This study used the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) to measure changes in implicit stigma toward LGBT terms following a brief cognitive defusion exercise. 18 graduate students completed a pre-test IRAP to assess implicit attitudes, followed by exposure to exemplars of LGBT individuals, and a post-test IRAP. While group-level effects were not significant, 12 individuals showed more favorable implicit attitudes on the post-test, indicating the defusion exercise decreased stigma for some. Implicit and explicit measures of attitudes were not strongly correlated. The results provide initial evidence that brief exposure to pro-LGBT exemplars can slightly increase positive implicit attitudes.
College Students\' Experiences with the Media and Interpersonal Attitudescourtney_edgar
This is a Powerpoint version of my research study that was presented at the 2010 Midwestern Psychological Association/Psi Chi Conference in Chicago, IL on April 29, 2010.
College Students\' Experiences with the Media and Interpersonal Attitudescourtney_edgar
This is a Powerpoint version of my research study that was presented at the 2010 Midwestern Psychological Association/Psi Chi Conference in Chicago, IL on April 29, 2010.
ProChem Global is a Singapore based company with manufacturing facilities in Thailand, China & South Korea
Prochem is part of Singapore holding company, KHEOPS SOLUTION
Website at www.kheops.com.sg
Below are some of our main textile auxilliaries productions :
a) Silicone fluids & emulsions
b) Glyoxal textile resin
c) C6 & C8 Flurocarbon for Water & Oil repellent
d) Ester-quartz softener paste
¿Qué sabes acerca de IEEE? - ¿Sabes que es una sociedad de ingenieros que este año cumple 125 años? - ¿Conoces cuáles son los beneficios de pertenecer a la asociación profesional más grande del mundo? - ¿Has estado vinculado de manera activa en algún grupo o rama estudiantil de IEEE? - ¿Sabes que en la Universidad de Caldas existe una Rama Estudiantil de IEEE en formación a la que puedes vincularte? - ¿Te gustaría conocer más y ser parte de las actividades que realizan miles y miles de voluntarios IEEE alrededor del mundo?
Conoce estos y otros detalles en la Primera Charla Informativa IEEE que se realizará con el objetivo de que estudiantes y profesores de la Universidad de Caldas aclaren sus dudas, se enteren de los beneficios y oportunidades que tienen a su alcance, y escuchen la experiencia de otros miembros y ramas de IEEE.
A PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING PRECURSORS TOPROBLEM BEHAVIOR.docxbartholomeocoombs
A PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING PRECURSORS TO
PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
BRANDON HERSCOVITCH, EILEEN M. ROSCOE, MYRNA E. LIBBY,
JASON C. BOURRET, AND WILLIAM H. AHEARN
NEW ENGLAND CENTER FOR CHILDREN
NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY
We describe a procedure for differentiating among potential precursor responses for use in a
functional analysis. Conditional probability analysis of descriptive assessment data identified
three potential precursors. Results from the indirect assessment corresponded with those
obtained from the descriptive assessment. The top-ranked response identified as a precursor
according to the indirect assessment had the strongest relation according to the probability
analysis. When contingencies were arranged for the precursor in a functional analysis, the same
function was identified as for target behavior, supporting the utility of indirect and descriptive
methods to identify precursor behavior empirically.
DESCRIPTORS: descriptive assessment, functional analysis, precursors, problem behavior,
response-class hierarchies
_______________________________________________________________________________
Functional analysis (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer,
Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994) involves
manipulating antecedents and consequences
for the target behavior of interest. Because a
functional analysis requires the repeated occur-
rence of a target response, it may not be
appropriate for response topographies that pose
risk of harm to others (e.g., severe aggression) or
the client (e.g., self-injury). One modification
that has addressed this concern involves a
functional analysis of precursor behavior (i.e.,
arranging contingencies for responses that
reliably precede the target behavior) based on
previous research showing that response topog-
raphies that occur in close temporal proximity
are often members of the same response class,
and by providing differential reinforcement for
earlier responses in the response-class hierarchy,
later more severe responses occur less often
(Harding et al., 2001; Lalli, Mace, Wohn, &
Livezey, 1995; Richman, Wacker, Asmus,
Casey, & Andelman, 1999).
Smith and Churchill (2002) conducted a
functional analysis of precursor behavior and
found similar outcomes from a functional
analysis of the target behavior and a functional
analysis of the hypothesized precursor behavior.
A study by Najdowski, Wallace, Ellsworth,
MacAleese, and Cleveland (2008) extended this
work by demonstrating that an intervention
based on a functional analysis of precursor
behavior was effective in eliminating partici-
pants’ precursor behavior. The implication of
these findings is that outcomes from functional
analyses of precursor responses may be used to
infer the function of more severe topographies
that occur later in the response-class hierarchy.
A potential limitation associated with both of
these studies is that indirect assessments alone
were used to identify precursor responses. Such
assessments have sometimes been found to have
poor reliab.
ProChem Global is a Singapore based company with manufacturing facilities in Thailand, China & South Korea
Prochem is part of Singapore holding company, KHEOPS SOLUTION
Website at www.kheops.com.sg
Below are some of our main textile auxilliaries productions :
a) Silicone fluids & emulsions
b) Glyoxal textile resin
c) C6 & C8 Flurocarbon for Water & Oil repellent
d) Ester-quartz softener paste
¿Qué sabes acerca de IEEE? - ¿Sabes que es una sociedad de ingenieros que este año cumple 125 años? - ¿Conoces cuáles son los beneficios de pertenecer a la asociación profesional más grande del mundo? - ¿Has estado vinculado de manera activa en algún grupo o rama estudiantil de IEEE? - ¿Sabes que en la Universidad de Caldas existe una Rama Estudiantil de IEEE en formación a la que puedes vincularte? - ¿Te gustaría conocer más y ser parte de las actividades que realizan miles y miles de voluntarios IEEE alrededor del mundo?
