This study explored how peer relationships impact the human stress response in gay males. It found that:
1) Gay male friends engaged in higher levels of co-rumination (extensive negative problem discussion) when discussing problems compared to a control group.
2) However, gay male friends did not experience rises in the stress hormone cortisol in response to co-rumination.
3) Co-rumination in gay male friendships was related to increased negative affect.
This document analyzes and compares the dynamics of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. It finds that while power dynamics differ due to gender roles in heterosexual couples, relationships are otherwise quite similar. Same-sex couples break from traditional gender roles and power is balanced. Both types of couples also show similarities in intimacy, emotional fulfillment and parenting, with few differences found. Overall, the document concludes same-sex and opposite-sex relationships are largely comparable, with the exception of gender-based power dynamics in heterosexual couples.
This document summarizes research on sex differences in distress from partner infidelity. It compares an evolutionary psychology perspective, which argues men and women have different mate selection strategies that lead to differing distress from emotional vs sexual infidelity, to an alternative perspective that distress results from violating relationship expectations. Studies generally support the evolutionary view, finding men more distressed by sexual infidelity and women by emotional infidelity. However, the document also proposes that distress could result from processing violations of expectations about a partner's likely unfaithful behavior. It aims to evaluate which perspective, evolutionary strategies or expectation violations, better predicts distress from infidelity.
The document summarizes a study on perceptions of relationships between men and women. It surveyed 10 heterosexual couples to assess their views on traditional gender roles. Results showed those identifying as masculine generally supported traditional roles, while androgynous individuals favored equality. Younger masculine men surprisingly supported women as primary caregivers. The author concludes identities and beliefs are influenced by generational changes, and that making masculinity/femininity more fluid could promote equality and self-expression.
The document discusses differences in how masculinity and femininity are perceived to influence romantic relationships. A study surveyed 326 college students and found that men were more likely than women to believe in traditional relationship dynamics like cohabitation improving marriage. Meanwhile, women were more likely to value love over other factors in choosing a mate. The author then surveyed 10 couples about gender roles and found that those identifying as more masculine or feminine aligned with traditional views, while androgynous individuals favored flexibility. The author concludes exposure to less rigid gender norms, like through education, can impact relationship beliefs.
In this paper, I researched how aspects of personality can influence behavior; the specific example here is infidelity. I synthesized the data of multiple experiences to create a personality profile of a person who is more likely to cheat on a romantic partner than the "average" person.
The study examined gender differences in perspectives on exclusive relationships among college students. An online survey asked about relationship experiences and views on exclusivity. It was hypothesized that women would find exclusivity more important than men. The results supported this, with women reporting higher importance of exclusivity. However, the hypothesis that closer sibling relationships would correlate with greater importance of exclusivity was not supported. Future research could investigate changes over college years and consider sibling dynamics like birth order.
This study examined whether emotional vulnerability leads women and men to confirm gender stereotypes. Fifty-nine couples were randomly assigned to discuss topics that did or did not induce feelings of vulnerability. When vulnerability was high, men's behaviors aligned more with traditional masculine stereotypes. Women's behaviors were not significantly affected. The findings provide support for social role theory, which proposes that people are more likely to behave in gender-stereotypical ways when performing social roles associated with their gender.
This document analyzes and compares the dynamics of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. It finds that while power dynamics differ due to gender roles in heterosexual couples, relationships are otherwise quite similar. Same-sex couples break from traditional gender roles and power is balanced. Both types of couples also show similarities in intimacy, emotional fulfillment and parenting, with few differences found. Overall, the document concludes same-sex and opposite-sex relationships are largely comparable, with the exception of gender-based power dynamics in heterosexual couples.
This document summarizes research on sex differences in distress from partner infidelity. It compares an evolutionary psychology perspective, which argues men and women have different mate selection strategies that lead to differing distress from emotional vs sexual infidelity, to an alternative perspective that distress results from violating relationship expectations. Studies generally support the evolutionary view, finding men more distressed by sexual infidelity and women by emotional infidelity. However, the document also proposes that distress could result from processing violations of expectations about a partner's likely unfaithful behavior. It aims to evaluate which perspective, evolutionary strategies or expectation violations, better predicts distress from infidelity.
The document summarizes a study on perceptions of relationships between men and women. It surveyed 10 heterosexual couples to assess their views on traditional gender roles. Results showed those identifying as masculine generally supported traditional roles, while androgynous individuals favored equality. Younger masculine men surprisingly supported women as primary caregivers. The author concludes identities and beliefs are influenced by generational changes, and that making masculinity/femininity more fluid could promote equality and self-expression.
The document discusses differences in how masculinity and femininity are perceived to influence romantic relationships. A study surveyed 326 college students and found that men were more likely than women to believe in traditional relationship dynamics like cohabitation improving marriage. Meanwhile, women were more likely to value love over other factors in choosing a mate. The author then surveyed 10 couples about gender roles and found that those identifying as more masculine or feminine aligned with traditional views, while androgynous individuals favored flexibility. The author concludes exposure to less rigid gender norms, like through education, can impact relationship beliefs.
In this paper, I researched how aspects of personality can influence behavior; the specific example here is infidelity. I synthesized the data of multiple experiences to create a personality profile of a person who is more likely to cheat on a romantic partner than the "average" person.
The study examined gender differences in perspectives on exclusive relationships among college students. An online survey asked about relationship experiences and views on exclusivity. It was hypothesized that women would find exclusivity more important than men. The results supported this, with women reporting higher importance of exclusivity. However, the hypothesis that closer sibling relationships would correlate with greater importance of exclusivity was not supported. Future research could investigate changes over college years and consider sibling dynamics like birth order.
This study examined whether emotional vulnerability leads women and men to confirm gender stereotypes. Fifty-nine couples were randomly assigned to discuss topics that did or did not induce feelings of vulnerability. When vulnerability was high, men's behaviors aligned more with traditional masculine stereotypes. Women's behaviors were not significantly affected. The findings provide support for social role theory, which proposes that people are more likely to behave in gender-stereotypical ways when performing social roles associated with their gender.
This document outlines a study on relationship rules between genders. It includes an abstract, introduction discussing relevant literature, aim to compare views of relationship importance between genders, hypothesis that females will be more truthful, methods using a questionnaire, procedure of administering the questionnaire, and sections for results, discussion, conclusion, and references. The introduction discusses factors like proximity, exposure, familiarity, similarity, attractiveness, and reciprocal liking in relationship formation. The aim is to see which gender finds relationships and their maintenance/repair more important. The hypothesis is that females will be more truthful and work harder at maintenance/repair.
This document summarizes research on the relationship between personality and romantic relationships. It discusses two studies that examined how the Five Factor Model of personality (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) correlates with attachment styles and relationship outcomes. The first study found that insecure attachment was linked to lower extraversion and higher neuroticism, which related to poorer interpersonal skills. The second study found that secure attachment and higher scores on the Five Factor traits correlated with greater psychological well-being, healthier interpersonal behaviors, and longer romantic relationships. Both studies provide evidence that personality influences the development and quality of romantic bonds.
The document discusses differences in communication styles between men and women and how these differences impact marital satisfaction. Specifically, it analyzes nonverbal communication styles, styles of communication during conflict, and styles of flirtation between partners. The author proposes studying newly married couples through interaction analysis to examine how these differences relate to their scores on a marital satisfaction test in order to further the understanding of effective communication and healthy relationships.
