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November 26, 2012
AH4133 Venetian Art in the Age of Reform
Crucifixion by Tintoretto
Word Count: 2,536

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The Counter Reformation brought about dramatic changes in religion and art in Italy.
Venice, although separate from the Papal States was not immune to influence from Central Italy.
This essay will discuss the background of Tintoretto’s Crucifixion, interpretation of the painting,
and its various influences including the Counter Reformation, other artists, and Tintoretto
himself.
Jacopo Tintoretto painted The Crucifixion in 1565 for the Sala dell’Albergo of the Scuola
Grande di San Rocco. The canvas is approximately five by twelve meters, easily covering the
wall of the small room it is installed in. The Sala dell’Albergo is the meeting area for the
Scuola’s banca, and thus is a room regularly accessed by a privileged few. Tintoretto’s
involvement with the Scuola Grande di San Rocco began with an invitation to compete for the
commission to decorate the Sala dell’Albergo’s ceiling. Battista Torniello, the Guardian Grande
of the Scuola Grande di San Rocco called for a decoration of the Albergo one day and assigned
Girolama Roto to form a committee to choose an artist. The committee decided, in traditional
Italian Renaissance fashion, to make a contest of it. Roto asked the participating artists to each
submit a simple sketch of the glorification of Saint Roch for the ceiling’s central oval. Tintoretto
competed alongside other prominent artists such as Giuseppe Salviati, Federico Zuccaro, and
Paulo Veronese, but Tintoretto’s aggressive business tactics ultimately won him his commission
(De Maria 2010, 91). He famously installed a finished version of Saint Roch in Glory into the
Scuola’s ceiling the night before the conclusion of the contest and then donated the entire ceiling
commission to the Scuola when his antics failed to impress the judges or his fellow contestants.
However, the judges were impressed with the financial and religious advantages to receiving free
paintings and begrudgingly accepted his offer (De Maria 2010, 91). Tintoretto came through
promptly with his promise and completely decorated the albergo’s ceiling. His dubious business

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practices paid off when the Scuola offered to pay him for paintings to cover the rest of the
albergo, including the one we are examining today, the magnificent Crucifixion.
The Scuole Grande di San Rocco is one of the few scuole to have its collection more or
less in tact which gives us the privilege of seeing the entire iconographic program as the
confraternity meant us to see it (Valcanover 1983, 3). The Crucifixion is part of a larger
iconographic program including events from the Passion leading up to Christ’s crucifixion and
allegories of saints. This fairly unified program reflects fact that the decoration of the albergo
was not the result of individual patrons, but decided on by a committee and paid for with Scuola
funds. As you enter the room, the Crucifixion confronts you, completely filling your vision,
while Ascent to Calvary, the Crowning of the Thorns, and Christ Before Pilate are visible as you
only as you are leaving. Oddly enough Tintoretto renders the events in reverse order forcing the
viewer to interpret the events backwards, from right to left (Valcanover 1983, 14). This theme of
disruption in time and space carries over into Tintoretto’s interpretation of the Crucifixion as I
will discuss later. Two prophets flank the room, one looking forward toward the Crucifixion and
the other looking backwards at the rest of the Passion. These prophets continue the theme of
observation and audience involvement that is present in the Crucifixion. They model the
reverence which a viewer is expected to feel when looking at the Crucifixion. They also create a
visual connection between the Crucifixion and the Passion images. In the very center dominating
the ceiling is the painting of the Glorification of St. Roch. The saint of the Scuola Grande di San
Rocco is an appropriate focal point for the ceiling. On each corner of the row surrounding St
Roch are cherubs representing the four seasons. Between those are images of allegories of the
Scuole Grandi of Venice. This theme breaks with the traditional culture of artistic competition
among the Scuole Grandi (De Maria 2010, 91). The Scuole Grande di San Rocco pays homage

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Venice’s other Scuola in these panels which shows an increased interest in cooperation between
the scuola. Dispersed among the allegories are the cardinal virtues: truth, faith, happiness,
generosity, and goodness, along with two unidentified figures (Vancanover 1983, 14). These are
virtues members of a lay confraternity are expected to model themselves after. Although
paintings fill the albergo to excess, one stands out because of its size and emotional power, this is
Tintoretto’s Crucifixion.
In this painting, Christ looms over the landscape as a quiet observer to the various groups
engaging in frenzied activity below him. Off-balanced poses and twisting robes denote action
and intense activity. A dense group of mourners form a strong base to the cross and help draw
the viewer’s eyes in, while establishing Christ as an island of stability among all the frenzied
activity. While foreshortened figures such as the thieves lurch back into space, Christ’s direct
frontality establishes his figure as a point of calm in this busy painting. Christ is simultaneously
separate from the action and the center of it. Although he hovers in apparent isolation, high
above the crowds, all forces converge at the crucifix. Lines of light radiate outwards from
Christ’s head in the form of a halo and meet the lines directed at him. The lines of rope grow
taught in his direction. Trees are pulled toward Christ by the stormy winds. Lines create space
and unity on the surface of this otherwise spaciously confusing painting (Rosand 1982, 200).
There is also a unity of color, with rosy reds and yellows distributed evenly throughout the
painting and the “colors reach greatest tonality in groups of mourners” (Valcanover 1985, 112).
The weather itself seems to engage with his plight as dark clouds gather in the background and
overshadow the proceedings. Yet through all the action Christ acts as a beacon of tranquility and
strength. He does not sag on the cross in defeat, but has straight posture. His sculpted body also
shows great physical strength. The whole painting is illuminated by supernatural radiance,