Conoce estos y otros detalles en la Primera Charla Informativa IEEE que se realizará con el objetivo de que estudiantes y profesores de la Universidad de Caldas aclaren sus dudas, se enteren de los beneficios y oportunidades que tienen a su alcance, y escuchen la experiencia de otros miembros y ramas de IEEE.
A PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING PRECURSORS TOPROBLEM BEHAVIOR.docxbartholomeocoombs
A PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING PRECURSORS TO
PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
BRANDON HERSCOVITCH, EILEEN M. ROSCOE, MYRNA E. LIBBY,
JASON C. BOURRET, AND WILLIAM H. AHEARN
NEW ENGLAND CENTER FOR CHILDREN
NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY
We describe a procedure for differentiating among potential precursor responses for use in a
functional analysis. Conditional probability analysis of descriptive assessment data identified
three potential precursors. Results from the indirect assessment corresponded with those
obtained from the descriptive assessment. The top-ranked response identified as a precursor
according to the indirect assessment had the strongest relation according to the probability
analysis. When contingencies were arranged for the precursor in a functional analysis, the same
function was identified as for target behavior, supporting the utility of indirect and descriptive
methods to identify precursor behavior empirically.
DESCRIPTORS: descriptive assessment, functional analysis, precursors, problem behavior,
response-class hierarchies
_______________________________________________________________________________
Functional analysis (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer,
Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994) involves
manipulating antecedents and consequences
for the target behavior of interest. Because a
functional analysis requires the repeated occur-
rence of a target response, it may not be
appropriate for response topographies that pose
risk of harm to others (e.g., severe aggression) or
the client (e.g., self-injury). One modification
that has addressed this concern involves a
functional analysis of precursor behavior (i.e.,
arranging contingencies for responses that
reliably precede the target behavior) based on
previous research showing that response topog-
raphies that occur in close temporal proximity
are often members of the same response class,
and by providing differential reinforcement for
earlier responses in the response-class hierarchy,
later more severe responses occur less often
(Harding et al., 2001; Lalli, Mace, Wohn, &
Livezey, 1995; Richman, Wacker, Asmus,
Casey, & Andelman, 1999).
Smith and Churchill (2002) conducted a
functional analysis of precursor behavior and
found similar outcomes from a functional
analysis of the target behavior and a functional
analysis of the hypothesized precursor behavior.
A study by Najdowski, Wallace, Ellsworth,
MacAleese, and Cleveland (2008) extended this
work by demonstrating that an intervention
based on a functional analysis of precursor
behavior was effective in eliminating partici-
pants’ precursor behavior. The implication of
these findings is that outcomes from functional
analyses of precursor responses may be used to
infer the function of more severe topographies
that occur later in the response-class hierarchy.
A potential limitation associated with both of
these studies is that indirect assessments alone
were used to identify precursor responses. Such
assessments have sometimes been found to have
poor reliab.
Effects of Parental Conflict on Adolescent AdjustmentCatherine.docxjack60216
Effects of Parental Conflict on Adolescent Adjustment
Catherine Jewell
ESPY 621
Comparative Analysis
The purpose of this presentation is to compare two research studies.
The topic of the comparison is the effect of parental conflict on adolescent adjustment.
Research includes four studies of which two will be compared.
Study A – Forehand, McCombs, Long, Brody, and Fauber
Conducted by: Rex Forehand, Amanda McCombs, Nicholas Long, Gene Brody, and Robert Fauber
Title: Early adolescent adjustment to recent parental divorce: The role of interparental conflict and adolescent sex as mediating variables
Date of study: December 30, 1987
Purpose of the study
To determine if a relationship exists between parental conflict after divorce and adolescent adjustment and whether gender of the child influences the outcome.
Study Summary
Studied 96 adolescents aged 11 – 15 years old.
Participants were equally divided between gender.
Used teacher completed measures of behavior to assess:
Social and social withdraw behavior.
Cognitive function.
Externalization of problems.
Study sought to determine if parental conflict was causal to poor adolescent adjustment and if there were any differences between male and female adolescents.
Study Design
This study was conducted using a correlational design.
Researchers conducted study to determine if relationships between high parental conflict and adolescent adjustment existed.
Researchers compared several groups of adolescents from homes with intact parents, divorced parents, high conflict, and low conflict to determine relationship.
No changes were made within the groups to affect an outcome.
Method
Original sample size: 170
Participants included: 96 adolescents equally divided by gender and their mothers
Participants were recruited through notices, fliers, direct mail advertising, and local media advertising.
Participants were selectively placed in eight groups of 12 students.
Groups were broken down by socioeconomic status, parental marital status, parental conflict (high vs. low), and gender.
Parental conflict was determined using the O’Leary-Porter Scale. High conflict was defined as means lower than 30; low conflict was defined as means higher than 30.
Findings were based on surveys completed by the child, parent, and teacher and observational sessions.
Method II
Several survey instruments were utilized in the study:
O’Leary-Porter Scale – determinant of level of parental conflict.
> 30 – High conflict family
< 30 – Low conflict family
Married family average mean – 30
Four groups were classified low conflict – mean 34
Four groups were classified high conflict – mean 24
Teacher’s Rating Scale of Child’s Actual Competence (TRS) – assesses the teacher’s judgment of actual competence of the child.
