THIS PAPER IS TO BE USED AS YOUR GUIDE TO HELP YOU PUT TOGETHER TH

THIS PAPER IS TO BE USED AS YOUR GUIDE TO HELP
YOU PUT TOGETHER THE DISCUSSION FOR THIS WEEKS
LESSON PLEASE LOOK BACK AT YOUR INSTRUCTION
AND READING MATERIAL TO HELP YOU……THANKS
Week 6 Discussion 1 Ethics
Human experimentation is an ethical issue that exists in
criminal justice research. It was
not uncommon for the military to use its own crew members as
volunteers for experiments
regarding chemical warfare. In 1944, there was a young Navy
man that was subjected to rigorous
testing of chemical agents that yield adverse reactions to his
body both internally and externally,
(pcrm.org, n. d.).
The ACJS Code of Ethics would have prevented such brutal
treatment of a test subject.
First, full disclosure between the subject and researcher should
be completely understood and
full permission must be given prior to experimenting. Minimal
harm to the subject is also an
ethical aim when it comes to subjecting people to
experimentation. Researchers should inform
participants about any aspects of the research that might change
a person’s mind about
participating, such as physical risks, discomfort, and/or
unpleasant emotional experiences.
Those found in violation of the ACJS Code of Ethics could
result in sanctions all the way
to termination of membership. Basically, all you must do is be a
decent human being when
conducting research like one should in everyday life. If decency
is a guiding force, ethical issues

won’t be an issue.
References
Pcrm.org staffers, (n. d.). Human experimentation: an
introduction to the ethical issues.
Retrieved from http://www.pcrm.org/research/healthcare-
professionals/researchcompendium/human-experimentation-an-
introduction-to-the
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THE TEMPLATE
General Information
The GCU dissertation template is designed to make the task of
writing your dissertation as straightforward as possible. The
basic guidelines for completing the proposal/dissertation
manuscript are contained in this template. Please note that
dissertation requirements may change over time as new designs,
types of analyses and research paradigms enter the research
literature. As such, it is possible that the template contains
omissions, inconsistencies, or minor errors. In service to
addressing these potential issues, the dissertation template is
updated on a regular basis. As an independent doctoral level
researcher, it is your responsibility to check regularly for
template updates and to use the most current version of the
template. If you need clarification or have questions, please
contact your chair.
All template formatting directions must be followed, and all
rubric requirements must be satisfied or addressed. There are
many important instructions in the text that describes most
sections. The template includes many “bubble comments” that
appear in a special margin on the far right of the document. To
make sure you can see these comments, choose the Review

menu tab from the Word ribbon (top of the page), and in the
Tracking group make certain that All Markup is selected in the
first dropdown box.
The template relies heavily on a Microsoft Word tool called
Styles. Most Word users can see the current Word styles on the
Home menu in what is called the Style Gallery in the right half
of the menu ribbon. The style of the currently selected text is
highlighted in the gallery (you may have to scroll up or down to
see the current style). This template uses styles for headings,
lists, and other formatting. Information on using Word styles in
the template is contained either in the template text or bubble
comments. Please follow all formatting directions, failure to do
so may delay reviews and progression through the dissertation
milestones.
Learners should note that the Word styles used in this template
are “linked” within Word to this document. As long as you use
this template as the basis for your document, the correct styles
will be available. However, if you open a blank Word document
and copy/paste from this template, the template styles generally
will not copy with the text. Because of this, it is a good practice
to always copy to or edit in this document. If for some reason
you need a blank document with the Word styles from this
template, use CTRL+A to select the entire template and then
press Delete. You will now have a blank document based on this
template. You can be certain that the correct Word styles are
attached to your document if the text “QUALITATIVE GCU
Dissertation Template V9.0 08.10.2020” appears in the footer of
the page.
The more closely you follow the template format and rubrics,
the smoother will be the review and ultimate approval process.
If you have questions about anything in the template, please
contact your committee chair for guidance. Good luck in your
dissertation journey! Listed below are some recommendations to
successfully use this template:
Instructions for Using the Dissertation Template

1. Please note with this version 9.0, there is no longer a
separate proposal template. Chapters 1-3 constitute the
proposal.
2. Carefully read narrative for each chapter and section to know
what is required and find important tips for completing each
section. Please note text in red font as critical information in
writing your manuscript.
3. Carefully review each criterion listed in the rubric below
each section for very specific details for how the sections will
be evaluated.
4. Ensure you have addressed all the required criteria for each
section. Write to the criteria table (embedded rubric)
requirement and make it clear in your writing when addressing
each criterion.
5. Do not alter key Level 1 headings or the Level 2 or 3
subheadings within the template. These headings are used to
build the automated Table of Contents. If the headings are
altered, you will need to reassign appropriate level headings in
Word in order to appropriate format the manuscript.
6. Dissertation committee members DO NOT EDIT and are not
responsible for editing documents. They may point out errors
and indicate what needs corrections. All dissertation artifacts
need to be written at the doctoral level appropriate for scholarly
research and publication, including meeting APA requirements
for tables, figures, citations, references, and formatting as
specified in the template.
7. It is critical that you edit and proofread this dissertation
document prior to submitting it to your chair, committee
members, and reviewers. Writing errors such as bad grammar,
spelling mistakes, poor paragraph and sentence structures, and
incoherence are common mistakes may result in documents
being returned for correction and delays in your progression.
8. Plagiarism and citing authors as having said something you
believe they meant, or you hoped they meant are considered
ethical violations and may be subject to code of conduct per
university policy. GCU uses plagiarism software to check

dissertations for plagiarism.
9. Use clear and consistent file naming nomenclature and
version control instructions. This practice is critical to ensure
your chair and committee members are reviewing the correct
document. Work with your chair to establish a preferred format.
For example: lastname.firstname.file name.version #.date;
a. Smith.Linda.Proposal_Draft.v.1.8.6.2020 or
b. Jones.Theo.Dissertation_Draft.v.3.8.6.2020
10. Use two computer monitors when working on your
dissertation. Show the template itself on one monitor, and the
template in which you are writing your proposal or dissertation
on the other monitor. This process will help ensure you are
reviewing the narrative in each section you are writing and
addressing all required criteria for that section.
11. Order a hard copy of the latest APA Manual, keep it on
hand, and refer to it often while writing your dissertation. This
will save many hours in formatting. Several items to note
regarding APA 7.0 and the dissertation template:
12. Number of spaces after a period. APA 7.0 recommends one
space after the terminal punctuation in a sentence. In the current
V.9 template one space is used after terminal punctuation in a
sentence. Please note that GCU will accept one or two spaces if
it is consistent across the entire manuscript.
13. Level 3 headings: Note that in the APA 7th Edition, Level 3
headings are now on a separate line, flush left, Title Case,
bolded and italicized. This template has been updated to
conform to APA 7th edition.
14. Your dissertation should be written in clear, concise
language consistent with doctoral level research standards in
peer reviewed publications in your topic area. Personal
opinions, unsubstantiated research claims, inadvertent
plagiarism, as well as improper citations and references are
common scholarly writing mistakes that may delay development
of the dissertation proposal or final manuscript. Please note that
plagiarism is a serious ethical violation with resulting
university disciplinary action per the University Policy

Handbook.
15. Remember your dissertation will be read and evaluated by
many scholars and professionals interested in your research.
You are ultimately responsible for the quality of your
dissertation study and the final manuscript. This template is
intended to assist you in conducting your research and writing
the best possible dissertation. The quality of your work
represents your credibility as a doctoral scholar. Please use this
important template resource as recommended in service to
helping you to produce a high quality, scholarly dissertation
that you are proud to publish!
PRIOR TO SUBMITTING FOR REVIEW, REMEMBER TO
DELETE THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THE TEMPLATE,
UNNEEDED/UNUSED PARTS OF THE TEMPLATE, SUCH
AS GCU BUBBLE COMMENTSAND/OR EXTRA
APPENDICES. HOWEVER, DO NOT DELETE BUBBLE
COMMENTS FROM YOUR CHAIR, COMMITTEE MEMBERS,
OR AQR REVIEWER UNLESS THEY INSTRUCT YOU TO DO
SO. BE SURE TO RETAIN THE CRITERION (RUBRIC)
TABLES.
Ten Strategic Points
Complete the Ten Strategic Points document below for your
chair and committee members to reference during review of
your proposal or dissertation. The Ten Strategic Points
represents the foundational elements of your study, must be
aligned, and should be continuously updated as appropriate
based on each iteration of your proposal or dissertation
document. For additional detail on the Ten Strategic Points
refer to the full document located on the DC Network>
Dissertation Resources>Folder 05 Dissertation Template. Please
Note: The Ten Strategic Points should be moved to Appendix A

in the final dissertation manuscript before moving into Level 7
Form and Formatting.
Ten Strategic Points
The ten strategic points emerge from researching literature on a
topic, which is based on, or aligned with a defined need or
problem space within the literature as well as the learner’s
personal passion, future career purpose, and degree area. The
Ten Strategic Points document includes the following key points
that define the research focus and approach:
Strategic Points Descriptor
Learner Strategic Points for Proposed Study
1.
Dissertation Topic- The Influence of Cross-Cultural Experience
on Student Leadership Capacity Development and Academic
Achievement
· Topic comes out of the problem space supported by the
literature, not the learner’s head or personal agenda
· Aligned to the learners’ program of study, and ideally the
emphasis area
· Researchable and feasible to complete within the learners’
doctoral program, including extension courses as needed.
· Focused
2.
Literature Review - Lists primary points for four sections in the
Literature Review: The Boundary-Breaking Leadership
Development Model (Webber, C., & Robertson, J., 1998)
Theme 1: Progressive Competency(Sudker, 2019)
Theme 2: Cultural Competencies(Chen,2014)
Theme 3: Ethical attitude(Ticha, Abery, and Kincade,2018)
Theme 4: Teachers’ Awareness of Cultural Diversity( Jamellah,
2016)
· Background to the problem
· Literature is predominantly from past 5 years
· Historical treatment of problem being studied

