C. Wright Mills' theory of the distribution of power argues that power is concentrated among elite groups like corporations, the military, and government, rather than being widely distributed. This concentration of power allows corporations to influence policymaking and regulation in ways that help them avoid criminalization for harmful acts. Some ways corporations do this include direct lobbying, representation on government committees, and covertly setting agendas and suppressing information. As a result, many corporate harms go unregulated or unpunished despite their massive impacts, such as hundreds of thousands of workplace deaths annually. Mills' theory provides some explanation but does not fully account for how corporations leverage power and ethics to escape criminalization for acts of theft, fraud, and violence.
This document discusses corporate crime and responsibility. It examines whether corporate crime results from interactions with governments or from an elitist power structure. The document provides statistics on harms from corporate activity like deaths and environmental damage. It also discusses how corporations can influence policymaking and regulations through lobbying and agenda-setting to avoid criminalization for their actions.
Crony capitalism refers to a system in which businesses have close personal relationships with government officials who can use their power to hand out legal permits, tax breaks and other favors that benefit their friends. [1] China is described as the new "crony capitalist" of East Asia, where all major banks and sectors are state-run or state-controlled and private firms have very limited access to finance or new markets. [2] While China has experienced huge economic growth, it has also led to high inequality, monopolies, corruption within state-run sectors, and authoritarian political control that limits dissent. [3] Both advantages and disadvantages of crony capitalism are discussed.
Cronyism History, Costs, Case Studies & SolutionsMercatus Center
This document discusses cronyism, including defining it, providing its historical context and academic underpinnings, categorizing different types of cronyism, and outlining the dangers and costs of cronyism. Specifically, it defines cronyism as an unhealthy closeness between government and special interests that results in some receiving special treatment at the expense of others due to political connections. It then discusses how political scientists and economists have critiqued cronyism under different names and provides examples of how their analyses influenced the study of cronyism. The document also categorizes 10 common types of cronyism and details some specific and long-term costs of cronyism, such as reduced innovation and economic growth.
This document discusses how transnational corporations have secured "legal certainty" through a new global corporate law made up of numerous trade and investment agreements and norms. This legal framework protects corporate interests over people's rights and national sovereignty. The concept of legal certainty is often misused to justify protecting past contracts and investments over human rights. True legal certainty would place international human rights law above corporate interests. There is a need to reform international law to subordinate trade and investment rules to human rights and make peoples' sovereignty the top priority.
Cronyism: History, Costs, Case Studies and SolutionsAdam Thierer
In this presentation, I offer a definition of cronyism, explain its origins, discuss how various academics have traditionally thought about it, outline a variety of case studies, and then propose a range of solutions.
The Importance of State-Business Relations in Advancing Developmental Goals i...Abel Diale
This document discusses state-business relations in South Africa and the potential role of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in advancing development goals. It provides background on the contested role of the state in the economy and tensions between state and business. While globalization and neo-liberal reforms reduced the state's role, CSR could help business organizations position themselves as socially responsible and assist the state's development aims by addressing social needs. The document examines debates around CSR and analyzes past state-business relations in South Africa to determine if CSR could enhance cooperation between the two.
China has transitioned to a crony capitalist system where relationships with the government and membership in the Communist Party determine business success, rather than free market competition. Close ties with the state provide access to favorable policies like tax breaks and grants. State-owned enterprises dominate important sectors of the economy and account for the majority of China's largest companies. Many of China's wealthiest individuals are children of high-ranking officials who have become billionaires through business dealings in state-run industries. While some growth has occurred, critics argue cronyism and inequality have increased under this corporate state model.
The document summarizes the anti-globalization movement in Seattle in 1999 and the Occupy Wall Street movement that began in 2011. Tens of thousands of protesters from various groups attended the Seattle protests to advocate for fairer international trade and less corporate exploitation. The Occupy Wall Street movement emerged in response to growing wealth disparity and the outsized influence of large corporations on the political process. The movements aimed to address issues like corporate greed, lack of accountability for institutions that caused economic crises, and growing social injustices between economic classes.
This document discusses corporate crime and responsibility. It examines whether corporate crime results from interactions with governments or from an elitist power structure. The document provides statistics on harms from corporate activity like deaths and environmental damage. It also discusses how corporations can influence policymaking and regulations through lobbying and agenda-setting to avoid criminalization for their actions.
Crony capitalism refers to a system in which businesses have close personal relationships with government officials who can use their power to hand out legal permits, tax breaks and other favors that benefit their friends. [1] China is described as the new "crony capitalist" of East Asia, where all major banks and sectors are state-run or state-controlled and private firms have very limited access to finance or new markets. [2] While China has experienced huge economic growth, it has also led to high inequality, monopolies, corruption within state-run sectors, and authoritarian political control that limits dissent. [3] Both advantages and disadvantages of crony capitalism are discussed.
Cronyism History, Costs, Case Studies & SolutionsMercatus Center
This document discusses cronyism, including defining it, providing its historical context and academic underpinnings, categorizing different types of cronyism, and outlining the dangers and costs of cronyism. Specifically, it defines cronyism as an unhealthy closeness between government and special interests that results in some receiving special treatment at the expense of others due to political connections. It then discusses how political scientists and economists have critiqued cronyism under different names and provides examples of how their analyses influenced the study of cronyism. The document also categorizes 10 common types of cronyism and details some specific and long-term costs of cronyism, such as reduced innovation and economic growth.
This document discusses how transnational corporations have secured "legal certainty" through a new global corporate law made up of numerous trade and investment agreements and norms. This legal framework protects corporate interests over people's rights and national sovereignty. The concept of legal certainty is often misused to justify protecting past contracts and investments over human rights. True legal certainty would place international human rights law above corporate interests. There is a need to reform international law to subordinate trade and investment rules to human rights and make peoples' sovereignty the top priority.
Cronyism: History, Costs, Case Studies and SolutionsAdam Thierer
In this presentation, I offer a definition of cronyism, explain its origins, discuss how various academics have traditionally thought about it, outline a variety of case studies, and then propose a range of solutions.
The Importance of State-Business Relations in Advancing Developmental Goals i...Abel Diale
This document discusses state-business relations in South Africa and the potential role of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in advancing development goals. It provides background on the contested role of the state in the economy and tensions between state and business. While globalization and neo-liberal reforms reduced the state's role, CSR could help business organizations position themselves as socially responsible and assist the state's development aims by addressing social needs. The document examines debates around CSR and analyzes past state-business relations in South Africa to determine if CSR could enhance cooperation between the two.
China has transitioned to a crony capitalist system where relationships with the government and membership in the Communist Party determine business success, rather than free market competition. Close ties with the state provide access to favorable policies like tax breaks and grants. State-owned enterprises dominate important sectors of the economy and account for the majority of China's largest companies. Many of China's wealthiest individuals are children of high-ranking officials who have become billionaires through business dealings in state-run industries. While some growth has occurred, critics argue cronyism and inequality have increased under this corporate state model.
The document summarizes the anti-globalization movement in Seattle in 1999 and the Occupy Wall Street movement that began in 2011. Tens of thousands of protesters from various groups attended the Seattle protests to advocate for fairer international trade and less corporate exploitation. The Occupy Wall Street movement emerged in response to growing wealth disparity and the outsized influence of large corporations on the political process. The movements aimed to address issues like corporate greed, lack of accountability for institutions that caused economic crises, and growing social injustices between economic classes.