The Revised Behavior Problem Checklist Subscales Conduct Disorder and Anxiety Withdrawal (RBPC) – used to assess internalization and externalization of problems.
Method III
Indepe ...
Stereotypic explanatory bias Implicit stereotypingas a pred.docxsusanschei
Stereotypic explanatory bias: Implicit stereotyping
as a predictor of discrimination
Denise Sekaquaptewa,
a,* Penelope Espinoza,
a
Mischa Thompson,
a
Patrick Vargas,
b
and William von Hippel
c
a
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1109, USA
b
Department of Advertising, University of Illinois, IL, USA
c
School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Received 7 March 2001; revised 11 February 2002
Abstract
Two experiments examined whether a measure of implicit stereotyping based on the tendency to explain Black stereotype-
incongruent events more often than Black stereotype-congruent events (Stereotypic Explanatory Bias or SEB) is predictive of be-
havior toward a partner in an interracial interaction. In Experiment 1 SEB predicted White males� choice to ask stereotypic
questions of a Black female (but not a White male or White female) in an interview. In Experiment 2 the type of explanation
(internal or external attribution) made for stereotype-inconsistency was examined. Results showed that White participants who
made internal attributions for Black stereotype-incongruent behavior were rated more positively and those who made external
attributionswere ratedmore negatively by aBlackmale confederate. These results point to the potential of implicit stereotyping as
an important predictor of behavior in an interracial interaction.
� 2002 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
Keywords: Stereotyping; Intergroup behavior; Prejudice; Interracial interaction
Stereotyping and prejudice are difficult to measure
because people are often unwilling to admit negative
attitudes and beliefs about social groups (Fazio, Jack-
son, Dunton, & Williams, 1995). Additionally, people
may sometimes be unable to accurately report on these
topics because how they think and feel about social
groups may not be consciously accessible to them
(Greenwald&Banaji, 1995). Thus, researchers are faced
with a substantial ‘‘willing and able’’ problem when
attempting to measure prejudice and stereotyping.
In response to this ‘‘willing and able’’ problem, re-
searchers turned to measures of implicit prejudice and
stereotyping. Such measures are thought to tap con-
sciously inaccessible group-based attitudes and beliefs
(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Most research attention
has focused on implicit prejudice measures, which are
intended to assess the degree of positivity or negativity
an individual implicitly associates with social groups
(e.g., Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). Some-
what less research attention has focused on implicit
stereotype measures (e.g., Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park,
1997), and implicit stereotyping, which we define as the
unintended influence of stereotypes on information
processing (cf. Brewer, 1996). In part, this focus on
prejudice rather than stereotypes/stereotyping probably
emerged because prejudice has traditionally been
thought to be more conseque.
Stereotypic explanatory bias Implicit stereotypingas a pred.docxrjoseph5
Stereotypic explanatory bias: Implicit stereotyping
as a predictor of discrimination
Denise Sekaquaptewa,
a,* Penelope Espinoza,
a
Mischa Thompson,
a
Patrick Vargas,
b
and William von Hippel
c
a
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1109, USA
b
Department of Advertising, University of Illinois, IL, USA
c
School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Received 7 March 2001; revised 11 February 2002
Abstract
Two experiments examined whether a measure of implicit stereotyping based on the tendency to explain Black stereotype-
incongruent events more often than Black stereotype-congruent events (Stereotypic Explanatory Bias or SEB) is predictive of be-
havior toward a partner in an interracial interaction. In Experiment 1 SEB predicted White males� choice to ask stereotypic
questions of a Black female (but not a White male or White female) in an interview. In Experiment 2 the type of explanation
(internal or external attribution) made for stereotype-inconsistency was examined. Results showed that White participants who
made internal attributions for Black stereotype-incongruent behavior were rated more positively and those who made external
attributionswere ratedmore negatively by aBlackmale confederate. These results point to the potential of implicit stereotyping as
an important predictor of behavior in an interracial interaction.
� 2002 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
Keywords: Stereotyping; Intergroup behavior; Prejudice; Interracial interaction
Stereotyping and prejudice are difficult to measure
because people are often unwilling to admit negative
attitudes and beliefs about social groups (Fazio, Jack-
son, Dunton, & Williams, 1995). Additionally, people
may sometimes be unable to accurately report on these
topics because how they think and feel about social
groups may not be consciously accessible to them
(Greenwald&Banaji, 1995). Thus, researchers are faced
with a substantial ‘‘willing and able’’ problem when
attempting to measure prejudice and stereotyping.
In response to this ‘‘willing and able’’ problem, re-
searchers turned to measures of implicit prejudice and
stereotyping. Such measures are thought to tap con-
sciously inaccessible group-based attitudes and beliefs
(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Most research attention
has focused on implicit prejudice measures, which are
intended to assess the degree of positivity or negativity
an individual implicitly associates with social groups
(e.g., Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). Some-
what less research attention has focused on implicit
stereotype measures (e.g., Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park,
1997), and implicit stereotyping, which we define as the
unintended influence of stereotypes on information
processing (cf. Brewer, 1996). In part, this focus on
prejudice rather than stereotypes/stereotyping probably
emerged because prejudice has traditionally been
thought to be more conseque.
1. What is the question the authors are asking They asked abo.docxpaynetawnya
1. What is the question the authors are asking?
They asked about the relation between self-focused attention and interpersonal consequences of the social anxiety. Also, how the interpersonal interaction will influence the social anxiety. On top of that, they hypothesized in their study, the control group will show increased uncomfortable sign while& after the interpersonal activities,, like the less verbal speaking and more protective body language. Also, they expected the control group will show more negative effect and fairly low in positive effect after the study.