· Clearly defines a stated need
· Theoretical foundation
· Theories, models, or concepts and if appropriate the
conceptual framework are described to guide the research and
the data collection
· Review of literature topics
· Relevant to the topic
· Demonstrates breadth of knowledge
3.
Problem Statement - It is not known how cross-cultural
experience influences student’s leadership capacity
development and academic achievement
· Statement is structured appropriate for the design
· Researchable
· Qualitative: Phenomena to be better understood
4.
Sample and Location –
Interviews: 10 -12
Focus Groups: 6-8
The number of participants who will form part of the focus
group is 6.
Teachers in a high school that offer cross cultural curriculum or
enrichment programs in Central Florida.
· Size is appropriate for design
· Likely to be able to access it/get permission
· Identify alternative to their organization (associations,
community orgs, research companies, snowball sampling, etc.)
5.
Research Questions –
RQ1: How does cross-cultural experience affect student
leadership capacity development?
RQ2: How does cross-cultural experience influence student
academic achievement?
· Appropriate for the design
· Resulting data will address the problem statement

· Minimum of 2
6.
Phenomenon - Cross-cultural awareness is associated with
positive student leadership qualities and behaviors.
· Qualitative: Describe the phenomenon to be better understood
7.
Methodology and Design - Descriptive qualitative design
· Methodology and design sections
· Appropriate for problem statement
· Justifies the methodology or design using problem statement
and citations
· Methodology does not discuss design, instrument, data
collection
· Design does not discuss instrument, data collection, data
analysis
8.
Purpose Statement – The purpose of this qualitative descriptive
study is to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence
student leadership capacity development and academic
achievement, located at a high school in Central Florida.
· Purpose statement = Methodology + design + problem
statement + sample + location
9.
Data Collection – Semi-structured interviews and observations.
Focus groups.
· Qualitative: Includes at least two data rich collection
approaches or data sources; case study has minimum of 3;
quantitative data can be collected to support qualitative sources;
demographics are identified and appropriate to the study (but
are not counted as a data source)
· Describes various permissions needed; sample and sampling
approach; recruiting and selecting final sample; data collection
steps; how data will be stored, security maintained, privacy
maintained

10.
Data Analysis – Utilize Thematic Analysis( Braun and
Clarke,2006)
· Qualitative: Include descriptive statistics; analytic approach
appropriate for specific design; summary specific to the design
· Data analysis approach aligned to the design and RQs
The Influence of Cross-cultural Experience on Student
Leadership Capacity Development and Academic Achievement
Submitted by
Equal Spacing
~2.0” – 2.5”
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
(or) Doctor of Philosophy
(or) Doctor of Business Administration
Grand Canyon University
Phoenix, Arizona
[07/150/2021]
QUAL GCU Dissertation Template V9.0 Final 08-10-20_cnb 7
am
QUALITATIVE GCU Dissertation Template V9.0 08-10-2020

© by Your Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or Academic
Credentials), 20xx
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
The Dissertation Title Appears in Title Case and is Centered
By
Insert Learner Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or
Academic Credentials)
Successfully Defended and Approved by All Dissertation
Committee Members
[Insert Date]
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE APPROVAL:
The following committee members certify they have read and
approve this dissertation and deem it fully adequate in scope
and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of XXX.
Full Legal Name, EdD, DBA, or PhD, Dissertation Chair
Full Legal Name, EdD, DBA, or PhD, Committee Member
Full Legal Name, EdD, DBA, or PhD, Committee Member
ACCEPTED AND SIGNED:
________________________________________
____________________
Michael R. Berger, EdD Date
Dean, College of Doctoral Studies
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
The Dissertation Title Appears in Title Case and is Centered

I verify that my dissertation represents original research, is not
falsified or plagiarized, and that I accurately reported, cited,
and referenced all sources within this manuscript in strict
compliance with APA and Grand Canyon University (GCU)
guidelines. I also verify my dissertation complies with the
approval(s) granted for this research investigation by GCU
Institutional Review Board (IRB).
[Wet Signature Required]
_____________________________________________
______________________
[Type Doctoral Learner Name Beneath Signature line]
Date
Abstract
The abstract is the most important component of your
dissertation! It is required for the dissertation manuscript only.
The abstract is typically the last item written and should be
updated based on final acceptance of manuscript by the
dissertation committee members and reviewer(s). The abstract is
intended as a precise, non-evaluative, summary of the entire
dissertation presenting the major elements and findings of the
study in a highly condensed format. Although few people
typically read the full dissertation, the abstract will be read by
many scholars and researchers. Consequently, great care must
be taken in writing this page of the dissertation. The content of
the abstract should mirror the structure of the entire
dissertation, covering the research problem purpose of the study
to solve the problem, theoretical foundation, research questions
stated in narrative format, sample, location, methodology,
design, data sources, data analysis approach, major findings or
trends based on the analysis. The most important finding(s)
should state the themes that support the conclusion(s). The

abstract should close with a conclusion statement of the study
implications and contributions to the field. The abstract does
not appear in the table of contents and has no page number. The
abstract is double-spaced, fully justified with no indentations or
citations, and no longer than one page. Refer to the APA
Publication Manual, 7th Edition, for additional guidelines for
the development of the dissertation abstract. Make sure to add
the keywords at the bottom of the abstract to assist future
researchers.
Keywords: Abstract, one-page, vital information
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
ABSTRACT
(Dissertation Only—Not Required for the Proposal)
(one page)
The abstract provides a succinct summary of the study and
MUST include: the purpose of the study, theoretical foundation,
research questions stated in narrative format, sample, location,
methodology, design, data sources, data analysis, results, and a
valid conclusion of the research. Note: The most important
finding(s) should be stated with actual codes and resulting
themes data/numbers (qualitative).
0
The abstract is written in APA format, one paragraph fully
justified with no indentations, double-spaced with no citations,
one page, and includes key search words. Keywords are on a
new line and indented.
0

The abstract is written in a way that is well structured, has a
logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct
sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
0
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the
following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are
Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are
Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions
May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Dedication
An optional dedication may be included here. While a
dissertation is an objective, scientific document, this is the
place to use the first person and to be subjective. The dedication
page is numbered with a Roman numeral, but the page number
does not appear in the Table of Contents. It is only included in
the final dissertation and is not part of the proposal. If this page
is not to be included, delete the heading, the body text, and the
page break below.
Acknowledgments
An optional acknowledgements page can be included here. This

is another place to use the first person. If applicable,
acknowledge and identify grants and other means of financial
support. Also acknowledge supportive colleagues who rendered
assistance. The acknowledgments page is numbered with a
Roman numeral, but the page number does not appear in the
table of contents. This page provides a formal opportunity to
thank family, friends, and faculty members who have been
helpful and supportive. The acknowledgements page is only
included in the final dissertation and is not part of the proposal.
If this page is not to be included, delete the heading, the body
text, and the page break below.
Table of Contents
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiii
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study 1
Introduction 1
Background of the Study 7
Definition of Terms 9
Anticipated Limitations 12
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study 13
Chapter 2: Literature Review 17
Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem 17
Identification of the Problem Space 19
Theoretical Foundations 23
Review of the Literature 27
Problem Statement 34
Summary 36
Chapter 3: Methodology 38
Introduction 38
Purpose of the Study 39
Research Questions 40
Rationale for a Qualitative Methodology 41
Rationale for Research Design 42
Population and Sample Selection 44

Qualitative Sample Size 45
Recruiting and Sampling Strategy 45
Sources of Data 47
Research Data 48
Additional Data 49
Trustworthiness 52
Credibility 53
Dependability 54
Transferability 54
Confirmability 55
Data Collection and Management 57
Data Analysis Procedures 60
Ethical Considerations 62
Assumptions, and Delimitations 66
Assumptions 66
Delimitations 67
Summary 68
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results 70
Introduction 70
Preparation of Raw Data for Analysis and Descriptive Data 72
Preparation of Raw Data for Analysis 72
Descriptive Data 73
Data Analysis Procedures 77
Reflexivity Protocol 78
Data Analysis Steps 78
Results 80
Presenting the Results 80
Limitations 86
Summary 88
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 90
Introduction and Summary of Study 90
Summary of Findings and Conclusion 91
Overall Organization 91
Reflection on the Dissertation Process 92
Implications 93
Theoretical Implications 94