1. The study examined the effect of peer relationships on depression in homosexual adolescents by measuring qualities of subjects' friendships.
2. The results showed that sexual identity increased levels of depression and anxiety but did not affect self-esteem or perceived stress. Sexual identity also affected proportions of close friends and friendship fears.
3. Contrary to hypotheses, older adolescents who were out of the closet most resembled their heterosexual peers in peer network size and proportions of close friends. The study suggests that views of clear psychological differences between homosexual and heterosexual youth oversimplify the issue.
Patterns of insecure attachment spsp 2010Jarryd_Willis
This study compared attachment styles across relationship types (caregiver, romantic partner, cross-sex friend, same-sex friend) between heterosexual, lesbian/gay, and bisexual individuals. It found largely similar patterns in attachment anxiety for romantic partners between heterosexual and LGB individuals. However, LGB individuals showed greater attachment anxiety toward caregivers, likely due to fears of rejection upon coming out. The study also found relationship-specific changes in attachment anxiety depending on romantic status and sexual orientation. Overall, it provided further evidence that attachment theory applies similarly to heterosexual and LGB relationships, while also highlighting some unique aspects of caregiver attachment for LGB individuals.
Research Poster- Solving the Bi-Equationtmcallister23
- The study found significant differences in sexual behavior, romantic relationships, disclosure rates, and feelings of well-being between individuals of different sexual orientations on a continuum from completely heterosexual to completely homosexual.
- Mostly heterosexual individuals had a greater desire for same-sex relationships than completely heterosexual individuals, while mostly homosexual individuals had more desire for opposite-sex relationships than completely homosexual individuals.
- Bisexual individuals reported the highest levels of actual romantic and sexual relationships with both sexes, but also faced more bi-phobia and negative responses when disclosing their sexual orientation compared to other groups.
This study examined perceptions of different relationship behaviors, including sexual infidelity, emotional infidelity, and deception. The researcher hypothesized that males would rate these behaviors as more acceptable than females. Participants completed an online survey rating the behaviors. The small sample size did not provide enough statistical power to detect gender differences in ratings. However, results showed that participants viewed sexual infidelity as less acceptable than emotional infidelity or deception. A larger study is needed to further examine gender differences in perceptions of relationship behaviors and potential infidelity.
The document discusses the impact of stigma on family members of individuals with mental illness or drug dependence. It finds that:
1) Family members report experiencing blame, shame, and feeling socially contaminated due to their relation's condition. However, no national survey had assessed how the general public actually views these family members.
2) The study finds that family stigma related to drug dependence is viewed more harshly than other health conditions, with family members being blamed for both the onset and worsening of the relative's disorder and likely to face social shunning.
3) In contrast, family stigma related to mental illnesses like schizophrenia is not highly endorsed by the public according to the survey results.
This study examined differences in masculine and feminine communication styles when coping with the death of a loved one. The researchers administered an online survey to 188 participants to gather data on gender differences in coping mechanisms after experiencing loss. Most results found no statistically significant differences between men and women, except that women were more willing to share feelings with others as an initial reaction to a death. The study discusses how representation, behaviors, and emotional expressiveness influence coping. Expectations of traditional gender roles were not fully met despite greater female representation. The discoveries may help understand how to support those suffering a loss.
Have Your Cake And Eat It Too: An Exploration of Cheating in Dating Relations...malexjohnson
The document presents findings from a study exploring cheating in dating relationships. It summarizes previous literature on the topic and outlines two hypotheses: that those in long-distance relationships or who spend less time with their partner will be more likely to cheat. Interviews with 3 subjects who had cheated supported some hypotheses, finding intoxication and emotional attraction increased cheating, though effects on relationships were minimal.
This chapter discusses gender differences in delinquency. It explores biological, psychological, social, and feminist theories for why males generally have higher delinquency rates than females. However, the gender gap has been narrowing. The chapter examines how gender affects socialization and development from infancy. Factors like cognitive differences, personality traits, and dysfunctional family lives may partially explain differing delinquency rates between males and females. The chapter also analyzes how gender influences treatment within the juvenile justice system.
The document summarizes research on the implications of child abuse. It describes 10 studies that find child abuse victims often experience mental health issues like PTSD, depression, anxiety and substance abuse. They also face social and behavioral problems including aggression, low self-esteem and feelings of helplessness. The conclusion states that child abuse dramatically affects victims' development and mental well-being for life.
Females had a more positive attitude towards romantic relationships than males. There was no significant gender difference in views on what a partner can provide or physical attractiveness. Males held more traditional views supporting the concept of double standards in relationships compared to females. The study found both similarities and differences in how males and females view romantic and sexual relationships, contradicting some past research. Further research should examine the influence of other factors like religion and relationship status.
This document discusses the factors a young lesbian woman may face in coming out, including 5 stages of coming out (pre-coming out, coming out, role confusion, exploration, and the first relationship). It also addresses coming out to family (as a daughter and sister), children (as a parent), at work, and issues with religion/spirituality. Additionally, it examines femme vs butch identities and notes gaps in research about cultural differences, abuse/neglect, and coming out at different life stages.
The document describes a study that aimed to 1) examine the relationships between peer pressure, conformity, and popularity and how they predict risk behaviors, and 2) develop and validate shorter measures of peer pressure and conformity for use in large-scale testing of adolescents. The study developed and validated short 10-item scales of peer pressure and conformity in a sample of 148 adolescent boys and girls. Results showed the new scales had good internal consistency. Peer pressure and conformity were found to be stronger predictors of risk behaviors like substance abuse than measures of popularity or general conformity. The new short scales of peer pressure and conformity were found to be equally or more predictive of risk behaviors than existing longer scales.
1) The document discusses social desirability response bias, which is the tendency for people to respond to questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others or society, even if their responses do not fully reflect reality.
2) Past research has found that self-reports of personality and behavior can be influenced by social desirability bias, tending to under-report undesirable qualities. Several studies examined social desirability bias in children's self-reports of aggression.
3) The document reviews methods that have been used to measure and account for social desirability response bias, such as peer reports and observations, which may provide a more accurate perspective than self-reports.
This document is a resume for Ayman A. Darwish, a Syrian national seeking a long-term position in a prestigious UAE company. It outlines his contact information, career objective, qualifications, job description, career progression, education, and personal details. His qualifications include being self-motivated, able to work in a team, communicate well in English, and adapt to new environments. His job description involves processing visa applications and maintaining documentation for a company.
This document contains a shot list for a music video. It describes 10 scenes with multiple shots in each scene. The shots include static shots, tracking shots, close-ups, and wide shots of a group of teenagers camping in the woods. They will be singing, dancing, drinking, and enjoying themselves around a campfire at night. Nature shots will also be included. The video will open and close with zooming shots of the campfire as the group sits around it at the beginning and end of the night.
For legal process outsourcing Australia visit Addcapacity.com.au to get most efficient legal outsourcing service. Visit: http://www.addcapacity.com.au/
The Sara Lee Foundation was founded in 1981 to formalize the company's dedication to community service. It provides strategic funding support for food-related projects, programs to support women's self-sufficiency, and diversity initiatives. One of its key programs is the Second Harvest Food Bank of Greater New Orleans and Acadiana Backpack Program, which provides nutritious food for children on weekends and summers to ensure they have enough to eat at home. The foundation promotes critical thinking, reading, and action through its efforts to help communities in need.