2. Why do the authors believe this question is important?
Because they have found people have agreement on the positive relation between the anxiety arousal and the shown anxiety symptoms, also the interaction and social anxiety. But, the relation and function of how the self- focused attention will trigger and influence the social anxiety when interpersonal activity happens.
3. How do they try to answer this question?
They conducted a study to testify whether the interpersonal activity will influence or trigger the social anxiety. In order to do that, they collected 120 participants after they have these participants did SPAI, the ones who got highest and lowest 20 percentile scores people have been selected as the SA group, which means they have shown the possibility of being diagnosed as social phobia patients. And the rest of the 120p people will consist of the NSA group, which names after the people who do not have any social phobia symptom when having interpersonal interaction. After having them grouped, they will be paired as dyads automatically, the SA with NSA, or the NSA with NSA. But, they are not informed their identity in this study. Then, each group will have 5 minutes session to interact with the other one, they will be video recorded at the same time they started the session, and there will be people who spectate their verbal code and nonverbal code when the recording started. Each codes represent different “behavior” of participant, for the verbal code, we have RS, ES,Q,ST AND GT for information sharing. RS is for complaining and support words said by participants, ES specifies the empathetic comments, ST represents the information shared about participant themselves, GT means the sharing information that unrelated to participants themselves. Same to nonverbal codes, we have polite smile, pleasurable smile, frown, the fidgeting hand position. After the 5 minutes session with each other, the researchers will have participants to do 2 questionnaires, PANAS and QI, one for detecting the PA and NA level of participants before and after the study, one for checking the level of satisfaction of the just finished interaction.
4. What did they find?
They found out the results not exactly same as they predicted, like for the level of NA in SA- NSA group, it did not have a significantly rising after the session is ended, either to the questions asked in the session, SA ...
Article
Sex Offender Recidivism Revisited: Review of
Recent Meta-analyses on the Effects of Sex
Offender Treatment
Bitna Kim
1
, Peter J. Benekos
2
, and Alida V. Merlo
1
Abstract
The effectiveness of sex offender treatment programs continues to generate misinformation and disagreement. Some literature
reviews conclude that treatment does not reduce recidivism while others suggest that specific types of treatment may warrant
optimism. The principal purpose of this study is to update the most recent meta-analyses of sex offender treatments and to com-
pare the findings with an earlier study that reviewed the meta-analytic studies published from 1995 to 2002. More importantly,
this study examines effect sizes across different age populations and effect sizes across various sex offender treatments. Results of
this review of meta-analyses suggest that sex offender treatments can be considered as ‘‘proven’’ or at least ‘‘promising,’’ while age
of participants and intervention type may influence the success of treatment for sex offenders. The implications of these findings
include achieving a broader understanding of intervention moderators, applying such interventions to juvenile and adult offenders,
and outlining future areas of research.
Keywords
offenders, sexual assault, recidivism, intervention
Introduction
The topic of sex offenders generally elicits fear and anxiety
from the public and contributes to punitive policies aimed at
harsh, exclusionary punishments. The perspective that commu-
nities need to be protected from sex offenders through incar-
ceration and surveillance often overshadows the prospects
that treatment can also provide public safety. In their study,
Kernsmith, Craun, and Foster (2009) found that citizen respon-
dents who reported higher levels of fear of sex offenders were
more supportive of registration requirements for sex offenders.
Levenson, Brannon, Fortney, and Baker (2007) also reported
that public perceptions of sex offenders reflect public anxiety
and support for community protection.
Although negative attitudes toward sex offenders are not
reflective of all countries, cultural differences and historical
context can account for less punitive public responses. For
example, McAlinden (2012) found that therapeutic interven-
tions for sex offenders were more prevalent in European coun-
tries than in England and Wales. She attributes this to a more
scientific and medical approach to sex offending across Europe
and less emphasis on ‘‘sexual abuse as a moral, legal, and social
problem’’ (p. 170). Nevertheless, the sex offender problem has
become more serious across Europe and policies reflect a shift
toward more punitive attitudes and sanctions (McAlinden,
2012). Not only in European countries but also in the United
States, one of the misgivings about how to respond to sex
offenders concerns the effectiveness of treatment.
In this article, the authors address the treatment issue by
updat.
Article
Sex Offender Recidivism Revisited: Review of
Recent Meta-analyses on the Effects of Sex
Offender Treatment
Bitna Kim
1
, Peter J. Benekos
2
, and Alida V. Merlo
1
Abstract
The effectiveness of sex offender treatment programs continues to generate misinformation and disagreement. Some literature
reviews conclude that treatment does not reduce recidivism while others suggest that specific types of treatment may warrant
optimism. The principal purpose of this study is to update the most recent meta-analyses of sex offender treatments and to com-
pare the findings with an earlier study that reviewed the meta-analytic studies published from 1995 to 2002. More importantly,
this study examines effect sizes across different age populations and effect sizes across various sex offender treatments. Results of
this review of meta-analyses suggest that sex offender treatments can be considered as ‘‘proven’’ or at least ‘‘promising,’’ while age
of participants and intervention type may influence the success of treatment for sex offenders. The implications of these findings
include achieving a broader understanding of intervention moderators, applying such interventions to juvenile and adult offenders,
and outlining future areas of research.