Practical Implications 94
Future Implications 94
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study 95
Recommendations 96
Recommendations for Future Research 96
Recommendations for Future Practice 97
Holistic reflection on the Problem Space 99
References 100
Appendix A. Ten Strategic Points 107
Appendix B. Site Authorization 109
Appendix C. IRB Approval Letter 110
Appendix D. Informed Consent 111
Appendix E. Copy of Instrument(s) and Permission Letters to
Use the Instrument(s) 112
Appendix F. Codebook 113
Appendix G. Transcripts 114
Appendix H. Feasibility and Benefits Checklist 115
Appendix I. Strategies to Establish Trustworthiness 119
Appendix J. Developing Qualitative Interview Questions
Systematically 120
Appendix K. Sample Frames, Interview Duration, Transcript
Expectations 126
Appendix L. Additional Appendices 127
List of Tables
Table 1. Correct Formatting for a Multiple Line Table Title is
Single Spaced and Should Look Like this Example xii
Table 2. Alignment Table 15
Table 3. Description of Building Blocks for the Theoretical
Foundations Section 25
Table 4. Steps for the Theoretical Foundations Section 26
Table 5. Qualitative Core Designs and Descriptions 43
Table 6. Example of a Clean, Easy-to-Read Table 75
Table 7. Example of Clean, Easy-to-Read Table for Focus
Group Data 75

Table 8. Example of Case Unit Profiling (in Narrative) 76
Table 9. Initial Codes 83
Table F10. Sample Codebook 113
To update the List of Tables: [Place cursor on the page number
or title �Right click � Update Field � Update Entire Table],
and the table title and subtitle will show up with the in-text
formatting.Below is a sample table:
Table 1.
Correct Formatting for a Multiple Line Table Title is Single
Spaced and Should Look Like this Example
Participant
Gender
Role
Location
Susan
F
Principal
School A
Mary
F
Teacher
School A
Joseph
M
Principal
School B
Note. Adapted from: I.M. Researcher (2010). Sampling and
recruitment in studies of doctoral students. Journal of
Perspicuity, 25, p. 100. Reprinted with permission.
List of Figures
Figure 1. The Relationship of Things xiii
Figure 2. Incorporating Theories and Models of Research 24
Figure 3. IRB Alert 64

Figure 4. Diagram of a Blank Sociogram 84
To update the List of Figures: [Place curser on page number or
title �Right click � Update Field � Update Entire Table], and
the figure title and subtitle will show up with the in-text
formatting. Below is a sample figure:
Figure 1.
The Relationship of Things
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
This chapter introduces the study by including a background
study of the issue under discussion and discusses the statement
of the problem. In addition, it discusses the purpose of the study
and its significance, lists the research questions, and discusses
the rationale for research methodology. It also includes the
nature of the research design, the definition of terms, and the
study's assumptions and limitations. It concludes with a
summary of the chapter and the remaining parts of the study.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Introduction
(Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)
The learner introduces the dissertation topic supported by prior
research as defined by the problem space (see Chapter 2 for

more information regarding problem space).
2
0
The learner states the purpose statement.
2
0
The learner overviews how the study advances knowledge and
practice.
2
1
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured,
has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence
structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
1
following scale:
Required.
Required.
Reviewer Comments: 7 31 21 make sure you follow the
highlighted directions

Background of the Study
From the beginning, the United States education system was not
developed for all races; African Americans were initially
alienated from formal education. When they were finally
allowed to access formal education, it was through segregated
and inadequate means. Indian Natives and other minorities also
experienced such segregation in education. Early in the United
States history, women could only access basic education and
were discouraged to seek advanced education unless it focused
on domestic arts, music, and dancing. Even this was applicable
to those of upper-class members of the society. When the
government finally decided to offer education to Native
Americans, formal education meant transporting learners to
boarding institutions to erase their cultural beliefs and practices
(Urban, Wagoner & Gaither, 2019).
The government forcibly removed children from their families
and forced them to abandon their native language. White
learners also experienced discrimination in the country's
education system. For instance, in the early 19th century, the
government established common schools for all students
irrespective of social class. This universality of common
learning institutions excluded African Americans and white
children who believed in strange religious beliefs including
Irish Catholics. With time, the purpose of the American
education system was to socialize immigrants into the country's
'superior' culture. While inequality could be less overt in the
current educational system, it still exists in many learning
institutions. African American students still lag behind their
White colleagues on all standard measures of success or
achievement. They are more likely to drop out of and be
suspended from schools compared to their White counterparts.
Apart from African Americans, other minority groups also
experience such inequality in learning institutions (Urban,
Wagoner & Gaither, 2019). According to Jackson and Addison
(2018), students in high-poverty learning institutions had lower
achievement in math compared to those in low-poverty schools.

Moreover, Miksic (2014) found achievement gaps in math and
reading between Latino students and their white counterparts.
Communities are becoming culturally diverse and soon the
increase in immigrant numbers will result in the minority
groups in the United States. The rapid change in the United
States demographics is evident in schools. Goddard (2010)
asserted that urban learning institutions in the 21st century
western countries deal with more ethnocultural diverse students
than ever before. Grothaus, Crum, and James (2010), in their
support, indicated that students of color will account for a
bigger percentage of the United States' total student population
in 2020. These changes in demography have already happened
in some areas in the United States. Currently, minority students
constitute the biggest percentage of learners in the southern part
of the country.
These demographic changes imply that the United States must
start offering equal education to all children if it aspires to
change the existing inequality in society. To so, schools and
educators must understand that learning institutions reflect the
country's dominant culture, which can put learners from other
cultures at disadvantage. Generally, white, middle-class values
are considered the dominant culture in the United States. It al so
includes values held by the male, non-disabled, as well as
heterosexual persons. Diller and Moule (2012) discussed the
values held by members from dominant groups. They include an
emphasis on long-term goal setting, belief in internal locus of
control, and self-disclosure. It is the consideration of these
values as the dominant ones and differing values as the inferior
ones that lead to differences in leadership performance and
academic achievement between white students and those from
minority groups.
The answer to the problem is the development of culturally
competent students and teachers. Culturally competent
individuals strive at understanding their own biases as well as
patterns of discrimination. Diller and Moule (2012) define
cultural competence as a set of congruent attitudes and beliefs

that converge in a system or agency and enable that agency or
system to operate effectively in a cross-cultural environment.
Thus, culturally competent individuals can function successfully
with those from different cultural backgrounds such as race,
culture, gender, sexual orientation, religious orientation, or
culture. Being culturally competent is a daunting task because
culture manifests itself in visible and hidden manners. Visible
aspects such as clothing, food, and artifacts are obvious as well
as easy to understand compared to hidden cultural elements
such as beliefs and values (Kochan, 2012). Cultural competence
comprises the knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes that
are vital for students to respond to other people's needs. The
ability of a student to operate in a cross-cultural environment is
an asset.
The current lack of studies on cross-cultural competence among
learners is a matter of great concern. It is high time that
researchers looked for ways to customize curricular and co-
curricular activities to promote student leadership in culturally
diverse learning institutions (Boberg&Borgeois, 2016). Cultural
competence empowers students to commence a lifelong
commitment to self-critique as well as self-awareness. Cultural
awareness allows students to assess their multicultural
backgrounds, to assess determinants of prejudice, and to
acknowledge their inherent power as well as privilege. It also
allows students to use this awareness to mitigate discri minatory
practices for equity. Moreover, cultural competence empowers
students to assess and critique power structures as well as
imbalance in society. In doing so, learners develop an
awareness of their society as individuals and their abilities in
collaborative spaces. Third, cultural competence equips learners
with the ability to establish mutually beneficial relationships
with individuals. Student's awareness of cross-cultural
differences also enhances their communication and leadership
capabilities (Diller & Moule, 2012). In essence, developing
intercultural knowledge allows students to improve their ability
to engage and interact with diverse groups.