This document provides an overview of the social sciences and how they are classified in the Library of Congress and Dewey Decimal systems. It describes several key social sciences disciplines including statistics, economics, sociology, education, commerce, and law. Statistics involves the collection and analysis of data. Economics examines the production, consumption and distribution of goods and services. Sociology is the study of human society and social problems. Education involves the transfer of knowledge between generations. Commerce refers to buying and selling, while law establishes rules and guidelines to govern behavior with areas like criminal law, civil law, and international law.
Introduction to international development myungnam kim finalKBS
South Korea faces serious problems of wealth (asset) inequality according to an academic paper. Wealth is highly concentrated among the top 1% of earners who make over 9 times the average income. This level of inequality can increase corruption, reduce economic growth, and undermine fair institutions. The paper argues that addressing asset inequality through tax policy reforms is needed to promote social justice and sustained economic growth in South Korea.
NGOs Role in Enforcing Social Corporate Responsibilities in Post-Colonial MEN...Abdeslam Badre, PhD
This document discusses the roles of civil society organizations in promoting corporate social responsibility, particularly in post-colonial MENA states using Morocco as a case study. It outlines how CSR and CSOs have evolved over time in the West and MENA region. While CSR began as a religious concept in MENA, it is now being modernized to align with international models. However, CSOs promoting CSR are still developing in the region as civil society itself is relatively new, having emerged from anti-colonial movements. The document examines challenges CSOs face in advocating for CSR from corporations in MENA states.
This document summarizes chapters 11 and 12 from the book "Political Economy: A Comparative Approach, 2nd Edition" by Barry Clark. Chapter 11 discusses different political economy perspectives on minorities and discrimination, including classical liberal, radical, conservative, and modern liberal views. Chapter 12 examines perspectives on the political economy of gender, including how classical liberal, radical, socialist, and conservative approaches explain issues like wage discrimination and gender roles. The summary provides overviews of the key arguments from each perspective on these topics.
Top ten arguments against capitalism and how one can answer themMartin Johansen
This document outlines and responds to the top ten arguments commonly made against capitalism. It begins by defining capitalism as a system with private property, limited government, and economic freedom. It then lists the top ten arguments as: labor exploitation, economic inequality, unsafe products, pollution, monopolies, discrimination, poverty, unequal access based on location, irresponsible behavior, and instability. For each argument, it provides a concise response explaining why capitalism does not necessarily lead to the negative outcome described. The document concludes by listing recommended literature on capitalism and potential arguments against the welfare state.
A mixed economy is an economic system that combines elements of capitalism and socialism. It arose due to failures in both pure capitalism and socialism. Capitalism led to issues like unemployment and wealth inequality, while socialism slowed economic growth and reduced personal freedom. A mixed economy allows for both private enterprise and state involvement in the economy to balance these issues.
Cronyism: History, Costs, Case Studies & SolutionsMercatus Center
This document discusses cronyism, including defining it, outlining its historical context, categorizing different types, and examining its costs. Cronyism refers to an unhealthy closeness between government and special interests where some receive special treatment through political connections at others' expense. Historically it has been critiqued under terms like "interest group politics" and "rent seeking." There are many costs, such as monopoly costs that reduce competition, productive inefficiencies when firms are not competitive, and a misallocation of entrepreneurial talent toward political rather than market activities. Overall, cronyism reduces economic efficiency and long-term growth.
Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals and businesses own and operate production of goods and services for profit. There are different types of capitalism including free-market capitalism with no government intervention, social market economies with some social policies, and mixed economies with both public and private ownership. Capitalism began with the emergence of private capital and markets in Europe in the 12th-13th centuries. While capitalism allows for private property and free markets, governments often implement minimum wages, safety standards, and other policies. Economists and critics have different perspectives on capitalism and its impacts.
The document discusses contemporary approaches to incorporating the informal economy into the formal economy and debates whether this represents greater social inclusion or new mechanisms of adverse incorporation, particularly regarding employment generation. While inclusion of the informal economy can provide much-needed employment, evidence suggests incorporation often occurs on worse terms for vulnerable workers through low wages, long hours and poor conditions, known as adverse incorporation. Striking the right policy balance to protect workers while maintaining competitiveness is difficult, so an economy with socially included informal sector and tolerable levels of adversity may be the most realistic outcome.
This document discusses an alternative economic model called the "Economy for the Common Good". It proposes measuring an organization's success not only by profits but also by how it contributes to common good values like human dignity, solidarity, justice, and participation. Organizations would complete a "Common Good Balance" evaluating their performance on these values for stakeholders. Countries could also measure economic success using a "Common Good Product" indicator instead of just GDP. The model aims to shift organizations from a focus on competition and profit to cooperation and contributing to the common good. It proposes rules and incentives to encourage ethical behavior like limiting executive pay differences and property accumulation to reduce inequality.
Union Density Dilemmas in France & BritainCharles Audley
A brief look at the reasons behind declining trade union union density in two prominent EU economies; France and Britain. This is a comparison essay, which also looks at potential remedies to weakened union membership.
This presentation by Professor Spencer Weber Waller from Loyola University Chicago School of Law was made during the discussion “Are competition and democracy symbiotic?” held at the 16th meeting of the OECD Global Forum on Competition on 7 December 2017. More papers and presentations on the topic can be found out at oe.cd/283.
This document outlines 6 key characteristics of capitalism:
1. Economic freedom of choice and enterprise. Individuals are free to make their own economic decisions in the market.
2. Private property rights. Goods, services, and means of production are privately owned.
3. Self-interest and incentives. Individuals pursue self-interest in response to economic incentives like profits and wages.
4. Competition. Competition controls excesses and benefits consumers through lower prices, variety, and quality.
5. Price system. Prices are determined by supply and demand and coordinate resources through an "invisible hand."
6. Limited government role. Government establishes rules and settles disputes, rather than making
The document summarizes and compares the key criticisms of capitalism and socialism. Regarding capitalism, critics note that the free market can be unstable and present dangers to the vulnerable. Critics of socialism argue that heavy taxation to provide equal social services discourages business innovation since profits do not directly benefit owners. The document then provides more in-depth descriptions of capitalism and socialism, including their defining characteristics, philosophical underpinnings, pros and cons according to different thinkers. In conclusion, the author personally supports capitalism over socialism due to the importance of individual economic freedom and right to private property.
The document discusses different economic systems such as capitalism, socialism, and mixed economies. It provides definitions and characteristics of each system. Capitalism involves private ownership and operation for profit, while socialism involves social ownership and cooperative management. A mixed economy combines aspects of both systems. The document then compares capitalism and socialism, noting differences in ownership, incentives, equality, and employment. It outlines benefits of capitalism like efficient allocation and production but also drawbacks like inequality, pollution, and exploitation. In the US, issues highlighted include high poverty and wealth inequality.
Capitalism is an economic system where wealth and means of production are privately owned rather than publicly or state-owned. It developed in 16th century Western Europe as feudalism broke down. Key aspects include private property, markets determining income distribution, and competition driving innovation. While it has led to significant economic growth, critics argue it can concentrate wealth and limit diversity. Most countries today have capitalist systems with some government regulations.
This document discusses and compares socialism and capitalism. Socialism involves government control of the means of production and equal distribution of wealth, while capitalism involves private ownership and free market competition. Some advantages of socialism include greater efficiency and welfare, while disadvantages include lack of individualism and economic freedom. Capitalism's advantages are competition that keeps prices low and rewards hard work, while disadvantages include inequality and business fluctuations. The document provides examples of countries with capitalist and socialist systems.