Keywords
offenders, sexual assault, recidivism, intervention
Introduction
The topic of sex offenders generally elicits fear and anxiety
from the public and contributes to punitive policies aimed at
harsh, exclusionary punishments. The perspective that commu-
nities need to be protected from sex offenders through incar-
ceration and surveillance often overshadows the prospects
that treatment can also provide public safety. In their study,
Kernsmith, Craun, and Foster (2009) found that citizen respon-
dents who reported higher levels of fear of sex offenders were
more supportive of registration requirements for sex offenders.
Levenson, Brannon, Fortney, and Baker (2007) also reported
that public perceptions of sex offenders reflect public anxiety
and support for community protection.
Although negative attitudes toward sex offenders are not
reflective of all countries, cultural differences and historical
context can account for less punitive public responses. For
example, McAlinden (2012) found that therapeutic interven-
tions for sex offenders were more prevalent in European coun-
tries than in England and Wales. She attributes this to a more
scientific and medical approach to sex offending across Europe
and less emphasis on ‘‘sexual abuse as a moral, legal, and social
problem’’ (p. 170). Nevertheless, the sex offender problem has
become more serious across Europe and policies reflect a shift
toward more punitive attitudes and sanctions (McAlinden,
2012). Not only in European countries but also in the United
States, one of the misgivings about how to respond to sex
offenders concerns the effectiveness of treatment.
In this article, the authors address the treatment issue by
updat.
Article
Sex Offender Recidivism Revisited: Review of
Recent Meta-analyses on the Effects of Sex
Offender Treatment
Bitna Kim
1
, Peter J. Benekos
2
, and Alida V. Merlo
1
Abstract
The effectiveness of sex offender treatment programs continues to generate misinformation and disagreement. Some literature
reviews conclude that treatment does not reduce recidivism while others suggest that specific types of treatment may warrant
optimism. The principal purpose of this study is to update the most recent meta-analyses of sex offender treatments and to com-
pare the findings with an earlier study that reviewed the meta-analytic studies published from 1995 to 2002. More importantly,
this study examines effect sizes across different age populations and effect sizes across various sex offender treatments. Results of
this review of meta-analyses suggest that sex offender treatments can be considered as ‘‘proven’’ or at least ‘‘promising,’’ while age
of participants and intervention type may influence the success of treatment for sex offenders. The implications of these findings
include achieving a broader understanding of intervention moderators, applying such interventions to juvenile and adult offenders,
and outlining future areas of research.
Keywords
offenders, sexual assault, recidivism, intervention
Introduction
The topic of sex offenders generally elicits fear and anxiety
from the public and contributes to punitive policies aimed at
harsh, exclusionary punishments. The perspective that commu-
nities need to be protected from sex offenders through incar-
ceration and surveillance often overshadows the prospects
that treatment can also provide public safety. In their study,
Kernsmith, Craun, and Foster (2009) found that citizen respon-
dents who reported higher levels of fear of sex offenders were
more supportive of registration requirements for sex offenders.
Levenson, Brannon, Fortney, and Baker (2007) also reported
that public perceptions of sex offenders reflect public anxiety
and support for community protection.
Although negative attitudes toward sex offenders are not
reflective of all countries, cultural differences and historical
context can account for less punitive public responses. For
example, McAlinden (2012) found that therapeutic interven-
tions for sex offenders were more prevalent in European coun-
tries than in England and Wales. She attributes this to a more
scientific and medical approach to sex offending across Europe
and less emphasis on ‘‘sexual abuse as a moral, legal, and social
problem’’ (p. 170). Nevertheless, the sex offender problem has
become more serious across Europe and policies reflect a shift
toward more punitive attitudes and sanctions (McAlinden,
2012). Not only in European countries but also in the United
States, one of the misgivings about how to respond to sex
offenders concerns the effectiveness of treatment.
In this article, the authors address the treatment issue by
updat ...
137JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2002, 35, 137–154 AnastaciaShadelb
137
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2002, 35, 137–154 NUMBER 2 (SUMMER 2002)
USE OF A STRUCTURED DESCRIPTIVE ASSESSMENT
METHODOLOGY TO IDENTIFY VARIABLES
AFFECTING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
CYNTHIA M. ANDERSON AND ETHAN S. LONG
WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY
This study evaluated a variation of functional assessment methodology, the structured
descriptive assessment (SDA). The SDA is conducted in an individual’s natural environ-
ment and involves systematically manipulating antecedent variables while leaving conse-
quences free to vary. Results were evaluated by comparing the results of an SDA with
results obtained from an analogue functional analysis with 4 children who exhibited
problem behavior. For 3 of 4 participants, the results of the two assessments suggested
similar hypotheses about variables maintaining problem behavior. Interventions based on
the results of the SDA were implemented for 3 children and resulted in significant
reductions in rates of problem behavior.
DESCRIPTORS: functional assessment, functional analysis, intervention, problem
behavior
Research has demonstrated the utility of
the analogue functional analysis methodol-
ogy developed by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bau-
man, and Richman (1982/1994) for identi-
fying sources of reinforcement that maintain
aberrant behavior. This methodology sys-
tematically assesses situations hypothesized
to be analogueous to those in the natural
environment by directly manipulating pu-
tative antecedents and consequences for
problem behavior. The major advantage of
this methodology compared to other meth-
ods of functional assessment is that it allows
greater control over the environment, result-
ing in a more direct inference of functional
relations.
In contrast to the analogue functional
analysis, descriptive assessments involve di-
rect observation of behavior and events in
the individual’s natural environment and in-
Ethan Long is now at the Kennedy Krieger Insti-
tute, Baltimore, Maryland.