Apart from leadership skills, results from past studies show that
promoting cultural competence enhances students' academic
performance (Triggs, 2021). Many researchers have studied the
differences in academic achievement existing between White
American students and those from racial minority groups and
provided possible reasons for the gap. One major explanation
for the difference in academic achievement among students
from different racial backgrounds is the dissonance between the
culture of the home of minority students and the culture of
learning institutions (Miksic, 2012). American schools, like
other social systems, reflect the dominant culture's values and
beliefs. Thus, the United States' education system reflects the
values of white, middle-class Americans. While the system
seeks to benefit many students, it does not benefit all learners.
Many students do not grow up in the white, middle-class culture
thereby not benefiting in schools.
Many researchers have studied diversity issues among learners
in culturally diverse k-12 schools. However, most of these
studies that focus on leadership in culturally diverse k-12
learning institutions have concentrated on leadership concerning
school heads and administrators, educational stakeholders, and
teachers instead of leadership issues among students in
culturally diverse k-12 learning institutions (Genao, 2016).
Only a limited number of studies have explored the impacts of
cross-cultural factors on learners' leadership development
(Bartel-Radic&Giannelloni, 2017). Normore, Hamdan, and
Esposito (2019) explored cross-cultural perspectives on
leadership development programs. They found that effectively
prepared teachers play important role in ensuring that students
possess the knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in life.
Kerr (2016) explored the perceptions of the United States
military graduates about how their studies alongside foreign
officers influenced their perceptions for cultural adaptation,
task performance, as well as decision-making in cross-cultural
leadership contexts. Polat, Arslan, and Ocum (2017) developed
a valid and reliable tool to determine educators’ perceptions

about the degree of school administrators' diversity leadership.
Karadaq (2020) analyzed the relationship between different
leadership approaches and student achievement. Lyons, Buddie,
and Purcell (2018) examined how first-year university learners
in two cohorts of a leadership program made meaning of such
pedagogical approaches during their short-term education
overseas.
Apart from leadership development, there are limited studies
that have explored the relationship between cultural competence
and academic performances among k-12 students. Brace (2011)
examined the link between the cultural competence level of
teachers from urban elementary schools and their students'
academic achievements as measured by standardized testing.
According to Brace (2011), personal biases and emotions
normally overshadow the subtle variables affecting interactions
and a student’s inappropriate behavior is a consequence of a
teacher’s actions. Hence, those teaching in culturally diverse
schools must possess dispositions that enable and equip them to
determine and manage cultural differences that can create a
positive social environment.
Spence (2016) investigated educators’ cultural competency
level, ethnicity, and years of teaching experience, as w ell as the
level of education. They also explored learners’ demographic
characteristics of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, grade level,
and the link between these factors and learners’ perceptions of
the classroom social atmosphere in a culturally diverse middle
school. However, it must be understood that an educator’s
cultural competence and learners’ perception of it, can be
affected by extraneous variables. Sims (2011) discusses some of
the demographic factors affecting teachers’ cultural
competence. They include gender, ethnicity, nationality, years
of teaching experience, and age, as well as educational
attainment. The ability of educators to work effectively in a
culturally diverse environment is a valuable asset, which is
gaining popularity in the United States because of the
increasing number of students from minority cultures in public

schools. For the United States education system better serve all
students either from dominant or minority cultures, teachers
must strive for cultural competence by understanding the
influence that culture has on education and learning. They must
also realize the cultural differences existing in their classrooms
and make instructional as well as assessment decisions that can
incorporate these factors. This diversion from the Eurocentric
perspective is one way of equalizing the country’s system of
education and making it effective for all learners.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Background of the Study
(Minimum two to three paragraphs or approximately one page)
The learner provides a brief history of the problem space, and a
summary of results from the prior research on the topic.
3
2
The learner identifies what still needs to be understood within
the problem space.
The learner provides a clear statement of what still needs to be
understood: “The research that needs to be better understood is
…”
2
1
The learner builds a justification for the current study, using a
logical set of arguments supported by appropriate citations.

2
2
Learner situates what needs to be understood by discussing how
the research is applicable to/beyond the local setting and may
be contributory to professional or broader societal needs.
2
2
3
2
following scale:
Required.
Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Definition of Terms
Various terms relating to cultural competence have been used
throughout this proposal. Hence, it is important to provide their
operational definition. They include:
African American: The two terms refer to persons having
origins in the black racial groups of Africa (Planty et al., 2009).

Asian American: A person having origins in the original people
of Southeast Asia, the Far East, and India (Planty et al., 2009).
Cross cultural leadership capacity development: Cross-cultural
leadership refers to the way to understand leaders working in a
globalized environment. Thus, cross cultural leadership capacity
development is process and ability to produce leaders who can
to influence and motivate their followers’ attitudes and
behaviors in a culturally diverse environment to shared goals.
Cultural competence: It is a set of congruent policies,
behaviors, as well as attitudes that converge in a system or
agency and enables that agency or system to operate effectively
in a cross-cultural setting.
Culture: This is a lens via which life is perceived
Dominant culture: Since the study will be conducted in the
United States, the dominant culture refers to a set of values and
beliefs held by white Americans from the middle or upper class.
Hispanic/Latino: These two terms refer to persons of Mexican,
Southern or Central American, Puerto Rican origin, or Spanish
origin irrespective of race (Planty et al., 2009).
Native American: These are persons having origins in the
original persons of North, South, and Central America (Planty
et al., 2009).
School Poverty Rate: This is the proportion of learners within a
learning institution receiving free lunch.
White Americans: These terms refers to persons having origins
in the original people of Europe, the Middle East, or North
Africa (Planty et al., 2009)
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Definitions of Terms
(Each definition may be a few sentences to a paragraph.)

The learner defines any words that may be unknown to a lay
person (words with unusual or ambiguous meanings or technical
terms) from the research or literature.
2
1
The learner conceptually defines the phenomena in the study
2
1
The learner supports definitions with citations from scholarly
sources, where appropriate.
2
1
3
1
following scale:
Required.
Required.
Reviewer Comments: 7 31 21 all definitions must include
citations

8 5 21 still not addressed
Anticipated Limitations
The main limitation of this study is that it will only use data
from a high school in Central Florida, school administrators,
and teachers. In particular, the study will include 16 - 24
participants. However, this small sample size will be less
relevant if discussed in the context of the research problem.
Since the study will use semi-structured interview method of
data collection it will be difficult to independently verify self-
reported data. In essence, the study will have to consider what
the respondents say at face value. Self-reported data can also
contain potential sources of bias such as selective memory,
telescoping, attribution, and exaggeration. Selective memory
will arise if a respondentrecollects or does not remember
cultural and learning experiences that happened in the past.
Telescoping bias will arise if a respondent recalls events that
happened at one time as though they happened at another time.
Attribution will happen if respondents attribute positive events
to their inputs and negative events to external forces.
Concerning exaggeration, there is a likelihood of
respondentsembellishing cultural competence as more important
than is actually presented from other data.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Anticipated Limitations
(Each definition may be a few sentences to a paragraph.)
The learner identified anticipated limitation.
2
1

Learner provided a rationale for each anticipated limitation.
2
1
Learner discussed consequences for the transferability and
applicability of the findings based on anticipated limitations.
1
1
3
1
following scale:
Required.
Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand how cross-cultural
experiences influence student leadership capacity development
and academic achievement, located at a high school in Central
Florida. This chapter has discussed various aspects such as the
background of the study, the purpose of the study, research

questions, and the significance of the study. This study is
important because it will fill the existing gap in current
literature about the correlation between cross-cultural
experience and student leadership behaviors as well as the
academic outcome. The next chapter will focus on a literature
review of the study and the third chapter will discuss the
research methodology.
Insert Project Timeline Here:
This does not need to be so detailed: Refer to the simple sample
below:
Timeline.
Dissertation Proposal-Final sent to Chair- April 8, 2015
Level 2 Review- April 22, 2015
Level 3 Review: Proposal Defense- May 6, 2015
Level 4 Review and IRB Approval- May 20, 2015
Level 5 Review- June 17, 2015
Level 6 Review- July 1, 2015
e
Dissertation Timeline Plan to Completion
Student Name: Youting Zhang
Expected Graduation Date
6/2022
Chair:
Date Timeline Established
Handbook deadlines
Dissertation Milestones
To be completed by

Actual date of completion
Notes/revised completion date
Chair signature
Date
Student signature
Date
Discuss topics with a member of faculty
1st year
Advisor signature
Preparing a research proposal and discuss it with faculty
chairperson
2nd year
Advisor signature
Choose chairperson
January 3rd year
Spring 3rd year
Pre-proposal presentation

March 3rd year
First draft of proposal to chairperson
June 30
Choose committee members
Summer of 3rd Year
Member 1:
Member 2:
Complete literature review

Write dissertation proposal
Update committee members on progress;
Send final draft to chairperson by August 1;
When approved send to committee;
Check proposal management committee availability for 3-4
weeks;
Schedule proposal meeting
Summer 3rd year
August 15

Before Oct 15
4th year
Proposal meeting
Complete proposal evaluation form
October 1 4th Year
Identify study sample
Identify study measures
IRB approval

Train research assistants
Recruit and train coders
Gather research data
Conduct data analysis

Write study results
Write discussion section
Send to chairperson,
Make requested revisions
Send to committee

Schedule date of defense
Defend
Bring proposal evaluation form
Table 2.
Problem Statement: The purpose of this qualitative descriptive
study is to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence
student leadership capacity development and academic
achievement, located at a high school in Central Florida.
Issue 1: Only a limited number of studies have explored the
impacts of cross-cultural competence on learners' leadership

development
Objective 1: The first objective of this study is to determine the
relationship between cultural competence and leadership
capacity development among k-12 students.
Research question 1: How does cross-cultural experience affect
student leadership capacity development?
Issue 2: Only a limited number of studies have explored the
impacts of cross-cultural competence on learners' academic
performance
Objective 2: The second objective of this study is to determine
the relationship between cultural competence and academic
achievement among k-12 students.
Research Question 2: How does cross-cultural experience
influence student academic achievement?
Dissertation Alignment Table
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Chapter 1 Summary and Organization of the remainder of the
study
(Minimum one to two pages)
FOR PROPOSAL ONLY: The learner provides a project
timeline for completion of the dissertation.
2
1