Keynote - Paul De Grauwe, LSE, United KingdomOECD Governance
This presentation was made by Paul De Grauwe, LSE, United Kingdom, at the 11th Meeting of OECD PBO & IFIs held in Lisbon, Portugal, on 4-5 February 2019
This document provides an overview of different economic systems including capitalism, socialism, and communism. It discusses key aspects of each system such as forms of ownership, levels of government involvement, competition, and standards of living. Examples are given of different countries that have implemented these various economic systems. Readers are prompted to analyze scenarios and identify which economic system is being described. The document aims to build understanding of economic systems and their role in history.
This document contains questions from an organization about how it plans and implements the evaluation of employee training programs. Some key points:
- The organization primarily starts planning evaluations during program development and after completion, not prior to development.
- Most programs aim for participants to acquire new attitudes or skills, rather than just being a reward.
- Around 20-39% of the training staff and budget are typically involved in evaluations.
- Around 20-39% of staff have formal evaluation preparation.
- Control groups and participant estimates are most often used to isolate program effects, followed by previous studies and management estimates.
- Around 40-59% of programs need to be evaluated for continued funding. Financial
This document discusses the importance of training and development for employees and organizations. It states that training helps employees develop skills needed to perform their jobs effectively and remain competitive in the labor market. Regular training is important as jobs become more complex and change rapidly. It allows new employees to become productive quickly and helps existing employees learn new skills and stay up to date. The success of organizations depends on having a well-trained workforce that can meet customer needs and introduce new products. Organizations that do not continuously invest in training their employees will fall behind competitors.
This document provides an overview of the social sciences and how they are classified in the Library of Congress and Dewey Decimal systems. It describes several key social sciences disciplines including statistics, economics, sociology, education, commerce, and law. Statistics involves the collection and analysis of data. Economics examines the production, consumption and distribution of goods and services. Sociology is the study of human society and social problems. Education involves the transfer of knowledge between generations. Commerce refers to buying and selling, while law establishes rules and guidelines to govern behavior with areas like criminal law, civil law, and international law.
Introduction to international development myungnam kim finalKBS
South Korea faces serious problems of wealth (asset) inequality according to an academic paper. Wealth is highly concentrated among the top 1% of earners who make over 9 times the average income. This level of inequality can increase corruption, reduce economic growth, and undermine fair institutions. The paper argues that addressing asset inequality through tax policy reforms is needed to promote social justice and sustained economic growth in South Korea.
NGOs Role in Enforcing Social Corporate Responsibilities in Post-Colonial MEN...Abdeslam Badre, PhD
This document discusses the roles of civil society organizations in promoting corporate social responsibility, particularly in post-colonial MENA states using Morocco as a case study. It outlines how CSR and CSOs have evolved over time in the West and MENA region. While CSR began as a religious concept in MENA, it is now being modernized to align with international models. However, CSOs promoting CSR are still developing in the region as civil society itself is relatively new, having emerged from anti-colonial movements. The document examines challenges CSOs face in advocating for CSR from corporations in MENA states.
This document summarizes chapters 11 and 12 from the book "Political Economy: A Comparative Approach, 2nd Edition" by Barry Clark. Chapter 11 discusses different political economy perspectives on minorities and discrimination, including classical liberal, radical, conservative, and modern liberal views. Chapter 12 examines perspectives on the political economy of gender, including how classical liberal, radical, socialist, and conservative approaches explain issues like wage discrimination and gender roles. The summary provides overviews of the key arguments from each perspective on these topics.
Top ten arguments against capitalism and how one can answer themMartin Johansen
This document outlines and responds to the top ten arguments commonly made against capitalism. It begins by defining capitalism as a system with private property, limited government, and economic freedom. It then lists the top ten arguments as: labor exploitation, economic inequality, unsafe products, pollution, monopolies, discrimination, poverty, unequal access based on location, irresponsible behavior, and instability. For each argument, it provides a concise response explaining why capitalism does not necessarily lead to the negative outcome described. The document concludes by listing recommended literature on capitalism and potential arguments against the welfare state.
A mixed economy is an economic system that combines elements of capitalism and socialism. It arose due to failures in both pure capitalism and socialism. Capitalism led to issues like unemployment and wealth inequality, while socialism slowed economic growth and reduced personal freedom. A mixed economy allows for both private enterprise and state involvement in the economy to balance these issues.
Cronyism: History, Costs, Case Studies & SolutionsMercatus Center
This document discusses cronyism, including defining it, outlining its historical context, categorizing different types, and examining its costs. Cronyism refers to an unhealthy closeness between government and special interests where some receive special treatment through political connections at others' expense. Historically it has been critiqued under terms like "interest group politics" and "rent seeking." There are many costs, such as monopoly costs that reduce competition, productive inefficiencies when firms are not competitive, and a misallocation of entrepreneurial talent toward political rather than market activities. Overall, cronyism reduces economic efficiency and long-term growth.
Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals and businesses own and operate production of goods and services for profit. There are different types of capitalism including free-market capitalism with no government intervention, social market economies with some social policies, and mixed economies with both public and private ownership. Capitalism began with the emergence of private capital and markets in Europe in the 12th-13th centuries. While capitalism allows for private property and free markets, governments often implement minimum wages, safety standards, and other policies. Economists and critics have different perspectives on capitalism and its impacts.
The document discusses contemporary approaches to incorporating the informal economy into the formal economy and debates whether this represents greater social inclusion or new mechanisms of adverse incorporation, particularly regarding employment generation. While inclusion of the informal economy can provide much-needed employment, evidence suggests incorporation often occurs on worse terms for vulnerable workers through low wages, long hours and poor conditions, known as adverse incorporation. Striking the right policy balance to protect workers while maintaining competitiveness is difficult, so an economy with socially included informal sector and tolerable levels of adversity may be the most realistic outcome.
This document discusses an alternative economic model called the "Economy for the Common Good". It proposes measuring an organization's success not only by profits but also by how it contributes to common good values like human dignity, solidarity, justice, and participation. Organizations would complete a "Common Good Balance" evaluating their performance on these values for stakeholders. Countries could also measure economic success using a "Common Good Product" indicator instead of just GDP. The model aims to shift organizations from a focus on competition and profit to cooperation and contributing to the common good. It proposes rules and incentives to encourage ethical behavior like limiting executive pay differences and property accumulation to reduce inequality.
Union Density Dilemmas in France & BritainCharles Audley
A brief look at the reasons behind declining trade union union density in two prominent EU economies; France and Britain. This is a comparison essay, which also looks at potential remedies to weakened union membership.
This presentation by Professor Spencer Weber Waller from Loyola University Chicago School of Law was made during the discussion “Are competition and democracy symbiotic?” held at the 16th meeting of the OECD Global Forum on Competition on 7 December 2017. More papers and presentations on the topic can be found out at oe.cd/283.
This document outlines 6 key characteristics of capitalism:
1. Economic freedom of choice and enterprise. Individuals are free to make their own economic decisions in the market.
2. Private property rights. Goods, services, and means of production are privately owned.
3. Self-interest and incentives. Individuals pursue self-interest in response to economic incentives like profits and wages.