We thank Carie English, Shannon Haag, Bridget
Hayes, Ellen McCartney, and Mary Mich for their
assistance with data collection and analysis.
Address correspondence to Cynthia M. Anderson,
Department of Psychology, Box 6040, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-6040
(e-mail: [email protected]).
volve less control over environmental vari-
ables. Descriptive assessments may yield in-
formation about naturally occurring sched-
ules of reinforcement and idiosyncratic var-
iables associated with problem behavior
(e.g., Fisher, Adelinis, Thompson, Worsdell,
& Zarcone, 1998; Mueller, Sterling-Turner,
& Scattone, 2001). As a result, descriptive
assessments may enhance understanding of
how reinforcement operates in the natural
environment.
Recent research suggests that descriptive
assessment may be beneficial in augmenting
analogue functional analyses. For example,
hypotheses about environment–behavior re-
lations might be developed via descriptive
assessment when results of an analogue ...
137JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2002, 35, 137–154 ChantellPantoja184
137
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2002, 35, 137–154 NUMBER 2 (SUMMER 2002)
USE OF A STRUCTURED DESCRIPTIVE ASSESSMENT
METHODOLOGY TO IDENTIFY VARIABLES
AFFECTING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
CYNTHIA M. ANDERSON AND ETHAN S. LONG
WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY
This study evaluated a variation of functional assessment methodology, the structured
descriptive assessment (SDA). The SDA is conducted in an individual’s natural environ-
ment and involves systematically manipulating antecedent variables while leaving conse-
quences free to vary. Results were evaluated by comparing the results of an SDA with
results obtained from an analogue functional analysis with 4 children who exhibited
problem behavior. For 3 of 4 participants, the results of the two assessments suggested
similar hypotheses about variables maintaining problem behavior. Interventions based on
the results of the SDA were implemented for 3 children and resulted in significant
reductions in rates of problem behavior.
DESCRIPTORS: functional assessment, functional analysis, intervention, problem
behavior
Research has demonstrated the utility of
the analogue functional analysis methodol-
ogy developed by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bau-
man, and Richman (1982/1994) for identi-
fying sources of reinforcement that maintain
aberrant behavior. This methodology sys-
tematically assesses situations hypothesized
to be analogueous to those in the natural
environment by directly manipulating pu-
tative antecedents and consequences for
problem behavior. The major advantage of
this methodology compared to other meth-
ods of functional assessment is that it allows
greater control over the environment, result-
ing in a more direct inference of functional
relations.
In contrast to the analogue functional
analysis, descriptive assessments involve di-
rect observation of behavior and events in
the individual’s natural environment and in-
Ethan Long is now at the Kennedy Krieger Insti-
tute, Baltimore, Maryland.
We thank Carie English, Shannon Haag, Bridget
Hayes, Ellen McCartney, and Mary Mich for their
assistance with data collection and analysis.
Address correspondence to Cynthia M. Anderson,
Department of Psychology, Box 6040, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-6040
(e-mail: [email protected]).
volve less control over environmental vari-
ables. Descriptive assessments may yield in-
formation about naturally occurring sched-
ules of reinforcement and idiosyncratic var-
iables associated with problem behavior
(e.g., Fisher, Adelinis, Thompson, Worsdell,
& Zarcone, 1998; Mueller, Sterling-Turner,
& Scattone, 2001). As a result, descriptive
assessments may enhance understanding of
how reinforcement operates in the natural
environment.
Recent research suggests that descriptive
assessment may be beneficial in augmenting
analogue functional analyses. For example,
hypotheses about environment–behavior re-
lations might be developed via descriptive
assessment when results of an analogue ...
1. Use of the IRAP in measuring
Changes in Stigma Following a
Brief Defusion Exercise
Jon P. Emory, Fawna Stockwell, & Scott Herbst
2. Overview
Background on measurement of attitudes
Rationale and methodology of study
Results and Implications
3. Introduction
Greenwald and Banaji (1995) defined implicit attitudes as
“introspectively undefined (or inaccurately identified)
traces of past experience that mediate favorable or
unfavorable feelings, thought, or action toward social
objects (p. 8).”
The problem with this definition is that is that it is too vague and
mentalistic
The problem with implicit attitudes such as stigma is that
people are often unaware that they exist
Explicit measures, such as interviews and questionnaires, may
not be valid measures of implicit attitudes because deception
and self-presentational strategies can affect responses.
4. Introduction
One tool used to assess specific relations between stimuli,
or implicit attitudes, is the Implicit Relational Assessment
Procedure (IRAP) (Greenwald, McGee, & Schwartz, 1998).
The IRAP is a latency-based computer task developed
from the principles of Relational Frame Theory (RFT) that
measures participants’ specific verbal relations between a
presented target stimulus and relational term (Barnes-
Holmes et al., 2006).
5. Introduction
Thus, it is a more direct behavioral measure of one’s
implicit attitudes than other procedures because it
measures response latencies.
The IRAP measures relations, not just associations
between stimuli.
Participant’s latencies are typically shorter on consistent
trials, which reflect their implicit attitudes, than on
inconsistent trials.
6. Introduction
One way of addressing stigma is through Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy (ACT), which makes use of
mindfulness exercises such as cognitive defusion.
The methods employed in a cognitive defusion exercise
generally attempt to manipulate aversive functions of
private events, such as those involved in attitudes, rather
than attempting to change their topography,
rate/frequency, or severity (Lillis & Hayes, 2007).
7. Introduction – Previous Research
Cullen and Barnes-Holmes (2008) employed the IRAP to
examine implicit attitudes toward homosexuals in both
heterosexual and homosexual participants.