13 Gründe für das Scheitern Digitaler Transformationsprozesse - by 40° Gmbh L...40° Labor für Innovation
Was sind die Gründe für das Scheitern von Transformations- und Veränderungsprozessen - insb. vor dem Hintergrund der Digitalen Transformation? Hier sind 13 von ihnen kompakt zusammengetragen ...
This document outlines a study on relationship rules between genders. It includes an abstract, introduction discussing relevant literature, aim to compare views of relationship importance between genders, hypothesis that females will be more truthful, methods using a questionnaire, procedure of administering the questionnaire, and sections for results, discussion, conclusion, and references. The introduction discusses factors like proximity, exposure, familiarity, similarity, attractiveness, and reciprocal liking in relationship formation. The aim is to see which gender finds relationships and their maintenance/repair more important. The hypothesis is that females will be more truthful and work harder at maintenance/repair.
This document summarizes research on the relationship between personality and romantic relationships. It discusses two studies that examined how the Five Factor Model of personality (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) correlates with attachment styles and relationship outcomes. The first study found that insecure attachment was linked to lower extraversion and higher neuroticism, which related to poorer interpersonal skills. The second study found that secure attachment and higher scores on the Five Factor traits correlated with greater psychological well-being, healthier interpersonal behaviors, and longer romantic relationships. Both studies provide evidence that personality influences the development and quality of romantic bonds.
The document discusses differences in communication styles between men and women and how these differences impact marital satisfaction. Specifically, it analyzes nonverbal communication styles, styles of communication during conflict, and styles of flirtation between partners. The author proposes studying newly married couples through interaction analysis to examine how these differences relate to their scores on a marital satisfaction test in order to further the understanding of effective communication and healthy relationships.
1. The study examined the effect of peer relationships on depression in homosexual adolescents by measuring qualities of subjects' friendships.
2. The results showed that sexual identity increased levels of depression and anxiety but did not affect self-esteem or perceived stress. Sexual identity also affected proportions of close friends and friendship fears.
3. Contrary to hypotheses, older adolescents who were out of the closet most resembled their heterosexual peers in peer network size and proportions of close friends. The study suggests that views of clear psychological differences between homosexual and heterosexual youth oversimplify the issue.
Patterns of insecure attachment spsp 2010Jarryd_Willis
This study compared attachment styles across relationship types (caregiver, romantic partner, cross-sex friend, same-sex friend) between heterosexual, lesbian/gay, and bisexual individuals. It found largely similar patterns in attachment anxiety for romantic partners between heterosexual and LGB individuals. However, LGB individuals showed greater attachment anxiety toward caregivers, likely due to fears of rejection upon coming out. The study also found relationship-specific changes in attachment anxiety depending on romantic status and sexual orientation. Overall, it provided further evidence that attachment theory applies similarly to heterosexual and LGB relationships, while also highlighting some unique aspects of caregiver attachment for LGB individuals.
Research Poster- Solving the Bi-Equationtmcallister23
- The study found significant differences in sexual behavior, romantic relationships, disclosure rates, and feelings of well-being between individuals of different sexual orientations on a continuum from completely heterosexual to completely homosexual.
- Mostly heterosexual individuals had a greater desire for same-sex relationships than completely heterosexual individuals, while mostly homosexual individuals had more desire for opposite-sex relationships than completely homosexual individuals.
- Bisexual individuals reported the highest levels of actual romantic and sexual relationships with both sexes, but also faced more bi-phobia and negative responses when disclosing their sexual orientation compared to other groups.
This study examined perceptions of different relationship behaviors, including sexual infidelity, emotional infidelity, and deception. The researcher hypothesized that males would rate these behaviors as more acceptable than females. Participants completed an online survey rating the behaviors. The small sample size did not provide enough statistical power to detect gender differences in ratings. However, results showed that participants viewed sexual infidelity as less acceptable than emotional infidelity or deception. A larger study is needed to further examine gender differences in perceptions of relationship behaviors and potential infidelity.
The document discusses the impact of stigma on family members of individuals with mental illness or drug dependence. It finds that:
1) Family members report experiencing blame, shame, and feeling socially contaminated due to their relation's condition. However, no national survey had assessed how the general public actually views these family members.
2) The study finds that family stigma related to drug dependence is viewed more harshly than other health conditions, with family members being blamed for both the onset and worsening of the relative's disorder and likely to face social shunning.
3) In contrast, family stigma related to mental illnesses like schizophrenia is not highly endorsed by the public according to the survey results.
This study examined differences in masculine and feminine communication styles when coping with the death of a loved one. The researchers administered an online survey to 188 participants to gather data on gender differences in coping mechanisms after experiencing loss. Most results found no statistically significant differences between men and women, except that women were more willing to share feelings with others as an initial reaction to a death. The study discusses how representation, behaviors, and emotional expressiveness influence coping. Expectations of traditional gender roles were not fully met despite greater female representation. The discoveries may help understand how to support those suffering a loss.
Have Your Cake And Eat It Too: An Exploration of Cheating in Dating Relations...malexjohnson
The document presents findings from a study exploring cheating in dating relationships. It summarizes previous literature on the topic and outlines two hypotheses: that those in long-distance relationships or who spend less time with their partner will be more likely to cheat. Interviews with 3 subjects who had cheated supported some hypotheses, finding intoxication and emotional attraction increased cheating, though effects on relationships were minimal.
This chapter discusses gender differences in delinquency. It explores biological, psychological, social, and feminist theories for why males generally have higher delinquency rates than females. However, the gender gap has been narrowing. The chapter examines how gender affects socialization and development from infancy. Factors like cognitive differences, personality traits, and dysfunctional family lives may partially explain differing delinquency rates between males and females. The chapter also analyzes how gender influences treatment within the juvenile justice system.
The document summarizes research on the implications of child abuse. It describes 10 studies that find child abuse victims often experience mental health issues like PTSD, depression, anxiety and substance abuse. They also face social and behavioral problems including aggression, low self-esteem and feelings of helplessness. The conclusion states that child abuse dramatically affects victims' development and mental well-being for life.
Females had a more positive attitude towards romantic relationships than males. There was no significant gender difference in views on what a partner can provide or physical attractiveness. Males held more traditional views supporting the concept of double standards in relationships compared to females. The study found both similarities and differences in how males and females view romantic and sexual relationships, contradicting some past research. Further research should examine the influence of other factors like religion and relationship status.
This document discusses the factors a young lesbian woman may face in coming out, including 5 stages of coming out (pre-coming out, coming out, role confusion, exploration, and the first relationship). It also addresses coming out to family (as a daughter and sister), children (as a parent), at work, and issues with religion/spirituality. Additionally, it examines femme vs butch identities and notes gaps in research about cultural differences, abuse/neglect, and coming out at different life stages.
The document describes a study that aimed to 1) examine the relationships between peer pressure, conformity, and popularity and how they predict risk behaviors, and 2) develop and validate shorter measures of peer pressure and conformity for use in large-scale testing of adolescents. The study developed and validated short 10-item scales of peer pressure and conformity in a sample of 148 adolescent boys and girls. Results showed the new scales had good internal consistency. Peer pressure and conformity were found to be stronger predictors of risk behaviors like substance abuse than measures of popularity or general conformity. The new short scales of peer pressure and conformity were found to be equally or more predictive of risk behaviors than existing longer scales.