4. Competition. Competition controls excesses and benefits consumers through lower prices, variety, and quality.
5. Price system. Prices are determined by supply and demand and coordinate resources through an "invisible hand."
6. Limited government role. Government establishes rules and settles disputes, rather than making
The document summarizes and compares the key criticisms of capitalism and socialism. Regarding capitalism, critics note that the free market can be unstable and present dangers to the vulnerable. Critics of socialism argue that heavy taxation to provide equal social services discourages business innovation since profits do not directly benefit owners. The document then provides more in-depth descriptions of capitalism and socialism, including their defining characteristics, philosophical underpinnings, pros and cons according to different thinkers. In conclusion, the author personally supports capitalism over socialism due to the importance of individual economic freedom and right to private property.
The document discusses different economic systems such as capitalism, socialism, and mixed economies. It provides definitions and characteristics of each system. Capitalism involves private ownership and operation for profit, while socialism involves social ownership and cooperative management. A mixed economy combines aspects of both systems. The document then compares capitalism and socialism, noting differences in ownership, incentives, equality, and employment. It outlines benefits of capitalism like efficient allocation and production but also drawbacks like inequality, pollution, and exploitation. In the US, issues highlighted include high poverty and wealth inequality.
Capitalism is an economic system where wealth and means of production are privately owned rather than publicly or state-owned. It developed in 16th century Western Europe as feudalism broke down. Key aspects include private property, markets determining income distribution, and competition driving innovation. While it has led to significant economic growth, critics argue it can concentrate wealth and limit diversity. Most countries today have capitalist systems with some government regulations.
This document discusses and compares socialism and capitalism. Socialism involves government control of the means of production and equal distribution of wealth, while capitalism involves private ownership and free market competition. Some advantages of socialism include greater efficiency and welfare, while disadvantages include lack of individualism and economic freedom. Capitalism's advantages are competition that keeps prices low and rewards hard work, while disadvantages include inequality and business fluctuations. The document provides examples of countries with capitalist and socialist systems.
Keynote - Paul De Grauwe, LSE, United KingdomOECD Governance
This presentation was made by Paul De Grauwe, LSE, United Kingdom, at the 11th Meeting of OECD PBO & IFIs held in Lisbon, Portugal, on 4-5 February 2019
This document provides an overview of different economic systems including capitalism, socialism, and communism. It discusses key aspects of each system such as forms of ownership, levels of government involvement, competition, and standards of living. Examples are given of different countries that have implemented these various economic systems. Readers are prompted to analyze scenarios and identify which economic system is being described. The document aims to build understanding of economic systems and their role in history.
This document contains questions from an organization about how it plans and implements the evaluation of employee training programs. Some key points:
- The organization primarily starts planning evaluations during program development and after completion, not prior to development.
- Most programs aim for participants to acquire new attitudes or skills, rather than just being a reward.
- Around 20-39% of the training staff and budget are typically involved in evaluations.
- Around 20-39% of staff have formal evaluation preparation.
- Control groups and participant estimates are most often used to isolate program effects, followed by previous studies and management estimates.
- Around 40-59% of programs need to be evaluated for continued funding. Financial
This document discusses the importance of training and development for employees and organizations. It states that training helps employees develop skills needed to perform their jobs effectively and remain competitive in the labor market. Regular training is important as jobs become more complex and change rapidly. It allows new employees to become productive quickly and helps existing employees learn new skills and stay up to date. The success of organizations depends on having a well-trained workforce that can meet customer needs and introduce new products. Organizations that do not continuously invest in training their employees will fall behind competitors.
This presentation discusses Tesco's training and development programs. It provides an overview of Tesco, its expansion globally, and importance of training employees. It describes Tesco's four step training process of need analysis, design, implementation and evaluation. Both on-the-job and off-the-job training methods are used, including coaching, shadowing, and development programs. Training is evaluated through activity plans, feedback and development ratings to ensure continuous growth. Structured training and developing employees is key to Tesco's continuing success.
The UK government has significant power and resources at its disposal but is subject to various checks and balances. Key checks include devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland; the House of Lords ability to challenge legislation; public opinion and dissent expressed through protests and strikes; influence of interest groups, media, and social and policy networks; the UK's membership in the EU which can override domestic law; and dependence on maintaining electoral support. Ultimately no government has total power in the UK system and are constrained by these internal and external forces.
Being a CEO is an intensely demanding role with long hours and huge responsibilities. Many CEOs find the position lonely and it leaves little time for personal or family life. To become a CEO, you need to prove yourself in a variety of roles and be willing to relocate frequently. Strong emotional intelligence, communication skills, strategic thinking abilities and decisiveness are crucial traits. Developing mentoring relationships and maintaining professional networks are also important for advancing to a CEO position.
This document describes a journey through scales of size from 1 meter to billions of light years and back down to fractions of an atom. It explores scales from the macrocosm of galaxies down to the microcosm inside an atom. The key idea is the constancy of physical laws across all scales of size in the universe, from the largest to the smallest.
The document outlines the 7 steps of the training model process: 1) conduct a training needs analysis, 2) develop training objectives, 3) review available training methods, 4) design/select training methods, 5) design a training evaluation approach, 6) implement the training program, and 7) measure training results. The process begins with analyzing organizational, task, and individual needs to determine what training is required. Objectives are then established and methods are selected, designed, and implemented. Finally, the effectiveness of the training is measured.
Wiki-based Gene Reports in Medical Genetics 421riacale
Presentation by Professor Wyeth W. Wasserman, Senior Scientist, CMMT, CFRI, UBC
Professor, Department of Medical Genetics, UBC
at Thinking Session III: Open Platforms for Open Education during EDUCamp 2010 last March 18, 2010
Morning stiffness is a common complaint for those with conditions like fibromyalgia and arthritis. It occurs due to lack of daily activity, being overweight, poor diet, sleep issues, and cold/damp environments. To overcome it:
1) Get deep, restorative sleep in a warm environment.
2) Do gentle stretches and exercises like knee bends in bed or after a hot shower to loosen muscles and increase blood flow.
3) Drink pure water, eat a healthier diet, manage stress, and get regular light exercise like walking to reduce stiffness.
The document outlines an agenda for a workshop on innovative collaborative group work. It describes a series of activities for participants to engage in using various online tools to simulate collaborative group work, including introducing themselves, sharing experiences with group work, identifying tools for online collaboration, and discussing strategies for evaluation and assessment of group work. The goal is for participants to experience collaborative group work online and consider how to effectively structure, facilitate, and evaluate such projects.
This document lists the winners of various teaching awards at UBC for the 2008/09 year across several faculties, including Engineering, Education, Law, Medicine, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Science, and Arts. Recipients include professors, instructors, and clinical faculty from departments such as Civil Engineering, Educational Studies, Pathology, Family Practice, Earth and Ocean Sciences, and more. They received awards for excellence in teaching, clinical teaching, mentorship, and impacting their communities.
Wiki-based Gene Reports in Medical Genetics 421 riacale
Presentation by Wyeth W. Wasserman, PhD
Senior Scientist, CMMT, CFRI, UBC
Professor, Department of Medical Genetics, UBC
at Thinking Session III: Open Platforms for Open Education during EDUCamp 2010: Sustainability Education last March 18, 2010.
This document discusses the service quality gaps model, which identifies five key gaps that can lead to poor service quality perceptions. The five gaps are: 1) between customer expectations and management perceptions, 2) between management perceptions and service quality specifications, 3) between service quality specifications and service delivery, 4) between service delivery and external communications, and 5) between expected service and perceived service. The model provides an integrated view of the customer-company relationship and identifies factors that can contribute to each gap.