Both groups confirmed ‘straight-positive’ and ‘gay
positive’ belief-statements
Heterosexual participants confirmed ‘gay-negative’
statements more quickly than homosexuals.
8. Introduction – Previous Research
Cullen, Barnes-Homes, & Barnes-Holmes (2009) presented
the IRAP using the relational terms “Similar” and
“Opposite” as response options with the sample terms
“Old People” and “Young People.”
Participants were exposed to a cognitive defusion
procedure that involved pictures of pro-old exemplars
(e.g., Mother Teresa).
The authors found that participants response latency was
shorter on a IRAP post-test after exemplar exposure.
9. Introduction – Rationale and Design
The present study investigated whether a pro-LGBT
defusion exercise would impact participants’ implicit
attitudes toward Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender
(LGBT) terms, as measured by the IRAP.
This study also compared participants’ implicit attitudes
to their explicit attitudes (as measured by a likert
questionnaire).
Experimental Design: A repeated-measures, between
participants design examined effects of defusion
procedure by comparing pre- and post-test scores
11. Participants
22 females and 2 males (range 22-41 yeas old, mean = 25)
All participants were enrolled in either a master’s- or
doctoral-level program at The Chicago School of
Professional Psychology (TCS).
Heterosexual Lesbian Gay Bisexual Hetero + Bi Queer
16 3 1 2 1 1
12. Setting, Apparatus, and Materials
Setting
Small meeting room or classroom at TCS
Apparatus
HP Notebook PC (primary investigator’s laptop) or a Lenovo
Desktop PC (TCS’s computer)
IRAP task accessed via the http://rft.ori.org website
Materials
Informed Consent & Demographics Form
Explicit Attitudes Questionnaire & VAS
Exemplar Packet & Response Sheet
12 in. Ruler
13. Dependent Variables and Response
Measurement
Dependent Variable:
Explicit Likert Questionnaire and VAS responses
Average DIRAP scores – derived from the latencies and ranges of
each participant’s response.
Data collection
Permanent product recording of individual attitudes toward
LGBT terms using the Explicit Questionnaire and VAS
Website automatically collected real-time data, in milliseconds,
on Pre- and Post-Test IRAP tasks
14. Interobserver Agreement
Both the primary investigator and a second observer
measured VAS values.
102/108 agreements within 1 mm
6 disagreements (more than 1 mm) were remeasured,
primary investigator’s values were used.
15. Procedures
1. Informed Consent
2. Demographics Form
Assessed participants’ age, biological sex (at birth), sexual
orientation, relationship status, sexual identity, race, and level
of education.
1. Explicit Questionnaire
62 likert scale questions regarding participant’s explicit
attitudes towards the LGBT population. (Adapted from the
Community Attitudes Toward the Mentally Ill Scale and
modified to assess LGBT attitudes) (Minett, 2008).
16. Procedures
4. Visual Analogue Scale (VAS)
120 mm line directly below each term: Straight, Heterosexual,
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender
The word “Bad” was printed to the left of the line and the word
“Good” on the right.
Participants rated each term by drawing a vertical line
GAY
Bad Good
17. Procedures
5. IRAP Pre-Test
After 2 consecutive practice blocks at 80% accuracy and a
latency of 3 s or less, participants advanced to the test blocks.
During each trial, the top portion of the screen displayed either
“Good” or “Bad,” the middle displayed one of the target terms
(e.g., Heterosexual, Bisexual, etc.), and the bottom displayed the
two response options “True” and “False” (“D” or “K”).
3 pro-Heterosexual and 3 pro-LGBT test blocks alternated, and
the order of test block presentation was counterbalanced
across participants.
Participants read instructions on the screen before starting the
first block, and viewed feedback regarding their performance
18. Procedures –Screen Shots from Each Block Type
Sample Pro-Heterosexual Trials Sample Pro-LGBT Trials
19. Procedures
6. Defusion Procedure
Exemplar packet of 44 people who identify as LGBT - each page
included a picture, name, and corresponding sexual identity
(Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender).
Participants were asked to read two descriptions for each
person below each picture and circle whichever answer they
believed to be correct on a separate sheet
One response option was true, one was false; both response
options were positive and pro-social.
To increase treatment integrity, the primary researcher
verified that all participants circled either A or B on the
response sheet for all individuals in the defusion packet.
20. Procedures – Sample Defusion Page
Samantha Adams
Transgender
A B
Celebrity hair-stylist and owner Successful attorney who works
of the Tony & Guy chain of hair salons with people who have mental retardation.
21. Procedures
7. IRAP Post-Test
Second IRAP task identical to the pre-test, except no practice
trials were presented.
Again, participants completed 6 test blocks
3 pro-heterosexual and 3 pro-LGBT test blocks
8. Debriefing
22. Results
Of the 24 participants, 18 successfully completed the IRAP
practice blocks with 80% accuracy or higher (16 females
and 2 males, range 22-28 yeas old, mean = 24).
Heterosexual Lesbian Gay Bisexual Queer
13 2 1 1 1
23. Results
Explicit Attitudes Questionnaire
1 = strong positive attitude toward LGBT-identified individuals
5 = strong negative attitude
3 = neutral or unsure attitude
The group average was 1.54 (range 1.16 to 2.26)
24. Results – Visual Analog Scale
Participant’s average ratings for each sexual identity term
on the VAS.
25. Results – Average DIRAP Scores
The IRAP program generated a DIRAP score for each individual
participant, which was calculated based on the participant’s
latency range during both Pro-Heterosexual and Pro-LGBT test
blocks.