1) The document discusses social desirability response bias, which is the tendency for people to respond to questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others or society, even if their responses do not fully reflect reality.
2) Past research has found that self-reports of personality and behavior can be influenced by social desirability bias, tending to under-report undesirable qualities. Several studies examined social desirability bias in children's self-reports of aggression.
3) The document reviews methods that have been used to measure and account for social desirability response bias, such as peer reports and observations, which may provide a more accurate perspective than self-reports.
This document is a resume for Ayman A. Darwish, a Syrian national seeking a long-term position in a prestigious UAE company. It outlines his contact information, career objective, qualifications, job description, career progression, education, and personal details. His qualifications include being self-motivated, able to work in a team, communicate well in English, and adapt to new environments. His job description involves processing visa applications and maintaining documentation for a company.
This document contains a shot list for a music video. It describes 10 scenes with multiple shots in each scene. The shots include static shots, tracking shots, close-ups, and wide shots of a group of teenagers camping in the woods. They will be singing, dancing, drinking, and enjoying themselves around a campfire at night. Nature shots will also be included. The video will open and close with zooming shots of the campfire as the group sits around it at the beginning and end of the night.
For legal process outsourcing Australia visit Addcapacity.com.au to get most efficient legal outsourcing service. Visit: http://www.addcapacity.com.au/
The Sara Lee Foundation was founded in 1981 to formalize the company's dedication to community service. It provides strategic funding support for food-related projects, programs to support women's self-sufficiency, and diversity initiatives. One of its key programs is the Second Harvest Food Bank of Greater New Orleans and Acadiana Backpack Program, which provides nutritious food for children on weekends and summers to ensure they have enough to eat at home. The foundation promotes critical thinking, reading, and action through its efforts to help communities in need.
13 Gründe für das Scheitern Digitaler Transformationsprozesse - by 40° Gmbh L...40° Labor für Innovation
Was sind die Gründe für das Scheitern von Transformations- und Veränderungsprozessen - insb. vor dem Hintergrund der Digitalen Transformation? Hier sind 13 von ihnen kompakt zusammengetragen ...
The document contains two figures showing different heat sink designs. Figure 1 shows an initial heat sink design. Figure 2 then shows the final heat sink design that was potentially improved upon from the initial design shown in Figure 1.
These guidelines can be applied on information source program that manages saved information using only its relational abilities. This is a basis concept, which acts as a base for all the other guidelines.
This document summarizes research on differences in deception between homosexual and heterosexual intimate relationships. The main findings discussed are:
1) Heterosexual couples, especially heterosexual males, engage in deception more frequently than homosexual couples.
2) Homosexual relationships tend to involve less traditional gender roles and social norms, reducing motives for deception compared to heterosexual relationships.
3) Homosexual couples experience less jealousy and have more effective conflict resolution, further reducing reasons for deception.
This study investigated the relationship between personality traits, length of friendship, and assumed similarity among college student friends. 86 student participants completed personality assessments about themselves and their friend. Results showed that friends had significantly similar personalities, though this was not significantly affected by length of friendship. Extraversion and Neuroticism showed some weak correlations with assumed similarity, but the relationships failed to achieve statistical significance. The study provided additional data on personality similarity and assumed similarity among friends.
Topics of Conflict in Romantic RelationshipsBrittany Weber
This study investigated topics of conflict in romantic relationships between men and women. The researcher hypothesized that men would report more conflict about sexual behavior, while women would report more conflict about intimacy. Undergraduate students completed questionnaires about their relationships. Results of t-tests showed no significant gender differences in reported topics of conflict regarding sexual behavior or intimacy. The hypotheses were not supported. Future research with both partners' perspectives could provide more accurate insights into sources of relationship conflict.
Academic Research Project - The effect of peer relations on depression in Hom...Peneyra
This document summarizes an academic research project analyzing the effects of peer relations on depression in homosexual adolescents. The study examined hypotheses about higher stress and lower self-esteem in sexual minorities, as well as differences in peer networks, friendships, and levels of being "out." The results provided partial support for the hypotheses, showing some increased depression and anxiety in sexual minorities but no effects on self-esteem. Differences in peer networks depended on age and being out, rather than sexuality alone. The study suggests adolescent experiences are more complex than previously thought.
Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms and the Tightknittedness” o.docxgalerussel59292
Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms and the “Tightknittedness” of
Friendship Groups
Sonja E. Siennick and Mayra Picon
Florida State University
Adolescents with depression have lower peer status overall, but tend to befriend each other. We examined the
“tightknittedness” of their friendship groups by testing whether adolescent friendship groups’ average levels of or vari-
ability in internalizing symptoms predict group cohesiveness. We used four waves (9th–12th grades) of survey and
social network data on 3,013 friendship groups from the PROmoting School-Community-University Partnerships to
Enhance Resilience study. Friendship groups with higher average depressive symptoms were less cohesive; groups
with higher average anxiety symptoms had greater reciprocity. Groups with greater variability in depressive symptoms
had greater density; variability in anxiety symptoms was not consistently associated with cohesion. The friendship
groups of depressed adolescents appear less cohesive than the “typical” adolescent friendship group.
When compared with their peers, adolescents with
more depressive symptoms have fewer friends,
have less stable friendships, and are more often
victimized and rejected by their peers (Chan &
Poulin, 2009; Kochel, Ladd, & Rudolph, 2012; Rose
et al., 2011; Stice, Ragan, & Randall, 2004). Yet
depressive symptoms also are a basis for friend-
ship formation, such that adolescents experiencing
these symptoms tend to be friends with each other
(Cheadle & Goosby, 2012; Hogue & Steinberg,
1995; Schaefer, Kornienko, & Fox, 2011). This
means that even if they have lower status in their
larger peer networks, many adolescents with
depressive symptoms do have friends, and those
friends often have depressive symptoms them-
selves. Thus many youth with depressive symp-
toms are likely embedded in friendship groups of
adolescents with similar symptoms. Yet we do not
know whether these friendship groups are as cohe-
sive as the groups formed by youth without
depressive symptoms, or whether they are
structurally weaker and thus not comparable sub-
stitutes, at least in terms of cohesion, for typical
friendship groups. Most studies of depressive
symptoms and peer networks have focused on
dyadic interactions or on individual adolescents’
status within entire social networks, rather than on
friendship groups.
This study examined whether friendship groups
comprised of adolescents with more depressive
symptoms are smaller and “looser,” or less tight-
knit, than groups characterized by fewer depres-
sive symptoms. It also examined whether groups
whose members vary more in their levels of
depressive symptoms are smaller and less tight-
knit. Finally, it distinguished between symptoms of
depression and symptoms of anxiety, which stud-
ies suggest may have opposite effects on friendship
cohesion (Rose et al., 2011). To our knowledge, this
is the first paper to describe the internal cohesive-
ness of friendship groups with members who have
varying.
Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms and the Tightknittedness” o.docxAMMY30
Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms and the “Tightknittedness” of
Friendship Groups
Sonja E. Siennick and Mayra Picon
Florida State University
Adolescents with depression have lower peer status overall, but tend to befriend each other. We examined the
“tightknittedness” of their friendship groups by testing whether adolescent friendship groups’ average levels of or vari-
ability in internalizing symptoms predict group cohesiveness. We used four waves (9th–12th grades) of survey and
social network data on 3,013 friendship groups from the PROmoting School-Community-University Partnerships to
Enhance Resilience study. Friendship groups with higher average depressive symptoms were less cohesive; groups
with higher average anxiety symptoms had greater reciprocity. Groups with greater variability in depressive symptoms
had greater density; variability in anxiety symptoms was not consistently associated with cohesion. The friendship
groups of depressed adolescents appear less cohesive than the “typical” adolescent friendship group.
When compared with their peers, adolescents with
more depressive symptoms have fewer friends,
have less stable friendships, and are more often
victimized and rejected by their peers (Chan &
Poulin, 2009; Kochel, Ladd, & Rudolph, 2012; Rose
et al., 2011; Stice, Ragan, & Randall, 2004). Yet
depressive symptoms also are a basis for friend-
ship formation, such that adolescents experiencing
these symptoms tend to be friends with each other
(Cheadle & Goosby, 2012; Hogue & Steinberg,
1995; Schaefer, Kornienko, & Fox, 2011). This
means that even if they have lower status in their
larger peer networks, many adolescents with
depressive symptoms do have friends, and those
friends often have depressive symptoms them-
selves. Thus many youth with depressive symp-
toms are likely embedded in friendship groups of
adolescents with similar symptoms. Yet we do not
know whether these friendship groups are as cohe-
sive as the groups formed by youth without
depressive symptoms, or whether they are
structurally weaker and thus not comparable sub-
stitutes, at least in terms of cohesion, for typical
friendship groups. Most studies of depressive
symptoms and peer networks have focused on
dyadic interactions or on individual adolescents’
status within entire social networks, rather than on
friendship groups.
This study examined whether friendship groups
comprised of adolescents with more depressive
symptoms are smaller and “looser,” or less tight-
knit, than groups characterized by fewer depres-
sive symptoms. It also examined whether groups
whose members vary more in their levels of
depressive symptoms are smaller and less tight-
knit. Finally, it distinguished between symptoms of
depression and symptoms of anxiety, which stud-
ies suggest may have opposite effects on friendship
cohesion (Rose et al., 2011). To our knowledge, this
is the first paper to describe the internal cohesive-
ness of friendship groups with members who have
varying.
Jarryd willis LGBT & straight attachment bondsJarryd_Willis
This study compared attachment styles across relationship types (caregiver, romantic partner, cross-sex friend, same-sex friend) between heterosexual, lesbian/gay, and bisexual individuals. It found largely similar patterns in attachment anxiety for romantic partners between heterosexual and LGB individuals. However, LGB individuals showed greater attachment anxiety toward caregivers, likely due to fears of rejection upon coming out. The study also found relationship-specific changes in attachment anxiety depending on romantic status and sexual orientation. Overall, it provided further evidence that attachment theory applies similarly to heterosexual and LGB relationships, while also highlighting some unique aspects of caregiver attachment for LGB individuals.
Love and courtship on Gender and Development Course Lovelyn Garcia
The document discusses theories of relationship development and maintenance between men and women. Evolutionary theory suggests men value youth and attractiveness in mates as indicators of fertility, while women prefer mates with resources to help offspring survive. Social role theory links mate preferences to societal gender roles. Both genders desire support, companionship, honesty and kindness in relationships. Physical attractiveness holds more reward value for men. Relationship initiation is traditionally male-led but is becoming more equal. Intimacy, love and sexuality play roles in romantic relationships between all genders and orientations. Maintenance strategies include cognitive biases, accommodation, emotion skills and sexual activity.
Marital Conflict Correlates, Structure, and ContextFrank D. F.docxinfantsuk
Marital Conflict: Correlates, Structure, and Context
Frank D. Fincham1
Psychology, Department, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York
Abstract
Marital conflict has deleterious effects on mental, physical, and family health, and three decades of research have yielded a detailed picture of the behaviors that differentiate distressed from nondistressed couples. Review of this work shows that the singular emphasis on conflict in generating marital outcomes has yielded an incomplete picture of its role in marriage. Recently, researchers have tried to paint a more textured picture of marital conflict by studying spouses’ backgrounds and characteristics, investigating conflict in the contexts of support giving and affectional expression, and considering the ecological niche of couples in their broader environment.
Keywords
conflict patterns; marital distress; support
Systematic psychological research on marriage emerged largely among clinical psychologists who wanted to better assist couples experiencing marital distress. In the 30 years since this development, marital conflict has assumed a special status in the literature on marriage, as evidenced by three indices. First, many of the most influentialtheories of marriage tend to reflect the view that "distress results from couples' aversive and ineffectual response to conflict" (Koerner & Jacobson, 1994, p. 208). Second, research on marriage has focused on what spouses do when they disagree with each other, and reviews of marital interaction are dominated by studies of conflict and problem solving (see Weiss & Heyman, 1997). Third, psychological interventionsfor distressed couples often target conflict-resolution skills (see Baucom, Shoham, Mueser, Daiuto, & Stickle, 1998).
IS MARITAL CONFLICT IMPORTANT?
The attention given marital conflict is understandable when we consider its implications for mental, physical, and family health. Marital conflict has been linked to the onset of depressive symptoms, eating disorders, male alcoholism, episodic drinking, binge drinking, and out-of-home drinking. Although married individuals are healthier on average than the unmarried, marital conflict is associated with poorer health and with specific illnesses such as cancer, cardiac disease, and chronic pain, perhaps because hostile behaviors during conflict are related to alterations in immunological, endocrine, and cardiovascular functioning. Physical aggression occurs in about 30% of married couples in the United States, leading to significant physical injury in about 10% of couples. Marriage is also the most common interpersonal context for homicide, and more women are murdered by their partners than by anyone else. Finally, marital conflict is associated with important family outcomes, including poor parenting, poor adjustment of children, increased likelihood of parent-child conflict, and conflict between siblings. Marital conflicts that are frequent, intense, physical, unresolved, and child relat ...
The document summarizes key concepts related to interpersonal attraction and relationships. It defines affiliation and interpersonal attraction, and discusses principles and theories of attraction such as association, reinforcement, exchange theory, and balance theory. It also outlines determinants of attraction like physical characteristics, warmth, competence, and similarity. The document then examines friendship, romantic relationships, love, and homosexual relationships. It concludes by discussing troubled relationships, breakups, and the phases of ending a relationship.
1) Physical appearance plays an important role in initial attraction, but personality has also been shown to significantly impact perceived attractiveness.
2) Different theories have categorized types of love, including passionate love and companionate love, as well as Sternberg's triangular theory involving intimacy, commitment, and passion.
3) Dating customs have evolved significantly over time from parental-arranged marriages to today's more casual relationships, and this may contribute to rising divorce rates as compatibility issues emerge over long periods of time spent together.
1) Physical appearance plays an important role in initial attraction and dating success, though personality becomes more important over the long-term. Studies show men prioritize physical attractiveness more than women, especially for short-term relationships.
2) Different types of love - passionate, companionate, and commitment - factor into relationship satisfaction according to Sternberg's triangular theory of love. Healthy relationships incorporate all three.