The learner provides a summary of feasibility of the study. The
learner completes Appendix H (feasibility and benefits
checklist).
2
0
The learner completes the alignment table above. Furthermore,
the items within the table are aligned.
2
0
The learner describes the remaining Chapters and provides a
transition discussion to Chapter 2.
3
The learner correctly formats the chapter to the Template using
the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of
mechanical errors.
3
All research presented in the chapter is scholarly, topic-related,
and obtained from highly respected academic, professional,
original sources. In-text citations are accurate, correctly cited,
and included in the reference page according to APA standards.
2
1

2
1
following scale:
Required.
Required.
Reviewer Comments:
.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter aims to evaluate existing works of literature, which
are relevant for this research study. It begins with the existing
gap in the literature about the influence of cultural competence
on student leadership development and academic achievement.
Culture influences all human systems (Zoller Booth &Nieto,
2010). It is an accepted framework for harmonious co-existence
with people from different cultural backgrounds (Seeberg &
Minick, 2012). The concept of cultural competence has gained
traction in international humanitarian, business, and education,
due to changing demographic patterns around the world. This
chapter presents the Boundary-Breaking Leadership
Development Model as the theoretical framework for the study
and examines the concept of cultural competence, divided into
four themes of progressive cultural competency, cultural
competency, ethical attitudes, and teachers' awareness of
cultural competence. Among the key issues covered under
progressive cultural competency include the attributes of

cultural competence, the impacts of cultural competence on
students' performance, and Culturally Responsive Teaching
(CRT) and cultural competence. It also assesses criticisms
against cultural competency.
The theme of cultural competencies evaluates different cultural
competence frameworks applicable in the field of education
such as the Bennett's Developmental Model of Intercultural
Sensitivity, the Cultural Proficiency Model, and the Cross-
Cultural Efficiency, as well as Meta-Cultural Competency
Models. It also evaluates the Intercultural Development
Inventory and Intercultural Sensitivity Scale Models of cultural
competence. The third theme of ethical attitudes explores the
impact of Teacher Efficacy and perceptions on cultural
competence. It also assesses the relationship between behavior
and cultural competence. The theme of teacher awareness about
cultural competence evaluates issues such as integration of
cross-cultural knowledge into teaching practices and processes,
and the impacts of lack of teacher awareness about cultural
competence on students' academic achievements.
Search Tools and Strategies
A comprehensive and systematic information search was
conducted in databases such as the Cochrane Library, Medline,
and Emcare. Literatures were considered eligible if they
explored the relationship between cultural competence and
academic performance. Also, only articles that explored the
relationship between cultural competence and leadership among
students were considered eligible for this study. Various terms
such as cultural competence, leadership, academic performance,
and attitudes were used to locate relevant articles. Other words
employed included knowledge, skills, as well as perceived
benefits. Cumulatively, the three databases generated more than
1,500 articles related to cultural competence, leadership, and
education. The Boolean search strategy was used to narrow
down to the relevant articles that met the purpose of this study.
Specifically, words such as and, or, and not were used between
the aforementioned terms to narrow down the information

search to the most relevant articles. This strategy reduced the
number of articles to less than 500. However, only articles
published during the last 10 years were used for this study
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Introduction (to the chapter) and Background (to the problem)
(Minimum two to three pages)
Introduction: The learner provides an orienting paragraph, so
the reader knows what the literature review will address.
2
1
X
Introduction: The learner describes how the chapter is organized
(including the specific sections and subsections).
3
1
X
Introduction: The learner describes how the literature was
surveyed so the reader can evaluate thoroughness of the review.
This includes search terms and databases used.
2
0
X
Background: The learner discusses how the problem has evolved
historically into its current form.
2
1
X

Background: The learner describes the what still needs to be
understood defined in the problem space in current literature
and how it leads to the creation of the topic and problem
statement for the study. Note: This section is a significant
expansion on the Background of the Study section in Chapter 1.
1
1
X
3
1
X
following scale:
Required.
Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Identification of the Problem Space
With the demographic make-up of the United States quickly
changing and minority learners are becoming the majority in
learning institutions (Grothaus, Crumm& James, 2010), there is
a need to focus on cross-cultural competence among students.
Multiple researches have demonstrated the difference in
academic achievement and leadership development between
white American students and their counterparts from minority
groups (Miksic, 2012). This issue becomes more important in
the face of the current demographic composition of the United

States compared to the country's teaching force. The United
States is increasingly turning into a diverse nation more than
ever.
In 1980, white Americans comprised 80 percent of the national
population with African Americans accounting for only 11.5
percent, Hispanics at 6.5 percent, and Asian Americans at 1.8
percent. By 2000, white Americans accounted for 69.1 percent,
Hispanics at 12.6 percent, African Americans at 12.1 percent,
and Asian Americans at 3.8 percent. In 2019, white Americans
accounted for 60.1 percent, Latinos at 18.5 percent, African
Americans at 12.1 percent, and Asian Americans at 6 percent
(Frey, 2020). In 2050, white Americans will constitute 47
percent of the entire country's population. Hispanics, African
Americans, and Asian Americans will account for 29 percent,
13 percent, and 9 percent of the entire population, respectively
(Passel & Cohn, 2008).
While the country has made significant advancement in student
enrollment across different racial groups, white American
students record better academic performances than their
counterparts from other racial minorities. Between 2000 and
2017, the proportion of white students attending public schools
declined from 61 percent to 48 percent, and the proportion of
African American students also declined from 17 percent to 15
percent over the same period. On the contrary, the percentage of
Hispanic students attending public schools increased from 16
percent to 27 percent during the same period (NCES, 2021).
However, white American students still perform better than
their counterparts, especially in math and reading (Carnoy&
Garcia, 2017). In the United Kingdom, a report by the Higher
Education Council for England found that 72 percent of white
students who scored grades BBB at A-level gained first or upper
second class degree honors compared with 56 percent of Asian
students and 53 percent of black students (Adams, 2014).
The above statistics show the need for cultural competence
among students to enhance their leadership skills and academic
achievements. Studies on how to promote student leadership as

well as academic achievement in culturally diverse k-12
learning institutions must be given significant attention. The
gap of the need to apply both curricular and co-curricular
activities to foster student leadership in k-12 learning
institutions has received less attention in favor of other areas of
concern considered to be more significant such as educational
attainment.
This study is significant in the sense that there is little research
examining the relationship between cross-cultural experience
and students' academic achievement as well as leadership
development. It seeks to understand how cross-cultural
experiences influence student leadership capacity development
and academic achievement, thereby adding an updated
qualitative aspect to cultural competence studies as it relates to
student leadership development and academic achievement.
Much of the study conducted on leadership in culturally diverse
k-12 learning institutions tend to focus on leadership regarding
school heads and administrators, educational stakeholders, and
teachers instead of leadership issues among students in
culturally diverse k-12 learning environments (Genao, 2016).
Bartel-Radic and Giannelloni (2017) acknowledge that there is a
scarcity of scholarly materials exploring the impacts of cross -
cultural issues on students' academic performance and
leadership development. On the contrary, this study investigates
the relationship between cross-cultural experience and students'
academic performance as well as leadership development. This
is crucial because cultural competence involves the
development of internal knowledge, skills, and abilities that
students bring to the school environment daily rather than the
strategies they use in classrooms with their colleagues.
Several studies explore the impact of cultural competence on
school heads and instructors (Genao, 2016), but this study is
more directed on the effect on students. Other studies on the
field of education have focused on how to develop cultural
awareness and competence in healthcare students (Forsyth et
al., 2019). Some have discussed the importance of developing

cross-cultural experience among nursing students (Cruz et al.,
2018). Moreover, there are many studies on issues related to
cross-cultural awareness such as culturally relevant pedagogy
(Ladson-Billings, 2014), culturally responsive teaching
(Hernandez, Morales & Shroyer, 2013), and cultural congruence
(Bayanova et al., 2016). Yet, there is a scarcity of studies on the
topic being explored. The meaning of cultural competence
implies that this asset is vital for effective leadership skills and
good academic performance. In essence, a student must develop
a higher cultural competence to become an all-round person in
life. This study aims to fill the existing gap in literature such as
the need to explore the impact of cultural competence on
students' academic performance and the need to investigate the
influence of cultural competence on students' leadership
development.
This study will fill the existing gap on the impact of cultural
competence on student leadership and leadership development.
Many studies have not explored the impact of cultural
competence among students (Litts et al., 2020). The shortage of
studies on cultural competencies among learners, and how
curricular, as well as co-curricular activities, can be customized
to foster student leadership in culturally diverse learning
institutions is a matter of great concern (Boberg &Borgeois,
2016). Engagement gaps, including the inequality and alienation
among foreign as well as minority learners, have only been
examined within administrative leadership (Mawhinney, 2018).
With the increasing change in the United States' population, it
is important to explore the impact of cross-cultural competence
among students. Many studies have not explored the issue of
cultural competence among students (Litts et al., 2020). Boberg
and Borgeois (2016) admit the lack of focus by researchers on
cultural competencies among learners, and how curricular as
well as co-curricular activities can be customized to foster
student leadership in culturally diverse learning institutions.
Engagement gaps, including the inequality and alienation among
foreign as well as minority learners, have only been examined

within administrative leadership (Mawhinney, 2018).
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Identification of the Problem Space
(Minimum two-three pages)
The learner provides a detailed description of how the problem
space has evolved over time, and the effects it has had on the
research (research trends).
1
1
The learner summarizes the problem space, highlighting what
has been discovered and what still needs to be understood
related to the topic from literature or research dated primarily
within the last five years.
1
2
The learner discusses and synthesizes the evolution of the
research on the problem. Specifically:
· Identifies the key sources used as the basis for the problem
space
· Identifies trends in research and literature.
· Identifies how the research focus has changed over the recent
past (five years).
· Discusses key findings that emerged from recent studies.
· Discusses prior research and defined future research needs.