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emphasizing Jesus’s spirituality and his role as a bringer of religious illumination to those lowly
crowds below him.
Tintoretto uses a disruption of time and space to accommodate narrative elements and to
further include the viewer directly in the action. The good thief stares upwards at Christ having
been enlightened while the bad thief twists away from the savior. Two soldiers gamble for
Christ’s clothing. A man prepares to feed Christ vinegar when he asks for water. These events all
occur at different times during Christ’s crucifixion, yet in this painting they are represented
together in a progressive narrative. This type of narrative includes scenes from different points in
the narrative, but does not visually repeat characters so one must have knowledge of the story to
know that the artist is doing that. Tintoretto divided groups of figures into distinct narrative units
that are taking place at different times, yet represented in the same picture plane. The disruption
of time through use of a progressive narrative allows Tintoretto to incorporate many scenes of
narrative into his painting and also creates a sense of great ambiguity. Further confusing the
matter, his tormentors are dressed as contemporary Venetians (De Maria 2010, 91). Christ’s
position in space is also very vague in this painting. Tintoretto creates spacial ambiguity in
several ways. Christ’s parallel alignment and proximity to the frame of the painting creates the
effect that he is directly on the plane, flat against the canvas. His group of mourners conceal the
point at which his cross contacts the ground, making it difficult to tell where he is exactly.
Ambiguity in space and time allows the viewer to more easily incorporate themselves into a
painting that is depicting a past event.
Tintoretto’s composition also calls for audience involvement and intends to overwhelm
the viewer with spiritual feelings. By placing the group of mourners closest in the plane to the
viewer, he or she is meant to identify with the mourners as a worshiper and someone with a

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direct emotional investment in Christ’s sacrifice. The triangular composition opens up to the
spectator and directly involves and embraces that person, completing the circle of spectatorship.
Tintoretto also inverts traditional perspective and the hill of Golgotha seems to tip forward
toward the viewer threatening to burst out of the picture plane (Freedberg 1993, 526). Doing this
blurs the distinction between who is inside the painting and who is outside of it. The sheer
vastness of this painting also contributes to audience involvement. This small room is completely
dominated by Tintoretto’s Crucifixion. At an impressive 40 feet it almost covers the entire far
wall of the albergo. By filling the viewer’s entire field of vision, he or she has no choice but to be
directly involved in the drama that is Christ’s crucifixion. Forcing the spectator to be part of the
action calls for greater emotional connection to the tragedy unfolding.
This renewed interest in depicting emotional connection and suffering is a result of
changes brought about by the Counter Reformation. With the Council of Trent came an
increased presence of Christological imagery in churches because of the renewed focus on
providing visual examples of models for worshippers to aspire to (Humfrey 2012). Artists then
designed images of the crucifix to remind the viewer of Christ’s sacrifices and to remind them of
salvation offered through the church. Christological imagery was especially appropriate in the
context of the Scuola di San Rocco because San Rocco was a recovered plague sufferer; these
Catholics associated his suffering with that of Jesus on the cross. A Christiological image such as
this one might serve as a compliment to the meaning behind the altar and allude to the
Eucharistic sacrifice if Tintoretto’s Crucifixion was placed at an altar (Humfrey 2012). However,
since this image is in the albergo of a scuola it does not have that connotation. It more likely is
just a reminder of Christ’s sacrifices and how he relates to the sacrifices of Saint Roch. Episodes
from the life of Christ parallel the dedication and the suffering that San Rocco felt. The Counter