3) Dating customs have evolved significantly over time from parental-arranged marriages to today's more casual relationships. This correlates with rising divorce rates as compatibility issues become clearer over the long run.
This document summarizes key aspects of social and personality development in early and middle adulthood. In early adulthood, intimacy and relationships are a focus as people seek partners. Happiness comes from independence, competence and relationships. In middle adulthood, generativity vs. stagnation involves guiding younger generations. Marital satisfaction follows a U-shape, declining after marriage but increasing as children leave home. Divorce rates are higher for second marriages. The "sandwich generation" cares for children and aging parents simultaneously.
Running head EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION ON MARITAL SATISFACTION.docxtodd271
Running head: EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION ON MARITAL SATISFACTION 1
The Effects of Communication Styles on Marital Satisfaction
Hannah Yager
University of West Florida
EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION ON MARITAL SATISFACTION 2
Abstract
The differences in communication styles between men and women have been a
topic of interest in the research world for many years. These differences may lead to
miscommunication, conflict, and even dissatisfaction between couples. This study
analyzes the communication styles among genders, more specifically among married
couples. It questions how differences in communication styles between married couples
married five years or less affect marital satisfaction. The study will be conducted
through the use of an interaction analysis. Its goal is to increase the amount of
knowledge regarding effective communication and how it relates to marital satisfaction
in order to ultimately aid in the rise of marital satisfaction and the decrease of the
divorce rate in the United States.
EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION ON MARITAL SATISFACTION 3
Today, divorce has become a very common part of life, and it is likely that
ineffective communication plays a crucial role in the failure of many marriages.
Communication may lead to the success of a marriage or to its detriment, depending on
its level of effectiveness. This effectiveness of communication is likely connected to the
overall satisfaction of married couples and is worthy to be studied in order to increase
marital satisfaction.
Learning more about the differences in communication styles between men and
women will aid in the more successful sending and receiving of messages, both verbal
and nonverbal. For example, a woman may communicate in a way that has meaning to
her. However, the man receiving the message may interpret it differently than she
intended due to their differences in communication style. This can cause conflict and
lead to further problems in the relationship. However, if the man decoding the message
were familiar with his wife’s style of communication, he may have interpreted it properly
therefore avoiding a conflict situation. The reverse, when men are communicating to
women, is also true. Husbands and wives are interdependent, and their level of
commitment and desire to maintain a healthy relationship often depends on the other
person (Weigel & Ballard-Reisch, 2008).
Conventional wisdom says that there is no such thing as lack of communication.
A person always communicates something, whether intentional or not. Becoming more
aware of how one’s own self communicates will also aid in more healthy communication
between spouses.
This literature review will discuss nonverbal communication styles, including
flirtation, and conflict communication, including communicated perspective-taking.
EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION ON MARITAL SATISFACTION 4
This study will further advance commun.
This document describes a study that aims to measure implicit and explicit attitudes about sociosexuality using both a self-report questionnaire and an Implicit Association Test (IAT). The study administered the Big-Five Inventory personality questionnaire, the Revised Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-R) to measure explicit sociosexuality, and a new IAT designed to measure implicit attitudes about casual versus monogamous relationships. The study aims to validate the new IAT by seeing if it predicts the same relationships as the explicit SOI-R. Results from the personality questionnaire will also be used to predict scores on both the implicit and explicit sociosexuality measures. This will provide evidence about whether certain personality traits can predict both implicit
This document summarizes a study that examined psychological differences between men and women. The study re-analyzed data from 13 previous studies involving over 13,000 people and assessed 122 traits. It found that men and women are largely psychologically the same. Only a few exceptions existed, and traits generally overlapped between men and women rather than dividing into two distinct groups. The study challenges common beliefs that psychological differences between men and women are significant or can reliably categorize a person's gender.
Dyadic Coping and Attachment Dimensions in Young Adult Romantic RelationshipsAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Dyadic coping conceives coping as a response in which partners support each other
and cope with stress as a couple rather than individuals, but little is known of the factors that lead to
dyadic coping. The present study aims to explore the relationship between dyadic coping and adult
attachment. That is, to examine whether an individual’s attachment style is a predictor of their own
dyadic coping style and their partner’s dyadic coping style. Online, survey data was collected from 74
childless couples, between the ages of 18 and 31, who had been in their relationships for over 6
months. Overall, analysis showed stronger associations between dyadic coping and attachment for
females, with minimal associations for males. The results of the present study are supportive of the
existing literature, though provide opportunities for further research.
KEYWORDS: dyadic coping, coping, attachment, romantic relationships, APIM
This document discusses gender differences and similarities in same-sex and cross-sex friendships. It argues that while same-sex friendships appear different for men and women based on gender stereotypes, there are also many similarities in what each gender desires from friendships. Cross-sex friendships face additional complexity due to societal expectations of romantic intent between men and women. Gender plays an influential role in shaping friendship norms but may not reflect the realities of how men and women engage in actual friendships.
Gender issues in psychology: Interaction Styles in Childhood and AdulthoodLaiba Aftab Malik
Interaction Styles in Childhood, prosocial dominance, egoistic dominance, gender segregation cycle, Prisoner’s dilemma task, the peer pressure, gender-consistent or gender-inconsistent language, the cultural influence
Similar to FINAL VERSION OF THESIS - TURNED IN!!!! (20)
Gender issues in psychology: Interaction Styles in Childhood and Adulthood
FINAL VERSION OF THESIS - TURNED IN!!!!
1. Effect of Peer 1
Running head: EFFECT OF PEER RELATIONSHIPS
The Effect of Peer Relationships on the Human Stress Response in Gay Males: An Exploratory
Study
Ashleigh Vogle
2. Effect of Peer 2
Abstract
This research addressed the construct of co-rumination in the gay population. Co-
rumination is extensive problem discussion and focusing on negative emotions (Rose, 2002).
Past research looking at same-sex female friendships has indicated that co-rumination is related
to having close relationships as well as being related to an increase in the stress hormone,
cortisol, which can elevate depression and anxiety (Byrd-Craven et al., in press). In addition, past
research has suggested that some gay men may have social styles that are similar to female
friendships (Dorfman et. al, 1995; Schneider and Witherspoon, 2000). This study involved 8
pairs of gay friends (N = 16) and utilized an experimental manipulation that elicited co-
rumination and was representative of the participant’s everyday response to stress. Participant
pairs were randomly assigned to a problem talk condition or a control condition. I found that gay
men engaged in higher levels of co-rumination when they were in a problem-talk condition
compared to those in a control condition. However, gay men did not experience rises in cortisol
in response to co-rumination. Finally, co-rumination in gay men was related to negative affect.
3. Effect of Peer 3
The Effect of Peer Relationships on the Human Stress Response in Gay Males: An Exploratory
Study
Friends play an integral part in our lives. Our friends give us a sense of belongingness,
support us, and provide a sounding board for us. We always have someone that we can count on
even if it’s just to hang out and watch television together, due to friends. Although overall
friends are very beneficial, sometimes there are disadvantages to having friends. Friends can
have a negative impact and even transfer distress to us. However, not all friendships are alike.
Some friends provide social support, and some friends transfer a lot of stress, whereas others
transfer hardly any stress at all.
The trade-offs in friendships are even more pronounced when we look at differences in
female and male friendships. On average, men tend to engage in larger groups of friends and
form bonds by participating in shared activities. Many men enjoy direct competition and prefer
to do activities with friends such as playing a game together or engaging in a physical activity.