1
1
From the findings of research studies and evolution of recent
literature on the topic, the learner defines the parameters for
problem statement for the study.
1
1
The learner describes how the study will contribute to the body
of literature.
2
2
The learner describes the potential practical or professional
applications from the research.
1
1
3
2
following scale:
Required.
Required.

Reviewer Comments: Refer to the following:
· Problem Space/GAP (what is known and what still needed to
be known) supported by empirical sources:
· Using results from prior studies.
· Using recommendations for further study.
· Using professional or locally based problems documented in
the literature.
· Using broader societal areas of research in current empirical
articles.
· Synthesis of problems and approaches to formulate a unique
need or problem that still requires additional study.
1.
· You must initially identify the NEED for this particular study
· For example:
· “This study is different because it will focus on…”
· “This study will extend prior research on…”
· “The research that needs to be better understood is …”
· Bohlmann et al. (2019) future recommendations is to include a
more…”
Theoretical Foundations
The Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development
Model(Webber, C., & Robertson, J., 1998) is a framework that
helps in promoting education across international settings
because of its ability to overcome the challenges associated
with gender, and culture. It can also overcome the issues of
nationality and ethnicity in a diverse school environment. It
focuses on various aspects of educational context such as
leadership development, generative learning, and development
of discussion forums that foster diversity, sense, and

responsibility for the community. In essence, it promotes
cultural competence and cultivation of respect as well as ethical
and collaborative spirit (Tomlinson, 2013). The Boundary-
Breaking Leadership Development Model(Webber, C., &
Robertson, J., 1998) can be used to foster and promote unity
through collaboration among learners from diverse cultural
backgrounds. This theoretical model will help in answering the
research questions. In particular, it will help in understanding
the relationship between cross-cultural experience and student
leadership capacity development by exploring leadership
development in learning environment. It will also help in
understanding the impact of cross-cultural experience on
student academic achievement by understanding the impact of
collaboration among learners from diverse cultural backgrounds
on academic performance.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Theoretical Foundations
(Minimum two to three pages)
The learner discusses the theoretical foundation and, where
appropriate, the extended conceptual framework that undergird
and frame the study.
2
2
X
The learner identifies theory(ies) models, and/or concepts from
seminal source(s) that provide the theoretical foundation to use
in developing the research questions, identifying phenomena,

and describing the sources of data.
3
1
X
The learner cites the appropriate seminal source(s) for each
theory, model, or concept.
2
1
X
The learner includes a cogent discussion/synthesis of the
theories, models and concepts, and justifies the theoretical
foundation/framework as relevant to the problem statement for
the study. The learner connects the study directly to the theory
and describes how the study adds or extends the theory, model,
or concept.
2
1
X
The learner’s discussion reflects understanding of the
foundational and historical research relevant to the theoretical
foundation.
3
1
X
3
1
X

following scale:
Required.
Required.
Reviewer Comments:Review of the Literature
Progressive Competency
Culture influences all human systems either directly or
indirectly (Zoller Booth &Nieto, 2010). When examining the
importance of cultural competence, it is important to understand
that there is no culture-free service delivery. For many years
scholars have focused on the effects of discrimination on
diverse cultures. The basis of cultural competence scholarly
works is rooted in the United States experience, as socio-
political context changes from segregation to pluralism.
Recently, the concept of cultural competence has gained
popularity in international humanitarian, business, and
education, as well as medical because of changing
demographics around the globe. Cultural competence is an old
concept and various iterations have evolved over the years. The
United States plays a vital role in the development of the field
of cultural competence. Banks (2004) contends that t
philosophers and scholars have, since the early 20th century,
supported the right of different cultural groups to practice
important aspects of their cultures and languages. Attributes of
Cultural Competence
Pinderhughes first coined the concept of cultural competence in
1989. She used the term to conceptualize vital changes needed
to help professionals in the face of pluralism. In her study, she
urged professionals to engage in reflective practices that can
allow them to understand cultural differences that impacted
service delivery (Lum, 2011). Another study related to cultural

competence was carried out by Cross et al. in 1989. They aimed
to develop vital tools to navigate cultural differences. To do so,
they developed six elements along a cultural competence
continuum and five skills essential for cultural competence.
These skills include self-awareness, awareness and acceptance
of cultural differences, and managing dynamics of cultural
differences. Others include knowledge of clients' cultures and
adaptation of skills based on circumstances (Nicole, 2012).
Cultural competence is an accepted framework for harmonious
co-existence with people from different cultural backgrounds.
The term refers to the awareness, knowledge, and processes
required by people, professions, and organizations, as well as
systems to operate effectively in a culturally diverse
environment (Seeberg & Minick, 2012). Having evolved over
many years, cultural frameworks consist of individual skills
such as professional development and standards, and verbal as
well as non-verbal communications. Cultural competence
involves three elements-the affective element, the cognitive
element, and the behavioral element. The affective element
comprises traits such as respect and sensitivity; this emotional
mindset plays a significant role in establishing positive
relationships between different cultures. The cognitive element
is premised on the notion that prior knowledge of cultural
differences helps in developing creating better relationships and
countering cross-cultural misunderstandings. The behavioral
element concerns skills required to work across cultures. They
may include verbal and non-verbal skills and the ability to work
with interpreters for broader community or policy development
skills (Gopalkrishnan, 2019).
Current demographic patterns in the United States and future
trends of the student population in the country have prompted
education stakeholders to recognize the need for cultural
competence within schools. Multicultural curriculum advocates
have pushed for the definition of multicultural education from a
critical point of view. Gay (2010) posits that there is a need to
explore the dialectical link between theory and practice, and

value human emancipation as well as cultural contradictions.
She posits that this process involves understanding how current
curriculum and teaching methods perpetuate socioeconomic
exploitation, and articulation of innovative approaches to
promote equality in learning institutions.
Cultural competence acknowledges the significant roles of
culture in shaping people's behavior and values including
education and the role of dominant culture values in reinforcing
learner's minority status in schools. Subsequently, the
development of learners can be impaired, resulting in self-
esteem, isolation, as well as identity formation issues. It can
also lead to flawed assumptions concerning the role of learning
institutions. Cultural competence goes beyond classroom
borders into the natural support systems of learners such as
families and communities. It enables teachers to effectively
serve students from different cultures by adapting their
professional as well as personal practices to cultural differences
relating to thought patterns, values, and preferences. Adoption
of these prerequisites is a crucial aspect of cultural competence
since it provides an awareness of the effect of marginalization
and discrimination on a student's day-to-day life (Robinson,
2012).
Many curriculum theorists have also advanced the idea of multi -
cultural education as an instrument for critically engaging and
altering current curriculum practices. Glock and Klapproth
(2017), for example, envision multicultural education as a tool
that challenges educators to develop a curriculum that caters to
the needs of all students. Moreover, he articulates that
multicultural education gives credence to ethnic and cross-
cultural differences and helps in shaping personal identities and
social experiences. It also plays a significant role in shaping
educational opportunities in ways that promote equitable
treatment for diverse groups.
According to Gopalkrishnan (2019), multicultural education
encompasses curricula and instructions for effective
understanding of the history, culture, and contributions of

different cultural groups. It also involves developing attitudes,
behaviors, and values for combating the unfair treatment of
people from different cultural groups Glock and Klapproth
(2017) propose the establishment of culturally sensitive
educational practices as the requirement for attaining optimal
academic outcomes for learners from culturally diverse
backgrounds. The researchers broaden the conditions of
multicultural education and contend it should be extended into
the nature of teaching and interactions between instructors,
students, and parents. These explanations of multicultural
education have a common underpinning. They need an
understanding of the requirements of culturally diverse learners,
cognizance of personal limitations in knowledge and skills, as
well as awareness of the impacts of personal bias in
perpetuating educational inequalities. Thus, cultural competence
knowledge and skills are at the core of multicultural education.
Impact of Cultural Competence on Students' Performance
Templeton (2011) performed an experimental study that used
culturally competent instructional practices. The practices
included high expectations and adoption of culture acclimation
in a study group of 100 percent African American learners. The
study showed that there were significant academic performance
differences between the control group and the study group,
where culturally competent practices were lacking. These
findings support the notion that the adoption of culturally
competent practices enhances academic achievement. Thus,
teachers who use culturally competent practices can yield
greater positive academic achievements from their students.
Van den Berg et al. (2010), in a study exploring the impact of
the implicit prejudiced attitude of educators, found that ethnic
minority students are at higher risk for academic failure and
heightened sustainability to negative educator expectancy
effects. The researchers examined the prejudiced attitudes of
more than 40 elementary school educators through self-reports
as well as Implicit Association Test. They obtained teacher
expectations and performance scores for more than 430