Score of 0 = Neutral Attitudes
Score >0 = Pro-Heterosexual Attitudes
Score <0 = Pro-LGBT Attitudes
Overall, participants demonstrated more favorable
implicit attitudes toward LGBT terms than they did
toward Heterosexual terms
26. Results – Average DIRAP Scores
A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed that the
effect was not significant at the group level (df=1, F=3.234,
p =.090).
27. Results – Individual DIRAP Scores
8 participants scored greater than 0 (pro-Heterosexual) on
the IRAP pre-test
7 heterosexual females
1 gay male
10 participants scored less than 0 (pro-LGBT) on the IRAP
pre-test
6 heterosexual females
1 heterosexual male
2 bisexual females
1 lesbian female
28. Results – Individual DIRAP Scores
Of the 18 participants, 12 showed a decrease in IRAP scores from pre-
to post-test, indicating their implicit attitudes toward LGBT terms
became more favorable following the defusion exercise.
Pro-LGBT
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17 P18
29. Results – Correlation Between Implicit and
Explicit Measures
Correlation between questionnaire and IRAP pre-test
scores was not statistically significant
[r2
= .353; n = 18; Fisher’s p = .151].
Correlation between VAS and IRAP pre-test scores was not
statistically significant
[r2
= .373; n = 18; Fisher’s p = .128].
30. Discussion
This study extended Cullen et al.’s (2008) research by
demonstrating a slight increase in positive implicit
attitudes in college graduate students toward LGBT terms.
Exposure to pro-LGBT exemplars can increase favorable implicit
attitudes toward LGBT terms for some individuals.
A simple paper and pencil task led to changes for 12 out of
18 participants, even those who already showed favorable
implicit attitudes toward LGBT terms.
Implicit and explicit measures did not significantly
correlate, which has been shown to be true with socially
sensitive attitudes in previous IRAP studies.
31. Limitations
Psychology graduate students may display more positive
attitudes toward LGBT terms than the general population.
Participants who responded may have been more likely to
have more positive attitudes toward LGBT terms.
More heterosexual participants than LGBT participants
limited group comparisons
Small sample size, non-rural, no transgender participants
Did all participants attend to the defusion exercise?
32. Future Research
More detailed instructions and more practice trials to
decrease attrition during IRAP task
Longer / shorter IRAP latency requirements
One week or one month follow-up session
Larger sample size, outside of psychology programs, with
more males and transgender participants
Effects of defusion exercise on implicit attitudes toward
specific terms (e.g., Gay versus Transgender)
Do implicit attitudes predict overt social behavior?
33. References
Barnes-Holmes, D., Barnes-Holmes, Y., Power, P., Hayden, E., Milne, R., & Stewart, E. (2006). Do
You Really Know What You Believe? Developing the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure
(IRAP) as a direct measure of implicit beliefs. The Irish Psychologist, Volume 32, Number 7,
169-177.
Cullen, C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Barnes-Holmes, Y. (2009). The implicit relational assessment
procedure (IRAP) and the malleability of ageist attitudes. The Psychological Record, 59(4),
591-620.
Cullen, C., & Barnes-Holmes, D. (2008). Implicit pride and prejudice: A heterosexual
phenomenon? In T. G. Morrison & M. A. Morrison (Eds.), Modern Prejudice. New York: Nova
Science.
Greenwald, A.G., McGee, D.E., & Schwartz, J.L.K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in
implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
74, 1464 – 1480.
Lillis, J., & Hayes, S. C. (2007). Applying acceptance, mindfulness, and values to the reduction of
prejudice: A pilot study. Behavior Modification, 31(4), 389-411.
Minett, S. (2008). Comparing information versus empathy in decreasing homophobic attitudes: An
intervention study. Retrieved from
http://psych.hanover.edu/Research/Thesis08/Minett2008.pdf
Editor's Notes
Acknowledgements:
Dr. Barnes-Holmes – for his ongoing knowledge & support in running the IRAP website
Queen Washington – for her encouragement & support & sending out the recruitment email
Jessica Gamba – for completing the IOA portion of this study
Dr. Walker & Dr. Herbst – for their ongoing advisory support & thoughtful review thoughout this study
Dr. Stockwell – for her knowledge, training, enthusiasm, & support.
With explicit measures such as questionnaires and interviews, people can lie or even select answers to make it sound like do NOT have any negative attitudes. Also, if people are NOT aware they have negative attitudes, it is possible that they will not show up on explicit measures.
This demonstrates that after exposure to the defusion procedure, the participants’ implicit attitudes became more pro-old.
Attendance included only one individual experimental session between 20 and 40 minutes in length.
The time variance was contingent upon the # of practice IRAP trials required to meet criteria for participation in the study.
Need to update this slide once you have data from your second observer.
For Explicit Questionnaire, read a couple of sample questions out loud. Mention that the scale was 1 to 5, and what each of those numbers meant.
There were no transgender.
Add brief description of results.
Overall, participants showed an average DIRAP score of -0.03784 (range -0.45171 to 0.244744) on the IRAP pre-test and an average DIRAP score of -0.14096 (range -0.37312 to 0.35682) on the IRAP post-test.
Not all participants responded in a way that corresponded to the average of the overall group.
Blue bars indicate pre-test, gray bars indicate post test.
Rainbow TCS PRIDE symbols indicate participants who identified as something other than Heterosexual.
Add P1, P2, P3, etc. on the X-axis. Can use a text box to do it.
Black arrows indicate the 12 participants who showed improvements in their attitude. promote clarity.