Wiki-based Gene Reports in Medical Genetics 421 riacale
Presentation by Wyeth W. Wasserman, PhD
Senior Scientist, CMMT, CFRI, UBC
Professor, Department of Medical Genetics, UBC
at Thinking Session III: Open Platforms for Open Education during EDUCamp 2010: Sustainability Education last March 18, 2010.
Training and development questionnaire (1)Vish Rughoobur
This document contains a questionnaire about training and development in support of innovation. It begins by introducing the researcher, who is a student at Multimedia University conducting research on this topic as part of their degree program. The purpose of the research is to understand which types of training and development are perceived as relevant to innovation. The respondent's assistance in completing the questionnaire is appreciated, as it will help further the understanding of how training and development can generate innovation. The questionnaire then contains sections to collect demographic information about the respondent, information about their organization, questions about awareness of innovation, and ratings of how different types of training and development support innovation.
This document discusses urinary tract disorders including urinary tract infections (UTIs) and nephrolithiasis (kidney stones). It describes the types and causes of UTIs, risk factors, clinical presentations, diagnostic methods, and treatment options. It also covers the risk factors, workup, and treatment approaches for nephrolithiasis including surgical interventions and preventative measures.
This document provides a summary of a training and development project report compiled by five students. It includes an index listing the topics covered in the report such as the nature of training and development, importance of training, training process, and methods of training. It also includes two case studies on training at Hotel Taj President and Hotel Hilton Towers. The document encourages visiting a website for more projects, reports and information on topics related to management, marketing, human resources and other business areas.
This article examines the challenge that corruption poses to democracy. The author defines corruption as a government official using their position of authority to serve their personal interests rather than the public interest. This undermines democratic legitimacy by weakening the idea that government is accountable to citizens. The article argues that curbing corruption through accountability mechanisms is necessary to preserve democracy, as corruption can delegitimize democratic regimes and contribute to their failure.
AOL Time Warner WorldCom Inc. Corporate Governance And Diffusion Of AuthorityAmy Cernava
This document summarizes a paper presented at the 6th World Media Economics Conference in 2004. The paper argues that corporate failures at AOL Time Warner and WorldCom were due to an intimidating corporate culture, corporate misconduct, and failures in corporate governance. These factors led to a diffusion of authority where no individual or board took responsibility for management actions. Specifically, corporate governance failed to provide oversight of business strategy at AOL Time Warner or prevent misconduct at WorldCom.
A Broken Windows Theory Of International Corruption - AlfordDon Dooley
This document discusses applying a "broken windows theory" to international corruption. It begins by providing background on the broken windows theory of community policing and how minor instances of disorder or crime can lead to more serious issues if left unchecked. It then examines empirical evidence that links higher levels of corruption in a country to poorer performance on indices measuring competitiveness, human development, civil liberties, and democracy. Seeing corruption as a "broken window" suggests it undermines public trust in institutions and is linked to threats to social order. Effectively addressing corruption may thus require taking all instances seriously, as with broken windows, and strengthening public-private partnerships against corruption overall.
The document discusses several topics related to globalization and crime, including how globalization has increased interconnectedness and opportunities for transnational crime. It examines how global economic trends impact supply and demand for illegal goods. It also explores how globalization has influenced risk perceptions and criminal organizations. Green criminology is introduced as an approach that considers environmental harms rather than just legal definitions of crime.
Running head CORRUPTION 5CorruptionAuthor’s Na.docxtodd271
Running head: CORRUPTION 5
Corruption
Author’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Corruption
Introduction
Corruption is a significant crisis that kills the power of the constitution. Corruption diminishes the power of the society, economy, and social welfare of the nation. There are minimal chances of growth when corruption prevails. Thus, corruption is one of the biggest challenges facing the USA and is clearly shown by the form of administration. Factors that influence corruption is more, and the effect varies depending on the affected individuals. Typical corruption forms have taken way to inform of mishandling of policies, public funds misuse, and failure to submit to public growth projects. Current reports show that corruption is prevalent in many public sectors including but not limited to bribing of civil servants, misuse of political power, and bureaucrats using public power in the United States for a personal end.
Solution
s
Fighting corruption is a challenging task because individuals involved have either political or economic power this providing ways to manipulate the will of the weak. Regardless the report highlights possible ways to solve the issue of corruption while giving recommendations for implementation. First, it is possible to address corruption by engaging the public. Teaching the public about the effect of corruption would help combat the problem. That is, each person should be encouraged to follow the norms of the society and laws of the land (Olaguer, 2006). Following stands of morality would ensure that each person is watchful of individuals’ behaviors. Also, the public should learn how to spot instances of corruption and take necessary action when necessary. When the public is knowledgeable about the consequences of corruption, it is easier to engage in public participation in fighting the epidemic.
Next, corruption can be eradicated by employing a legal strategy. The process involves engaging the law, the judiciary, press, the police, and the media. By creating certainty and involving the bodies mention, it would be easier to discriminate corruption through justice. The legislature should be encouraged to review the laws and make clear the aspect of corrupt and corruption. Although the process might require more time, it would help understand when an individual is convicted of corruption (Heimann et al., 2008). Furthermore, the public should have the power to report against corrupt individuals in society without fear. While the legislature revises the laws, judicial civil servants would have the ability to sentence people from various social classes irrespective of their impact on society.
Third, decentralization of power is an essential step towards fighting corruption in the USA. This would give way for more transparency in the public sectors, procurement process, and budget process should be passed through mass media.
Best solution
Based on the time required to implement solutions, public participat.
Leadership Ethics and Culture: A Comparative Note Between United States and ...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Here are the steps to value the Malaysian target company based on the information provided:
1) Calculate net income (revenue - cost) for each year:
Year 1: $50M - $30M = $20M
Year 2: $55M - $32M = $23M
Year 3: $60M - $34M = $26M
2) Calculate weighted average cost of capital (WACC):
Cost of equity = 15%
Cost of debt = 8% (given)
Tax rate = 30%
WACC = (0.7 * 15%) + (0.3 * 8% * (1 - 0.3)) = 13.2%
This document discusses how neoliberal ideology created an environment that promoted unethical behavior in financial reporting in the 1990s United States. It analyzes this through the lens of corporate hegemony and three forms of power: coercive, agenda-setting, and manufactured consent. The document outlines how neoliberalism treats the market as omnipotent and limits the government's role, fostering corporate control over society. This created conditions that allowed financial reporting abuses that benefited corporate elites at the public's expense.
https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/media_184189_en.pdf
Sources of Corruption: Military in Politics, Income Distribution
http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Thailand/sub5_8f/entry-3279.html
CORRUPTION IN THAILAND: CRONYISM, POLICE, MILITARY, THAKSIN AND POLITICIANS AFTER THAKSIN
https://thediplomat.com/2017/11/chinas-senior-general-commits-suicide-under-corruption-investigation/
Chinese Senior General Commits Suicide Under Corruption Investigation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_in_Myanmar
Corruption in Myanmar
http://www.wired.co.uk/article/jade-trade-burma-corruption
Global Witness: corruption inside Myanmar's military-run jade trade
https://www.globalwitness.org/fr/campaigns/myanmar/jade-and-generals/
Jade and the Generals | Global Witness
http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-24/how-military-controls-myanmar-not-aung-san-suu-kyi/8978042
Myanmar: How the military still controls the country, not Aung San Suu Kyi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kwGuSUM2kh0
1. Martin Dorchester: Think piece corp crime
Does C. Wright Mills (1956) theory of the distribution of power explain how
Corporations avoid criminalisation; and are there policies being developed that will
redress the balance?