Women, on the other hand, tend to, on average, engage in smaller groups of dyads or triads of
friends and form bonds through telling each other secrets and their feelings, self-disclosure.
Women, on average, do not enjoy the direct competition that males do. Women prefer less
competitive activities. Going to a coffee shop and talking for an hour with a close friend would
be something that was more characteristic of a female friendship (Byrd-Craven & Geary, 2007)
Due to the different characteristics of male and female friendships, men and women
emphasize different things within their friendships. What different characteristics are male and
female friendships emphasizing, and how do these different friendship characteristics affect men
and women’s’ well-being? Questions such as this are important. However, most previous
research concerning friendship has looked at heterosexual men and women. Although
4. Effect of Peer 4
heterosexual male and heterosexual female friendships are the most typical, gay men and lesbian
women’s friendships are important as well, and may have important features that impact overall
well-being. This paper will attempt to address differences of female and male friendships, as well
as address gay men’s friendships and how these friendships affect them.
Carbery and Buhrmester (1998) examined the different roles of friends through three
phases of young adulthood. They found that women reported receiving more affection, intimacy,
and guidance/advice from friends than men did. Also, they found that married women remain
more dependent on their friends than married men, despite the shift of focus to their spouse. This
research suggests that women are more dependent on their friends than men. In a two-part study,
Grabill and Kerns (2000) looked at the relationship between attachment styles and intimacy in
friendship. They studied three intimacy characteristics. The three intimacy characteristics were
the following: feeling validated, understood, and cared for by a partner throughout conversations;
self-disclosure; and frequency of response to a partner’s disclosure. In the first study, they found
that women reported more self-disclosure, more responsiveness, and felt responded to at a
greater degree by others significantly more than men. In the second study, they found female
friends engaged in and reported more intimacy than male friends in either instance. Grabill and
Kerns (2000) speculate that their results suggest that individuals who are seeking out intimacy
with others try to fill this void by self-disclosing.
So far, research examining males and females friendships has been documented.
However, the topic of gay men’s friendships has not been addressed. It has been established that
men and women’s friendships are quite different, but where do gay men’s friendships fall? Are
gay men’s friendships a reflection of typical female or male friendships, or do they fall into a
category all of their own? This topic is of particular interest because so little research examining
5. Effect of Peer 5
the characteristics of gay men’s friendships is available. Also, little if any research is available
examining how gay men’s friendships affect their well-being.
Galupo (2007) examined friendship patterns of gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals.
Galupo found that gay and bisexual men reported having more cross-sex friendships than lesbian
and bisexual women. An exploratory study by Schneider and Witherspoon (2000) examined
friendships of gay, lesbian, and heterosexual male and female youth. Schneider and Witherspoon
found that 50 percent of gay men’s friends are women on average. Additionally, they found that
68 percent of their friends are on average heterosexual. Finally, they found that heterosexual
female youth and gay men talk with friends more often than either heterosexual male youth or
lesbians. This research could suggest that gay men tend to gravitate toward friendships with
heterosexual women. Furthermore, the research suggests that gay men, on average, may have
friendships that are similar to friendships among heterosexual girls and women.
Dorfman et. al (1995) examined the varying types of social support for homosexual and
heterosexual men and women. They found that although older heterosexual men and gay men
possess the same levels of social support, their sources of social support were different.
Heterosexual men relied on support from family for social support; whereas, gay men relied on
friends for their social support. Although this research was done on older gay men, it is important
because it is evidence that gay men are relying on social support from friends more heavily then
heterosexual males.
The general characteristics of heterosexual female friendships have been examined;
however, how are these friendships impacting the well-being of women? Uchino et. al (1999)
suggests that friendships have a positive effect on individuals. They found that individuals who
received high levels of social support had lower blood pressure than individuals who received
6. Effect of Peer 6
lower levels of social support. Also, the studies they reviewed suggested that social support is
related to a stronger immune response. Additionally, many of the studies found that individuals
who possessed high levels of social support also had more robust natural killer responses
compared to individuals who had lower levels of social support systems. Finally, they
acknowledge that stress, among other environmental factors, can lead to the release of cortisol.
Chronic cortisol release can then dampen the immune system. Although social support can be
related to an improvement in our health, can social support from friends be harmful?
Stroud et. al (2002) examined adrenocortical responses in men and women in response to
social rejection stressors and achievement stressors. The social rejection stressor involved a
gradual rejection and exclusion by confederates in the experiment, and the achievement stressor
involved verbal and math challenges. They found that men’s cortisol levels rose significantly
more than women’s in response to the achievement stressors. They also found that women’s
cortisol levels rose significantly more than men’s in response to the social rejection stressors.
Stroud et. al’s research, “suggests that women may not only use interpersonal strategies to cope
with stress but also may show greater physiological responses to interpersonal events” (p. 323).
Rose (2002) looked at a specific aspect of friendships, co-rumination. “Co-rumination
refers to excessively discussing personal problems with a dyadic relationship and is characterized
by frequently discussing problems, discussing the same problem repeatedly, mutal
encouragement of discussing problems, speculating about problems, and focusing on negative
feelings” (p. 1830). Rose examined the levels and the impact of co-rumination in boys’ and girls’
friendship interactions. She found that girls engaged in co-rumination significantly more than
boys did. Also, she found that co-rumination was related to increased friendship quality as well
as an increase in emotional maladjustment.
7. Effect of Peer 7
Rose et. al (2007) examined the relationship between emotional maladjustment and
friendship quality as it relates to co-rumination in girls and boys. They found that co-rumination
predicted feelings of positive friendship quality as well as an increase in feelings of closeness.
However, in girls, co-rumination also predicted increases in anxiety and depression. Co-
rumination did not predict an increase in anxiety and depression in boys. Finally, Byrd-Craven
et. al (2008) examined the relationship between co-rumination and cortisol in same-sex female
friendships. Same-sex friend dyads were randomly assigned to a problem-talk condition in which
the friends discussed problems or to a control condition where they designed a recreation center.
They found that friends in the problem-talk condition engaged in higher levels of co-rumination
than friends in the control condition. Also, they found that co-rumination predicted increases in
cortisol. Co-rumination is an important construct to examine within friendships because although
there are positive characteristics of friendships such as feeling close to your friend, there are
trade-offs as well. Co-rumination is related to an increase in internalizing symptoms, such as
anxiety and depression as well as increases in cortisol levels in women.
How exactly could physiological responses, such as an increase in cortisol, affect
individuals? In a meta-analysis by Dickerson and Kemeny (2004) they write:
Prolonged cortisol activation (produced by frequent exposure to stressors or by failing to
shut down thus response after stressor termination) is associated with a number of
negative biological and health effects, including suppression of aspects of the immune
system (e.g., decreased lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production); damage to
hippocampal neurons; and the development and/or progression of certain chronic diseases
such as diabetes and hypertension (p. 356).
8. Effect of Peer 8
If co-rumination is shown to increase levels of cortisol while friends are talking about their
problems in a lab setting, then this could suggest that each time when friends are co-ruminating
outside of a lab their cortisol levels are raising. If friends are co-ruminating frequently, then they
may be suffering from prolonged cortisol activation, which could have serious effects on health
outcomes. Additionally, co-rumination has been related to anxiety and depression in women,
which shows that it impacts psychological health as well.