students. The implicit assessment of educator prejudiced
attitudes explained differing ethnic academic achievement gaps
through educator expectations. Glock and Kiapproth (2017)
investigated elementary and secondary school educators'
implicit and explicit attitudes towards ethnic minority students.
The study revealed that elementary and secondary educators had
negative implicit behaviors toward students from minority
groups, irrespective of students' gender. While secondary school
educators were implicitly less positive towards girls, elementary
educators were implicitly less positive towards boys. In
essence, elementary school educators were less enthusiastic
about teaching ethnic minority girls than boys. These findings
provide insights into the impact of cultural competence on
student academic achievement.
Educators need to be multi-culturally sensitive to maintain
equal social support for learners. Their expectations and
stereotypical attitudes lead to the bullying suffered by ethnic
minority students. Stereotypes are normally linked with
prejudice suffered by learners from an ethnic minority, who are
usually disadvantaged by educators' behavior and attitude in the
learning process (Wilson & Kumar, 2017). However, cultural
competence provides educators and students with opportunities
to resolve positive socio-cultural conflicts, strengthen social
solidarity, and develop empathy. It also provides them with an
opportunity to enhance learners' academic achievement.
Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) and Cultural
Competence
To understand the impact of cultural competence on student
success, it is important to understand that the role of cultural
competence allows embedding of the ideas to the CRT concept.
This is because CRT considers learners' cultural attributes,
knowledge, backgrounds, and traits to create a learning
environment that enhances the success of all students (Gay,
2010). The aim is facilitated by structuring teaching
instructions in ways that allow learners to use cultural elements,
knowledge, and capital while at the same time assimilating and

embracing new content (Howard, 2012).
Howard (2012) indicates that CRT is naturally multidimensional
and moves past curriculum to inform classroom climate, school
culture, and educator-learner interactions. In addition, it aims to
empower minority learners intellectually, emotionally, and
politically, as well as socially by using cultural elements to
impart knowledge, attitudes, as well as skills (Howard, 2012).
Criticisms against Cultural Competency
Critics of cultural competence contend that it is a new form of
racism based on its static and absolutist perception of culture.
However, the assumption that culture is stable and absolute is
inaccurate. Cultures, in a globalized environment, constantly
interact with one another, permeating into one another to form a
hybridized culture (Chen, 2012). Moreover, individuals within
cultures lead bicultural and multicultural lives alternating
between varying cultural frames (van Oudenhoven & Benet-
Martinez, 2015). Culture has never been static and the
continuous interactions of groups ensure constant reproduction
of culture by myriad individuals. Considering culture from a
static and absolutist perspective aims to benefit the power ful
instead of the powerless members of society (Gopalkrishnan,
2019).
Finally, some argue that many teachers are ill-equipped to
utilize culturally competent practices in classrooms. It happens
to the level that many schools use didactic, traditional teaching
approaches, even when delivering diversity education lessons.
Moreover, many teachers do not know how to cope with and
address reactions that normally accompany discussions related
to racial oppressions (Retchenda, 2017).
Learning institutions must acquire the abilities as well as skills
to put controversial issues into perspective when discussing
issues related to diversity. Cultural Competencies
ModelsDevelopmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
Following the benefits of cultural competency, various scholars
have developed various models of intercultural sensitivity.
Milton Bennett's Developmental Model of Intercultural

Sensitivity provides a framework to understand the progression
of a person's perceptions towards cultural competence. Bennett
utilized a grounded theory approach by applying cybernetic
constructivism and observed intercultural adaptations (Bennet,
2017). The Bennett Developmental Model of Intercultural
Sensitivity can be considered as a framework along which
people grow to become interculturally sensitive. According to
Bennett, the phases to developing into an interculturally
sensitive individual are denial, defense, and minimization. The
other stages are acceptance, adaptation, and integration. He
considered the first three phases as ethnocentric, meaning that
people experience their own cultures as more important than
reality. The other three phases are ethnorelative; people view
their culture relative to other cultural contexts. In essence, the
three ethnocentric stages describe cultural avoidance behaviors
while ethnorelative stages describe culture-seeking behaviors.
According to Bennett (2017), the DMIS model demonstrates
important changes in worldviews instead of descriptors of
behavioral changes. The self-report is a method for
demonstrating an individual's underlying cultural worldview.
The denial phase of the DMIS model symbolizes a worldview
where only a person's culture rather than other cultures is
relevant. An individual in the denial phase believes that other
cultures do not affect his or her own life. Typically, these types
of people were raised in a homogeneous community and have
not interacted with people from different cultures. The defense
against difference phase encompasses the recognition of as well
as a negative response to different cultures. Individuals in this
phase perceive different cultures as a threat to their cultural
worldview. They have polarizing behaviors and tend to use the
"us versus them" phraseology (Bennett, 2017). The three sub-
stages of defense are superiority, denigration, and reversal.
Paige, Jacobs-Cassuto, Yershova, and DeJaeghere (2003) assert
that people under superiority sub-stage have inflated positive
view of their cultural group. They are more likely to demote
other cultural groups to lower levels in case of criticisms.

Individuals in the denigration sub-stage assess other cultures
from an adverse perspective and reinforce their negative
stereotypes. People in the reversal sub-stage experience internal
conflict since they consider their culture as inferior to another
culture and purposely distance themselves from their culture.
The minimization stage of the DMIS model describes people
who despite recognizing cultural differences subscribe to the
notion that all people are the same. They focus on universal
similarities and hold that all human beings are the same. The
minimization stage consists of two sub-stages- physical as well
as transcendent universalism. The former emphasizes
physiological similarities such as biological traits between
people. Transcendent universalism, on the other hand, holds that
people are the same in spiritual, economic, philosophical, and
political aspects. People in the minimization phase can correct
those exhibiting cultural differences. People in this stage
normally belong to the dominant culture and do not recognize
the institutional privileges they are enjoying due to their
cultural status (Hammer, 2011).
Persons in the acceptance stage, which is the first phase of
ethnorelativism, recognize and appreciate cross-cultural
differences. The greatest shift from those in ethnocentric stages
is that people in the acceptance phase believe in the inherent
equality of all cultures. They consider culture as an avenue for
organizing people's behavior and understanding cultural
differences. The acceptance stage consists of two sub-stages-
behavioral relativism and value relativism. People in behavioral
relativism acknowledge that behavior differs across different
cultures and is acceptable for those who share them.
Nonetheless, they are not comfortable with all types of
behaviors. Individuals in value relativism acknowledge that
values and beliefs differ across different cultural groups (Paige
et al., 2003).
The adaptation to differences phases characterizes individuals
who purposefully change their views based on cultural contexts.
By adopting alternative worldviews and approaching decision-

making from different perspectives, these people are more
likely to communicate effectively with those from different
cultural backgrounds. The two sub-stages of the adaptation
phase are behavioral adaptation and cognitive adaptation. The
former, also known as pluralism, involves the internalization of
more than a cultural perspective. The latter involves the
capability to shift worldviews and understand the emotions
associated with a particular perspective. Individuals who realize
these two sub-stages of adaptations can express feelings in
cultural contexts (Paige et al., 2003).
Integration of difference depicts a person who has integrated at
least a single worldview into his or her own rather than
subscribing to a particular culture. A significant characteristic
of this phase is cultural marginalism because a person is on the
periphery of cultural groups and acts as a facilitator of cul tural
transition (Paige et al., 2003. This phase comprises of two sub-
stages- contextual evaluation and constructive marginality.
Those in the former sub-type of integration use various cultural
frames of reference to assess a situation. In constructive
marginality, a person fosters constructive contact among
cultures. Thus, people in the integration stage may experience
cultural competence as an alienation process. Alternatively,
they can be empowered by their capability to move seamlessly
between different cultural groups. Those in the integration stage
include long term-expatriates, third culture children, and global
nomads (Hammer et al., 2003).
The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity offers
individualized ways for assessing and monitoring student
learning. After enrolling in a given course, students can be
examined with an instrument that correlates with the
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (Mahoney &
Schamber, 2004). Kriese and Osborne (2016) assessed students'
intercultural sensitivity performance after enrolling in three
courses infused with intercultural sensitivity. The courses
included: the psychology of prejudice, discrimination, and hate;
forensic psychology; and sports psychology. Despite their