Introduction:
The corporation is a relatively new legal and political construction in society. It
emerged in the 17th century in England and was established under Royal Charter to
enable colonisation of India and the Americas. (Muncie et al, 2010). Since that time
the corporation has developed further and today’s dominant form is a limited liability
company, whereby shareholder or owners losses are limited to the original sum they
invest. From what William Jennings Bryan (1912) described ‘the handiwork of man
and was created to carry out a moneymaking policy’, has now come an entity in its
own right, imbued with legal status, rights and obligations. More than that, C Wright
Mills (1956) argues that the corporation has become the dominant force within a
‘Power Elite.’ So given that it could be argued that corporate crime has the greatest
impact and causes the most fundamental damage to society (Mokhiber, 1999; Punch,
2000) the following paper will consider whether C Wright Mills theory of the
distribution of power enables corporations to avoid criminalisation. The paper will
consider a number of harms that corporations inflict on society such as violence, fraud
and theft. It will also aim to find a better understanding of how corporations leverage
their power to avoid criminalisation and will question as to whether the theory of
distribution of power fully explains this. The paper will then consider policy
responses to corporate power with especial reference to globalisation.
The ‘hidden figure’ of corporate crime
The view one takes as to how to define corporate crime has real consequences. Thus
the majority of corporate harms remain either unregulated or non-criminalised. The
following selection of statistics highlights the real scale of corporate crime:
• Globally over 350,000 workers die in incidents at the workplace (ILO, 2005)
• 2.2 Million people per year die as a result of work related injuries or disease
(UN REPORT, 2007)
• In the UK there are 1200-1500 work related fatal injuries each year (Tombs
and Whyte, 2008)
• In the UK there is an estimated 50,000 deaths per year due to work related
injuries or disease (O’Neal et al, 2007)
• 37% of the US population have been the victims of some form of corporate
fraud or theft (Rebovich et al, 2002)
• In the UK there has been an estimated 2.4 million victims of pension fraud
between 1988 and 1994) (FSA, 1999)
• It is estimated that $50 billion per year in tax revenues are lost per year to tax
havens (Pusey, 2007)
• 24, 000 people in the UK are estimated to die as a result of poisoning by
various forms of environmental air pollution (UK Department of Health,
2001)
• 50% of all food poisoning cases in the UK can be attributed to food consumed
outside the home (UK Parliament, 2003)
• Between 100 and 200 people in the UK die each year directly as a result of
salmonella and campylobacter. (Helms et al, 2003)
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2. Martin Dorchester: Think piece corp crime
Even from this brief review of a small subset of corporate harms it is possible to draw
two unequivocal conclusions:
1. People are killed globally each year on a huge scale by corporate
activity.
2. Even on the basis of a small number of ‘known’ corporate frauds and
thefts, the extent – in terms of numbers of people affected and total
economic losses – of such harms is vast
Review
DISTRIBUTION OF POWER
It can be argued that distribution of power is either pluralist or elite (education forum,
2010). The classic pluralist position as suggested by Dahl (1961) argues that power is
diffuse rather than concentrated, whereas elite pluralism recognises that not all
individuals and sections of society are represented. Elitist theories therefore see
power as concentrated in the hands of the few and it is these few that take all the
important decisions in society. C Wright Mills (1956) suggests that there is a Power
Elite, comprising of the business community, the army and the government and these
elites dominate and run society in their own interests:
‘Their private decisions, responsibly made in the interests of the feudal-like world of
private property and income, determine the size and shape of the national economy,
the level of employment, the purchasing power of the consumer, the prices that are
advertised, the investments that are channeled. Not 'Wall Street financiers' or bankers,
but large owners and executives in their self-financing corporations hold the keys of
economic power. Not the politicians of the visible government, but the chief
executives who sit in the political directorate ... hold the power and the means of
defending the privileges of their corporate world. If they do not reign, they do govern
at many of the vital points of everyday life in America, and no powers effectively and
consistently countervail against them, nor have they as corporate-made men
developed any effectively restraining conscience.’ (Third World Traveler, 2010)
In different ways and levels corporations can affect and influence the processes of
criminalisation and regulation. Muncie et al (2010) suggest a number of ways that
corporations operate to affect the process of criminalisation: Corporations can and do
engage in direct interventions in policy making, lobbying of governments and policy
makers being a prime example. Corporations can also work actively within
government, representing interests on quasi-government organisations and
committees. Covertly, corporations can also intervene in the policy making process
by agenda setting, mobilising bias and by not making decisions. The case of
asbestosis is a prime example of this. Although the UK government were aware in
1907 that asbestosis was terminal it was not until 1969 that any effective legislation
was put in place (Tweedale, 2000). Tweedale (2000) suggests that a number of covert
methods were used to do this including the co-opting of the medical profession,
suppression of knowledge, manipulation, financial pressures as well as lying to
workers and regulators. Finally corporation’s ability to influence regulation also
enables them to avoid criminalisation. As well as corporations defining their own
regulations (Mokhiber, 1999) regulation is contingent on the economic, political and
social context within which it takes place (Tombs, 2004). Corporations are therefore
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viewed as being law abiding citizens, responsive to the logic of the business case and
more likely to respond to compliance by indirect commercial power. Regulation is
often introduced to manage conflict. Perhaps the current initiatives concerning the
regulation of the banking system is a good example of this. As a result therefore it is
plausible to suggest that regulation can be economic or social (Goetz, 1997) and
understood better through power.
THEFT AND FRAUD
McBarnet (2006) calls it “creative compliance, Pussey (2007) calls it “financial
crime” and Sutherland (1983) calls it “white collar crime”. Whatever the name given
to it, the cost of theft and fraud is significant. Donald Rebovich and John Kane
(2002) have estimated that 37% of the US population have been victims of some form
of corporate theft or fraud. Mohkiber (1999) asserts that every year healthcare fraud
costs Americans between $100 and $400 billion. Research by Clinard (1990),
uncovered a number of corporate crimes in the defence and pharmaceutical industries
in the US during the 70’s and 80’s covering areas including: fraudulent overcharging
and illegal gifts to government personnel. Further research has identified corporate
price fixing (Slapper and Tombs, 1999; Croall, 2001). Guinness was found guilty of
manipulating markets and even following a number of convictions still remains
successful and respected (Punch, 2000). Evidence here would seem to suggest that
corporations commit acts of theft and fraud, yet as in the case of Guinness they escape
being criminalised.
Is corporate fraud and theft an example of the distribution of power enabling
corporations to avoid criminalisation? Enron was a high profile case, with reported
losses in excess of $70 billion yet only six people have been sent to prison for periods
of three to five years. (McBarnet, 2006). In the case of Enron the ability of
corporations to keep things off the agenda can be clearly seen in: the circumvention of
the financial reporting used in its accounts, the problems with regulation, especially
around tax, and the collusion amongst some of the world’s leading organisations.
(McBarnet, 2006). However, the distribution of power does not fully explain the how
corporations avoid being criminalised. McBarnet (2006) cites ethics as part of the
problem. Many leading corporations were involved in the Enron scandal and
although they may have operated within the word of the law it can be argued that they
acted against the spirit of the law. The banking crisis in the UK government may be
seen in a similar light, where unethical business practices were challenged.