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Reformation also resulted in images of saints behaving more actively, emphasizing saints doing
virtuous things. This was to prove that the images of saints were not to be used as direct
intercession, but as allegorical examples. These trends carried over to paintings in lay
confraternities as well as churches. In Tintoretto’s Crucifixion, it is apparent this image was
meant to inform and inspire the worshipper. Tintoretto inspired through the overwhelming size
and inclusion of the viewer that I mentioned earlier. He informed with the inclusion of many
aspects of the crucifixion narrative as I also mentioned earlier. The Crucifixion is also consistent
with Counter Reformation ideals through the sheer optimistic religiosity of the painting.
Tintoretto completely injected this painting with emotion, from the tearful faces of Christ’s
follower huddling at the bottom of the Cross to the anger and spite in the frenzied actions of his
executioners. More than anything this painting was meant to get the viewer to feel intensely and
that is consistent with the aims of the Counter Reformation
Even the nature of the commission is consistent with Counter Reformation ideals. The
purpose of scuole were devotional, to help members enrich their lives by doing good work, and
dispense works of charity. This directly conflicted with the culture of competition between the
Scuole. It was important to have a beautiful decorated room to impress the other Scuola, to show
patriotism, and to show proper homage to God and the saints. Because Tintoretto donated much
of his work to the Scuola, they could unabashedly decorate richly and avoid the awkward issue
of being both a charitable organization expected to be thrifty and the conflicting expectation of
having a grand and impressive building (De Maria 2010, 91). In other words they could proudly
display their decorations without being accused of spending funds meant for charity on vanity. It
was important to the scoule that they be seen to be performing acts of charity, especially the
Scuola di San Rocco. During an earlier phase of the Counter Reformation many thought that the

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decoration of churches and private chapels was overdone, that they took money away from
charity and distracted from god. The Scuola san Rocco in particular received stinging criticisms
(Humfrey 2012). So when it came to decorating their scuola it was in the interests of the spiritual
reputation of the organization to show thrift.
Although heavily influenced by Counter Reformation ideals, Tintoretto was influenced
by other sources as well such as Mannerism, Titian and Michelangelo, just like other Venetian
artists at the time. His work shows similarities to Michelangelo in his sculpted, twisting bodies
and dramatic foreshortenings. Many central Italian mannerists fled after the sack of Rome in
1527 and by 1530 Venice had recovered from the Cambria Wars, making it an excellent place to
find work as an artist. Even though Tintoretto was a native to Venice, influence from the influx
of artists from Central Italy is evident in his work. Local artists influenced Tintoretto as well.
The color pallet Tintoretto uses is Titianesque pallet with golds, rosy reds and yellows
(Valcanover 1985, 32). Tintoretto is often identified as a Mannerist and the influence of
mannerism on Tintoretto’s work is exemplified in his use of stage like settings, precariously
balanced figures, and collapsed perspective. His paintings show the carefully scripted complexity
that is so common in mannerist work in that his figures stand in carefully arranged chaos
(Freedberg 1993, 519). Infrared rays have recently revealed the careful planning that Tintoretto
put forward on this particular canvas to get the incredible chaotic look, unified by composition
and color (Valcanover 1983, 8). Careful placement of crosses, ropes, figures, and landscape
elements all come together to create a carefully balanced composition.
Although influenced by outside sources, some authors argue that Tintoretto’s greatest
inspiration was himself. Tintoretto painted the same scene for the Scuola del Sacramento of San
Severo some ten years earlier. He uses the same basic composition in San Rocco’s Crucifixion,

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but makes some important changes to increase viewer involvement and emotional connection
with the event. The composition in the Scuola del Sacramento has little depth and makes almost
no attempt to break the canvas plane and draw the viewer in. Its crowed composition looks much
less planned out that the concentric circle, carefully balanced groups of the Scuola di San
Rocco’s Crucifixion (Nichols 1999, 258). San Rocco’s Crucifixion is also much more fluid and
dynamic which is characteristic of Tintoretto’s late work (Humfrey 2012).
Tintoretto’s Crucifixion is an important example of a painting influenced by the
ideals of the Counter Reformation. In its Christological subject matter, and efforts to educate,
include, and inspire viewers, it represents the pinnacle of Counter Reformation art. Without
losing sight of his Venetian roots, Titian merged popular styles into his own to create a painting
that appeased the Counter Reformers, the Scuola Grande di San Rocco, and himself.

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Bibliography
De Maria, Blake. Becoming Venetian: Immigrants and the Arts in Early Modern Venice. New
Haven: Yale UP, 2010. 91-92. Print.
Freedberg, Sydney Joseph. Painting in Italy: 1500-1600. New Haven: Yale UP, 1993. 519-26.
Print.
Humfrey, Peter. Tutorial Discussion. AH4133 Venetian Art in the Age of Reform. St Andrews,
Scotland. November 19, 2012.
Nichols, Tom. Tintoretto: Tradition and Identity. London: Reaktion, 1999. 258. Print.
Rosand, David. Painting in Cinquecento Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto. New Haven: Yale
UP, 1982. 200-06. Print.
Valcanover, Francesco, and Terisio Pignatti. Tintoretto. New York: H.N. Abrams, 1985. 12-112.
Print.
Valcanover, Francesco. Jacopo Tintoretto and the Scuola Grande of San Rocco. Venice:
Edizioni Storti, 1983. 3-32. Print.