different contents, assignments were developed that expected
learners to consider important theories as well as content within
intercultural contexts.
In addition, the researchers gathered self-reported changes on
the six levels of the Bennett Developmental Model of
Intercultural Sensitivity at two points within a semester. The
learners also completed a Tolerance for Ambiguity measure.
The researchers found a negative correlation between Tolerance
for Ambiguity scores and ethnocentricism. On the other hand,
there is a positive correlation between Tolerance for Ambiguity
scores and ethnorelativism scores. This implies that students
with higher Tolerance for Ambiguity scores at the start of the
semester had lower ethnocentrism scores by the end of the
semester than at the start of the semester. Moreover, those with
higher Tolerance for Ambiguity scores at the start of the
semester recorded the highest improvement in ethnorelativism
measures. Cultural Proficiency Model
Within the past few years, the cultural proficiency continuum
has gained significant momentum in the education sector. This
framework follows subscribes to the learning and effectiveness
approach because it connects cultural diversity to strategies
adopted in organizations. Previous educational diversity efforts
used either access and legitimacy philosophy or a
discrimination and fairness pattern that accentuated inequality
in abstract ways (-(Spiess & Cooper, 2020). Lindsey, Robins,
and Terrell's cultural proficiency framework of 1999 is a climax
of Bennett's DMIS work of 1993. The model goes past the
cultural competency framework to ground the continuum in a
set of beliefs about non-negotiable behaviors as well as cultural
diversity. By including the cultural proficiency idea, Lindsey,
Robins, and Terrell assert that possessing cultural competence
is not the ultimate goal. Instead, professionals who exhibit
cultural competence must respond to cultural differences in
effective ways (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016).
The cultural proficiency model traces its roots to additive
acculturation, to work in a pluralistic society. It emphasizes

embracing cultural diversity and acknowledging cultural
differences while at the same time valuing similarities (Nuri -
Robins, Lindsey, Terrell & Lindsey, 2007). In addition, the
framework provides the tools needed to gain cultural
proficiency and benchmarks for assessing an organization's or a
person's development. It includes a set of four culturally tools:
cultural proficiency continuum, barriers to cultural proficiency,
and guiding principles of cultural proficiency, as well as
essential elements of cultural proficiency (Lindsey & Lindsey,
2016).
The cultural proficiency framework is a developmental model
that depends on the prevailing situation and time. It comprises
six stages: cultural destructiveness, cultural incapacity, and
cultural blindness. The other three stages include cultural pre-
competence, cultural competence, as well as cultural
proficiency (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016). Just as Bennett's DMIS
model, a person increases his or her cultural competence by
moving from a mono-cultural worldview to a pluralistic one.
Cultural destructiveness represents behaviors as well as
attitudes that are destructive to people from different cultures.
Genocides and ethnic cleansings are good examples of cultural
destructiveness.
Cultural incapacity portrays behaviors that propel the dominant
culture's superiority. The use of extreme bias and discrimination
reinforces the superiority of the dominant group over the non-
dominant group. People in this stage are ignorant and fear
others. A common example of cultural incapacity happens when
members of non-dominant cultures are placed in highly visible
organizational positions to prove an entity's inclusive hiring
practices. However, such organizations demonstrate
discriminatory practices through stereotyping. In addition to
discriminatory attitudes, cultural incapacity results in learned
helplessness where people from non-dominant cultures feel
disempowered (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016).
Many people misinterpret cultural blindness as inclusive since
people in this phase believe in universal human beings. For

many years, color blindness was the aim of diversity education
programs and many educators find themselves in the cultural
blindness phase. They proclaim that all human beings are the
same and hold this as evidence of their inclusivity. However,
they deny that their behaviors are privileges enjoyed by
individuals in the dominant culture (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016).
This, therefore, perpetuates systematic oppression. According to
Nicole (2012), the cultural blindness attitude emanates from
different sources in education. Teachers in this stage hold that
there is no relationship between education and culture. Rather,
education is about imparting intellectual, civic, as well as
vocational skills. Furthermore, most teachers aspire to their
students' success. Teachers in the color blindness phase
mistakenly believe that differential treatment of students
because of their cultural beliefs and practices is discriminatory.
They do not understand that their inability to embrace cultural
differences demean those from different cultures. In the
classroom, those in the color blindness stage view culturally
different behaviors as disobedient. Moreover, culturally blind
teachers believe that best practices apply in all cultural contexts
since they denote mastery teachings.
Cultural pre-competence demonstrates the awareness of cultural
differences. It is a significant shift that reflects the movement
towards ethnorelativism. People in this stage are also aware of
their shortcomings in interacting with those from different
cultural groups. They recognize when a person from a non-
dominant culture is facing oppression but cannot make positive
changes. They normally experience guilt as well as a sense of
inadequacy (Nicole, 2012). Individuals in cultural competence,
which is the fifth phase on the cultural proficiency framework,
recognize and embrace cultural differences. They can manage
cultural difference dynamics and continuously strive toward
increasing their ability to work with people from different
cultures. Culturally competent people are inclusive in their
personal as well as professional lives. They align their values
with institutional or organizational structures (Lindsey &

Lindsey, 2016). Thus, culturally competent people can address
the needs of cultural diversity.
According to Nicole (2012), people in the cultural proficiency
phase of the continuum have moved past working effectively
with those from different cultures and embody professionals
with vast knowledge about culture. Lindsey and Lindsey (2016)
posit that culturally proficient people have self-awareness and
understand how other people may construe their behaviors as
offensive. They are continuously aspiring for new knowledge
and improve their practices. They can easily negotiate cultural
elements in strange or unknown settings without offending
others. Moreover, they can easily access the resources needed to
succeed in new situations. Most importantly, they are
champions of cultural proficiency in all aspects of their
professional as well as personal lives. Lindsey et al. (2009)
further assert that culturally proficient teachers believe in
equitable and socially fair democracy and possess the skills
needed to advance positive changes.
Another significant aspect of the cultural proficiency continuum
is the essential elements for cultural proficiency. These
elements are the standards for organizational practices as well
as individual behaviors. Educators depend on the essential
elements for a set of expectations needed to measure their
alignment. Cultural knowledge assessment is the ability to
identify cultural differences and intercultural impacts (Nicole,
2012). Valuing diversity demonstrates the ability to not only
recognize, but also accept and embrace cultural differences in
affirmative ways. Managing difference dynamics is the ability
to resolve conflicts arising due to cultural differences in ways
that respect each culture and foster trust-building behaviors.
The ability to adapt to diversity promotes systemic and
organizational behaviors to align behaviors with cultural
competence. It also involves the ability to use intercultural
communication and reduce conflicts caused by cultural
differences in a proactive manner. Institutionalizing cultural
knowledge calls for the integration of cultural knowledge into

organizational structures (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016). Such
organizations have culturally competent practices, standards,
and policies, as well as continuous professional development of
cultural competency.
Culturally proficient classrooms boast of an inside-out
systematic perspective that satisfies the needs of all school
community members. As a result, the democratic practices in
culturally competent classrooms act as the impetus for effective
change. People within culturally proficient learning institutions
collaborate within the culturally diverse environment of school
communities. In addition, such schools operationalize cultural
proficiency into their operations, in ways that result in positive
policy changes (Nicole, 2012). For instance, a culturally
proficient learning institution will have more gender-neutral
washrooms. Bakken and Smith (2011) posit that culturally
proficient learning institution does not have barriers because of
language, disability, race, gender, and sexual orientation.
Moreover, the hiring process of culturally proficient learning
institutions reflects the hiring and promotion of individuals who
think differently from those already in the institution. This
includes the hiring of quality educators emanating from
backgrounds that reflect a diverse student population. Thus, the
environment of a culturally proficient institution is welcoming
as well as accessible to people from different cultural
backgrounds.
According to Nicole (2012), a culturally proficient teacher
embraces continuous improvement and employ triple loop
learning to continually address cultural assumptions. The
teacher understands change and can operate in a culture of
change that enables them to overcome the challenges of
continuous transformation. Moreover, the learning environment
is oriented towards teaching interventions that aim at preventing
learning gaps. Learners experience differentiated instructions
and offered the resources needed to facilitate their success.
Culturally proficient teachers also disaggregate students'
achievement data depending on formative assessments and

adjust instructions to allow students to master essential
learning.
The scope of culturally proficient teachers permeates the school
doors. They use their students, languages, ethnicity, and the
parents of their students as resources to enhance the learning
environment. They use the diversity of learning institutions to
provide resources that lead to high expectations and
achievement of rigorous standards by all learners. Families also
feel like a vital component of the school community and
understand the value of their experiences and culture in
enriching classes (Bakken & Smith, 2011)). In essence,
culturally proficient schools respect and appreciate the role of
families in school activities. Lindsey et al. (2009) recommend
the establishment of cultural proficiency indicators to measure
the performances of learning institutions. These indicators can
include operationalization of cultural proficiency, approach to
equity issues, professional development, and inclusion of
families as well as the community in a school activity. Cross -
Cultural Efficiency and Meta-Cultural Competency Models
The cross-cultural efficacy model has gained significant
popularity in the medical field over the last decade. The
development of this cultural competence model follows the
outcomes of the DMIS and the cultural proficiency continuum
models. Just as the cultural proficiency continuum framework,
the cross-cultural efficacy model was developed to enable
professionals to enhance their understanding of cultural
competency (Nicole, 2012). She asserts that many people still
treat cultural competence as a set of discrete facts;
professionals have overlooked effort and skills involved. It is
high time to understand that the cross-cultural efficacy model
reiterates much of the cultural proficiency continuum
framework.
Cross-cultural efficacy is anchored on the notion that cultural
competence is not just about the ability to effectively work with
people from different cultures. This framework implies that a
professional is culturally competent and responsive to clients'

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