VIOLENCE
From the explosion of the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal, India (Shrivastava, 1987)
to the Ford ‘Pinto’ automobile case (Swiggert and Farrell, 1980/81), to the Herald of
Free Enterprise in 1987 to the issue of Thalidomide (Knightley et al, 1980) there is a
plethora of evidence that indicates that business kills, maims and poisons (Punch,
2000). Estimates from the Independent Labour Organisation (ILO) are that 2.2
million people die as a result of work-related injuries or disease per year, that there
are approximately 270 million occupational injuries and 160 million victims of work
related illnesses annually (Independent Labour Organisation, 2005). Add to this the
125 workplace-related deaths per hour worldwide (Mokhiber) and the 345,000
workers that died in different regions of the world (Centre for Corporate
Accountability, 2004) and the scale of the harm becomes overwhelming. Is it
therefore then that: ‘Companies then get away with “murder” because the law and the
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4. Martin Dorchester: Think piece corp crime
courts are not geared to organisational deviance and corporate violence’ (Punch,
2000 p 243) or as Tombs (2007) suggests a result of the distribution of power?
Thousands of workers and members of the public die in Britain every year in work
related incidents (Tombs, 2007; Muncie et al, 2010) yet few are ever reported and
some not even investigated. This ability to keep things off the agenda is a key factor
in corporations avoiding criminalisation. Similarly the lack of convictions following
the sinking of the Herald of Free Enterprise (Punch, 2000) suggests that in the current
political economy a dominant value is not occupational safety (Tombs, 2007). Punch
(2000) and Mokhiber (1999) assert that corporations are seen as legitimate businesses
and clean cut executives pursuing business are not seen as criminal and they also have
the financial, legal and social power to bargain their way out of trouble. Punch (2000),
Mokbiber (1999) and McBarnet (2006) all see the use of corporate power as an
enabler to avoid sanctions and criminalisation: be it through plea-bargaining into civil
courts, self and increased regulation, mobilisation or making deals with the
government. Punch goes further than this though, and suggests that there are more
facets to the distribution of power that enable corporations to avoid criminalisation.
As well as the distribution of power Punch (2000) highlights a number of other key
factors such as: legal systems have great difficulty in tracing decision making from
the boardroom to the scene of the disaster or accident, it is very difficult to make an
explicit connection between corporate policies and violent outcomes. Punch also
notes that the law is fundamentally focused on the individual and not the organisation
at a structural as well as ideological level. To criminalise corporations will therefore
require significant cultural, ideological and structural change.
MEDIA
It could be argued that the British newspaper industry was built on the foundation of
business and commercial news (Lloyd, 1999). From the inception of the British press
in the 17th century, the establishment of the Economist in the late 19th century to the
rise of the popular press there has been a strong watchdog tradition, often referred to
as the fourth estate. Muncie et al; (2010) suggest that reporting on corporate crime is
much less visible in the media and if reported it tends to be done so in the more
specialist financial and business pages. In terms of distribution of power and
corporations avoiding criminalisation this therefore can be viewed as an effective way
of screening out corporate crime.
Lloyd (1999) and Punch (2000) both cite defamation laws and possible legal action as
strong reasons for the lack of investigative journalism thus pointing very clearly at the
distribution of power. Lloyd goes further though and suggests that current value
systems and culture have changed. Rather than corporations screening out corporate
crime there has been a shift in the publics’ taste from investigative journalism to what
he terms ‘celebrity journalism’. This is the culture of venerating business leaders
such as Alan Sugar and Richard Branson rather than look at businesses operating
criminally. Instead of investigative journalism there is market driven journalism. In
terms of value systems there has also been a drive towards more ethical standards of
privacy, both in individual terms and corporate terms thus the media has to act with
restraint. Finally crime, especially financial, can be hugely complex and technical
and crime protection agencies, let alone the media are finding it difficult to deal with
(Lloyd, 1999)
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GLOBALISATION
The concept of globalisation in corporate terms can be used to imply the way that
economic forces have shifted power and authority away from national governments
towards external, transnational capital. (Drake et al, 2010). Greider (1997) argues that
as capitalism has become increasingly globalised even states such as the US have
found themselves subjugated to the imperatives of the global market. Held (2004,
p10) states: ‘The notion of globalisation implies the centralisation of power in the
hands of just a few major organisations’ Elite corporations with revenues in excess of
some countries GDP operate around the globe and it could be argued that these
corporate empires have replaced political ones. (Held, 2004). Nader (1999) goes even
further and suggests that the world is ‘witnessing its subjugation to the large corporate
model of economic development, the large corporate model of technology and the
large corporate model of culture itself.’ This concept of globalisation resonates with
C Wright Mills work the Power Elite (1956) where he views a world where a few
corporations make decisions upon the military and political as well as the economic
developments around the world. In terms of the global economy, many transnational
corporations are now operating in the ‘global south’, exporting goods and services
there, leveraging the inequalities of power in labour and consumer markets and
operating in countries where the laws in relation to the workplace and environment
are less well developed than in most westernised economies. (Muncie et al, 2010).
The distribution of power in part explains corporations ability to operate in Export
Processing Zones (EPZs) such as Saipan, where immigration controls and labour
rights are controlled differently, it enables corporations to pressure countries into
removing worker rights (Michalowski et al, 1987), it can influence government
decision making to make economies more attractive to them by influencing social and
environmental regulations, taxes and so on. Further to this: “There is evidence,
however, that companies take decisions that will lead to what might be considered the
dispersal or export of suffering – as in the transfer of hazardous technology to third
world countries, in the huge advertising drives for an increased market share of
cigarette and tobacco consumption in Eastern Europe and the Far East, and in the
dumping of out of date drugs in developing countries.” (Punch, 2000 p 251). From
the formation of what Muncie et al (2010) calls the space between laws and Export
processing zones to Giddens (1999) view of globalisation as in part economic, it
would seem that globalisation enhances and affirms the unequal distribution of power.
Corporations operating across the globe commit a number of criminal acts yet fail to
be criminalised. The ability of transnational corporations to influence countries into
reducing its regulatory standards could be attributed to the distribution of power.
However, Tombs and Whyte (2003) argue that ‘it is governments that still decide
when, how and to what extent corporations should be regulated.’ Muncie et al (2010)
suggest that EPZ’s reflect a wider phenomenon known as the ‘race to the bottom’.
Regulatory standards are deliberately reduced because developing countries are
suffering from pressure and this pressure could come from institutions such as the
International Monetary Fund or World Bank loan agreements. The recent financial
crisis where governments around the world have intervened to support the economy
shows how much power the state retains in controlling business and capital flows.
Globalisation and the increasing power of transnational corporations therefore does
not fully explain how corporations avoid criminalisation. As much as it is a strong
example of the distribution of power, the political, social and economic situation is
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just as important. As is the power of the nation state which has as much if not more
impact in either criminalising or enabling the corporation to avoid being criminalised.
Policy
A number of policies have been introduced to redress the balance of power between
corporations and society. McBarnet (2006) suggests that Enron had put ethics, culture
and the spirit of the law on the corporate professional and regulatory agenda, and as a
result of this and other financial issues, the US government introduced the Sarbanes-
Oxley Act on corporate governance. Pussey (2007) also suggests that as a result of
the high profile financial cases such as BCCI and Barings both the United Nations and
The Basle Committee on Banking came together to produce the Vienna Convention
1988 and the Basle Concordat which addressed the issue of money laundering.
