficiencies associated withfinancialallocationsand
management policies within the system. Therefore, unlike
other developing countries in the world, Cameroon is yet to
adopt measures that target individual specific access
challenges. A look at some good practices associated with
growth evolution in other developing countries could help
revitalize the country’s secondary education system as was
during the period after independence.
Thailand
Thailand is an upper-middle income country in Southeast
Asia with a population of about 67.2 million. The country
operates a less complex educational management structure
which permits resources to be allocated efficiently in a way
that targets only priority areas. Although the Office of the
Prime Minister, Ministry of Education and Ministry of the
Interior have the mandate, the responsibility of educational
management at all level is shouldered by the Ministry of
Education which also provides non-formal education
programmes and supervises privateeducationalinstitutions
at all levels. Compulsory education runs from primary to
lower secondary level, and is centered on a basic education
common core curriculum that comprises eight core areas of
learning which progressively sophisticate towards higher
grades up to upper secondary education.
The Thai constitution requires the government to provide a
minimum of 12 years of free basic education of quality. The
policy was started in October 2002 and included primary
and secondary education (6 years each). In May 2004, free
basic education was extended to 14 years to cover 2 years of
pre-primary schooling, and it is now offered for 15 years,
with upper secondary education included, following a
modification of the policy in 2009. The new policy accords
special attention to the needs of poor children and students
from other disadvantaged groups. Items provided to
students as part of free education include tuition fees,
textbooks, learning materials, school uniforms, among
others, and actual implementation process follows well-
defined strategies and criteria (including as concerns
subsidies for private schools) that involves the participation
of stakeholders across the board. These policies have led to
high rate of secondary school enrolmentandtransitionrates
from lower to upper secondary levels (UNESCO, 2011).
Kenya
Kenya population was estimated at 45.4 million in2016. The
country, like many developing ones, has a very youthful
population. Government’s commitments center on national
development priorities that impact the education and
training sector through Vision2030, the successive
implementation of the medium-term plans, and the “Big 4”
agenda. Educationalfinancinginvolves variousstakeholders,
but the national budget constitutes the main source of
funding. The actual values of public allocations to the
education sector have increased over the years, although it
has declined as a percentage of total public spending.
In January 2008, the government of Kenya launched Free
Day Secondary Education (FDSE), barely 5 years after
launching Free Primary Education. The policy was
introduced in recognition of the negative bearing that low
transition rate to secondary schools, mainlyduetohigh costs
of schooling at that level, had on the achievement of
Education for All targets and the MDGs. It was therefore
designed to address discrepancies such as cost of education,
illiteracy, low completion rates at the secondary level, large
gender and regional disparities in participation, and poor
community involvement. FDSE covers tuition fees, while
parents finance schooldevelopmentprojectsand provide for
children’s other schooling needs like uniforms, learning
materials, feeding, transportation and boarding fees for
students in boarding schools. The Ministry of Education
allocates and disburses the FPE and FDSE capitation grants
directly to schools based on individual school enrolment
numbers. Also, a Constituency Bursary Fund Committee
identifies needy students for whom bursaries are provided
at respective schools and tertiary institutions so that no one
who qualifies would be excluded because they cannot meet
up with schooling costs. With regards to textbooks, the
government has centralized procurement with goal to
improve availability of textbooks and instructional material
in both primary and secondary schools. Free basic and
subsidized education policies have significantly improved
access and transition in Basic Education (Republic of Kenya,
2018).
Other examples can be cited in South Africa, Ghana, the
Gambia, Uganda and Tanzania that uses free tuition fee
policy and other incentives in secondary education. In
Bangladesh, secondary education has been made free for
girls, the same like in some states in India. In Mongolia, 60%
of the textbook costs incurred by disadvantaged families are
compensated by the government. And in countries such as
Nepal, additional classrooms arebeltnexttoprimaryschools
to operate junior secondary education. This practice
facilitates the transition from primary to lower secondary
education and minimize drop out for both physical and
geographical reasons (UNESCO, 2013).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The central thesis has been that inclusive quality education
for all is critical for human empowerment and promotion of
economic prosperity and societal wellbeing. To this regard,
improvements in secondary education have been made in
many countries in the world in a way that suits their various
national needs. Today’s international trends indicates that
countries are shifting towards inclusive practices and child-
centered approaches to secondary education provision that
recognizes diversities, places equal value to individual
student needs, and seeks to enhance the full participation of
all. Developing countries are increasinglyprovidingfree and
compulsory secondary education, with concerns of access,
equity, quality and relevance occupying central position in
education and training agenda. While it is important for
governments to increase household and community
participation in educational endeavours,itisimperativethat
no child is denied access to secondary education onthebasis
of inability to pay school fees or meet up with other
schooling needs. Consequently, compulsory levy policies at
primary and secondary levels of education, whether in the
public or private sector should be seen as increasingly
becoming obsolete and government efforts should be
directed towards adopting more liberal and progressive
financing policies that embrace the diverse schooling
challenges of learners. Workable strategies used in other
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nation could inform such policies and bring about the
required growth in secondary education. This paper makes
five key recommendations directed towards reducing the
costs of schooling for all and enhancing full participation. All
recommendations are feasible having regard to Cameroons
economic outlook and national demographic features. All
that is required is adequate commitment and efficient
allocation and management of resources within the
educational system, and across all sectors of the economy.
Education should be provided free of charge at least at
the lower secondary level. This would make secondary
schooling moreaffordable andincreasetheparticipation
of the poor, vulnerable and the marginalized groups,
particular those in the Eastern and Northern regions of
the country, as well as the conflict affected Anglophone
regions. Free secondary education could start by
eliminating the school fee factor and then progressively
cover other cost items such as textbooks and school
uniforms. An increase in secondary education
investment budget for the expansion of structures and
materials is highly recommended.
Adopt a more affordable and sustainable textbook
policy. Textbooks for core subject areas should be
harmonized across all levels of education. The current
drive towards a more sustainable textbookpolicyofone
textbook per subject for a lifespan of six years is highly
encourages and shouldbeeffectively commenced.These
in turn would foster economies of scaleand significantly
reduce the burden on parents.
Adopt a progressive education tax on incomes and
business profits. Free secondary education would
require increase in government spending on education
to carter for student influx and to keep with theneed for
quality. An educational tax on theincomes of all workers
and business profits that exempt the poor and
marginalized groups would be an effective means to
increase the participation of the broader community in
the financing of free secondary education.
Bring secondary education closer to children. Education
at any level may be provided free of chargebutif schools
are not located within safe travel distances, many
children will end up not enrolling or effectively
participating, especially females. The government is
therefore encouraged to come up with a policy of mass
enrolment that builds more schools in the underserved
regions and rural communities to reduce the high costs
incurred by parents in sponsoringchildren in schoolsfar
from home.
Establish flexibility in schooling schedules where
necessary. Formal schooling regulation and schedules
are often inappropriate for students in rural areas who
have to assist their family during certain periods of the
day or certain months in the year as the case is in the
Northern regions of the country. Establishing flexibility,
including through double shifts should be considered
where necessary and as the means may provide.
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