Further policies from The Financial Action Taskforce were introduced to further
combat money laundering and after the terrorist attacks of September 11th. This was
then enlarged to include the issue of terrorist financing. In many ways these policy
responses are highly technical and are narrowly focused on one type of crime, that is
financial and I would challenge that, rather than a policy response targeted at reducing
or redressing corporate power, this is a tightening of fiscal controls.
Of perhaps wider impact and of more relevance in terms of how corporations have
been able to avoid criminalisation is what Muncie et al (2010) describe as the attempt
to close the ‘space between laws’. If powerful corporations can leverage their
financial, political and economic power to influence government and government
policy, if they can operate across borders and ignore or flout the laws and conventions
of their resident country, then how can policy redress the balance?
In terms of policy Muncie et al (p159, 2010) state that: ‘International law has so far
failed to develop universal legal stands for corporations.’ However the establishment
of the Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other
Business Enterprises with Regards to Human Rights, published by the UN
Commission on Human Rights and adopted by the UN in 2003 provides a policy
response that attempts in someway to redress the balance in the distribution of power
between corporations and society. The Norms include:
General obligations: States have primary responsibility for ensuring that transnational
corporations and other businesses respect human rights. Corporations also have an
obligation to promote and respect human rights, including vulnerable groups and
indigenous peoples:
Rights to equal opportunity and non-discriminatory treatment: Corporations have the
responsibility to ensure equality rights are derived from international instruments and
national legislation, including international human rights law.
Rights to security of person: Corporations should not benefit from war crimes, crimes
against humanity, genocide, torture, forced labour and security provision shall
observe international human rights norms.
Rights of workers: Corporations shall not use forced labour, shall respect the rights of
children, provide a safe working environment, provide wages commensurate with the
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provision of adequate living conditions and finally corporations shall ensure freedom
of association.
Respect for national sovereignty and human rights: Corporations shall recognise and
respect international laws, national laws and the regulatory environment and respect
the countries’ policies which they operate in and do so with transparency.
Corporations shall not offer, condone or engage in any acts of bribery and corruption.
Corporations shall refrain from any activity which supports or encourages abuses of
human rights nor should they provide goods or services that can be used to abuse
human rights. Corporations shall respect the rights of people and contribute to the
realisation of a better and improved standard of physical and mental health as well as
improved education, housing and civil rights.
Obligations with regard to consumer protection: Corporations shall market their
products in line with fair business standards and not produce, distribute, market or
advertise harmful or potentially harmful products for use by consumers.
Obligations with regard to environmental protection: Corporations shall observe
national laws and regulations relating to the preservation of the environment and also
seek to conduct their activities in a manner contributing to the wider goal of
sustainable development.
(Adapted from UNCHR, 2003)
From reviewing these obligations it is possible to note responses to the power that
corporations can leverage. In terms of corporations leveraging their ‘economic
attractiveness” to influence countries to relax their employment and equality laws we
can see that there are obligations concerning equal opportunity and non-
discriminatory treatment. In terms of pollution and incidents such as the Union
Carbide factory there are obligations concerning the environment. Instruments such
as Export Processing Zones can now be challenged as the obligations cover workers
rights, standards of living. The policy also covers consumer protection, thereby
addressing incidents such as the Cadbury’s and salmonella outbreak in 2006. There is
a very clear link between the act and the corporate harms that corporations inflict.
It must be noted though that these are obligations not legal sanctions. Corporations
comply voluntarily with the principles of the policy and these principles must be
legally sanctioned in national courts or through international instruments. A number
of significant challenges can therefore be made. The first challenge concerns the use
of Export Processing Zones: as an example of what Muncie et al (2010) has referred
to an Export Processing Zone such as Saipan operates within and without of the US.
Within, in terms of labelling, without, in terms of external to the rules, regulation and
enforcement of the American jurisprudence systems. Saipan though, can only operate
because the American government allows it to do so. The principle of the norms can
only be sanctioned by national or international law and here is a prime case of a
nation state saying one thing, i.e. adhering and supporting international human rights,
and doing another. Examples of this can be seen in China, and Nielsen (2007) asserts
that there are over 260 EPZs in 67 countries. Another significant challenge facing the
norms is the ‘economic” need that, those developing countries have and the pressure
that loans from the IMF and the World Bank impose. Many developing countries
need to encourage large corporations to come into their markets to drive prosperity,
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build infrastructure and so on. A method of doing this is to make the regulatory
system as amenable as possible, thus negating many of the obligations concerning
workers rights and consumer’s rights. At the same time pressure from loan
agreements can induce countries to provide what are considered more favourable
business conditions. Finally, it can be argued that underpinning the norms would
require a global or international form of jurisprudence. Given the variance in laws
between countries, the variance in the value sets between people, the variance in the
uptake or interpretation of human rights between countries there is, and will continue
to be great difficulty in harmonising what is criminal and what is not in a global
business environment.
Conclusion
‘The corporate culture is a century or more in the making. It will take a while before
we figure out how we got ourselves into this soup – from a situation where we
controlled corporations, to where corporations are controlling us.’ (Mokhiber, 2009).
The evidence suggests that there are significant harms created and inflicted by
corporations on society and that corporations do leverage power to avoid
criminalisation. The challenge though is that the distribution of power alone does not
explain fully how corporations avoid criminalisation. Corporations are expert in
agenda setting, lobbying and ‘managing’ regulation, yet I would suggest that in
tandem with this there has been an ethical shift from what is the right thing to do, to
what can be gotten away with or ‘gaming’ the system as McBarnet (2006) puts it. In
line with this ethical shift there has also been a move in value sets and consumer
demand. The media was once viewed as the fourth estate, the watchdog of corporate
intransigence but now a different form of journalism is demanded, market driven
consumer journalism. Rather than an expose on high level corporate fraud the news is
about how many millionaires there are. Value sets also appeared to have changed, its
okay to defraud the taxman, yet global economies lose $billions of dollars each year.
These frauds are not necessarily the result of corporate power; they are more of
cultural and ethical stance. Policies such as the norms and principles set out by the
United Nations can address the balance of power but in a global economy where
nation states continue to wield significant amounts of power it is difficult to see how a
voluntary code will ever be truly effective.
References
UN Commission on Human Rights (UNHCR) (2003) Norms on the Responsibilities
of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human
Rights, Geneva, UN Commission on Human Rights.
Centre for Corporate Accountability (2009) Number of Worker Deaths Around the
World, London, Centre for Corporate Accountability.
Clinard, M. B. (1990) ‘Corporate Corruption: The Abuse of Power’. New York,
Praeger
Croall, H. (2001) Understanding White Collar Crime, Buckingham, Open University
Press.
Drake, D., Muncie, J., Westmarland, L. (2010) CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Local and
Global, Willan Publishing, Culmcott House, Devon
Education Forum: How is Power Distributed in Society:
http://www.educationforum.co.uk/sociology_2/Power3.htm, accessed April 2010)
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Giddens, A.(1999) ‘Runaway World’. Profile Books Ltd, 58A Hatton Garden,
London
Grieder, W. (1997) One World, Ready or Not – The Manic Logic of Global
Capitalism, New York, Simon Scuster
Held, D. (2004) ‘a globalizing world? Culture, economics, politics’. Routledge, The
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