Previous research has suggested that gay men talk to their friends at higher levels, which
are more similar to heterosexual female youth, than lesbians or heterosexual male youth
(Schneider and Witherspoon, 2000). Also, older gay men tend to rely more on friends for social
support than heterosexual men. It is possible that gay men have similar friendship styles
compared to heterosexual females. In this exploratory study, I will be examining the following
hypotheses 1) gay men will engage in higher levels of co-rumination when they are in a problem-
talk condition compared to those in a control condition; 2) gay men will experience rises in
cortisol in response to co-rumination 3) co-rumination in gay men will be related to negative
affect.
Method
Participants
Participants involved in the study attend a large coeducational research university in the
Midwest. The age of the participants was estimated to be between 18 and 23 years old.
Participants were recruited from the psychology participant pool, fliers, and the university’s
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) organization. There were 16 participants in the
study (8 friendship dyads). Friendship dyads were composed of gay men who indicated that they
9. Effect of Peer 9
were close, platonic friends. Participants received course credit or were entered into a raffle to
win $50.
Procedure
Participants completed a Problem Generation questionnaire and the Co-rumination
questionnaire. Participants completed the experiment in approximately 60 minutes. Participants
were randomly assigned to the Problem Talk condition (6 dyads) or the Control condition (2
dyads). Saliva samples were collected from participants after completion of the informed
consent. Participants then completed the Problem Generation questionnaire, and afterwards they
were video recorded for five minutes in a warm-up task of planning a menu. Dyads were not
informed which condition they would be assigned to until after their pre-task cortisol measure
was taken in order to avoid group effects of task anticipation. Participants in the Problem Talk
and Control conditions were video recorded during the seventeen-minute discussion periods.
Participants assigned to the Problem Talk condition each selected one problem from the Problem
Generation questionnaire to discuss. Participants in the Problem Talk condition were asked to
talk about either their problem, their friend’s problem, or both problems in a similar manner they
would talk about their problems together in everyday life. Participants assigned to the Control
condition were asked to design an amusement park. The amusement park was selected as the
activity for the Control condition because it is a neutral cooperative activity that involves no
social dimension. Through this activity, we were able to determine if fluctuations in cortisol were
primarily due to social and inter-personal nature of tasks. After participants completed the
discussion periods they were separated into two areas of the room, given instructions not interact
with each other. Saliva samples were collected fifteen minutes after the task. Finally, participants
completed the Co-rumination questionnaire.
10. Effect of Peer 10
Saliva samples were collected immediately after completion of the informed consent and
15-20 minutes post-task. Saliva samples were collected 15-20 minutes after the task because at
this time cortisol levels are likely at their post-stressor peak. During the time that dyads were
separated into the two areas of the room to prevent further interaction, they looked at home,
garden, travel, furniture, or architecture magazines for 15 minutes.
Determination of Salivary Analytes
Participants were instructed to avoid eating a large meal, caffeine, and nicotine an hour
before they came to the laboratory. These instructions were given to avoid potential confounding
features of HPA responses. Saliva was collected by participants holding 1 x 4 CM absorbent
swabs in their mouths for 1 to 2 minutes. Saliva saturated swabs were stored at -20°C until
shipped overnight on dry-ice to Penn State University. Samples were assayed for cortisol
(enzyme immunoassay) using commercially available regents (Salimetrics, State College, PA)
without modification to the manufacturers recommended protocols. Cortisol levels area reported
in micrograms per deciliter (ug/dL). Cortisol assays have average intra- and inter-assay
coefficients of variations less than 15 percent.
Measures
Problem Generation and Salience questionnaire (Rose et al., 2005)
Participants generated three current problems and wrote short descriptions of them. They
also rated these problems on varying dimensions such as how much the problem bothered them,
how in control they felt in regard to their problem, and if it would be easy to solve the problem.
All of these dimensions were rated on a 5 point Likert scale. This questionnaire was included as
a tool to assess factors that would influence participants’ pre-task cortisol levels.
11. Effect of Peer 11
Co-rumination questionnaire (Rose, 2002)
Participants rated 27 items assessing co-rumination with same-sex friends on a 5-point
scale. Items assessed focusing on negative affect, rehashing problems, mutual encouragement of
problems, discussing problems extensively, and speculating about problems. Items measured a
more extreme form of problem discussion compared to items typically used to measure
normative self-disclosure (e.g., “When we talk about a problem that one of us has, we usually
talk about that problem every day even if nothing new has happened”).
Coding
The system of coding co-rumination of Rose et al. (2005) was adapted for this study.
Both conditions of the seventeen minute interactions were coded on four dimensions of co-
rumination: rehashing problems, speculating about causes and consequences of problems,
focusing on negative affect, and mutual encouragement of problem talk. Coders rated each dyad
on a 5-point Likert scale to the degree in which the dyad was characterized by the dimension.
Two or three coders rated each interaction. For each dimension, inter-rater reliability was high
(range = .80 to .91). The sum of the scores across the four dimensions was the equivalent of the
total observed co-rumination scores.
Results
Analytic Strategy
Cortisol scores were positively skewed. A natural log transformation was used in all
analyses to normalize distributions (Gordis et al., 2006).
For this study, I tested three hypotheses. First, I predicted that gay men would engage in
higher levels of co-rumination when they are in a problem-talk condition compared to those in a
control condition. This hypothesis was supported. A one-way ANOVA revealed that gay men
12. Effect of Peer 12
engaged in significantly higher levels of co-rumination when they were in a problem-talk
condition compared to those in a control condition, F(1,14) = 118.243, p<.001. Second, I
predicted that gay men would experience rises in cortisol in response to co-rumination. A
regression analysis was conducted to determine the effect of co-rumination on post-task cortisol
levels. Post-task cortisol levels were predicted from observed co-rumination. Pre-task cortisol
was used as a covariate. The effect of observed co-rumination was not significant, β = .048, t(1,
15) = .370, p = .717. Thus, this hypothesis was not supported. Finally, I predicted that co-
rumination in gay men will be related to negative affect. A regression analysis was conducted to
determine the effect of co-rumination on negative affect. The effect of co-rumination was
significant, β = .841, t(1, 15) =5.814, p<.001. Please refer to Appendix 1 for means and standard
deviations of all measures.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the frequency of co-rumination in gay men
and if increasing levels of co-rumination is related to increasing levels of cortisol. Gay men who
talked about their problems engaged in significantly higher levels of co-rumination than gay men
who did not discuss their problems. There was no significant effect of co-rumination on cortisol
levels. We did not find increased levels of cortisol with increased levels of co-rumination. Co-
rumination was shown to be related to negative affect. In Byrd-Craven et. al (2008) a study with
heterosexual women the mean in the Problem Talk condition was 13.68 (SD = 2.56) and the
mean in the Control condition was 7.65 (SD = 2.77) Additionally, the finding that gay males
engage in co-rumination is consistent with other previous research. Schneider and Witherspoon’s
(2000) research suggests that gay men, on average, may have friendships that are similar to
friendships among heterosexual female youth. They found that gay men talk with friends at
13. Effect of Peer 13
frequencies that are similar to heterosexual female youth, which is significantly more than
lesbians and heterosexual male youth. Additionally, Dorfman et. al, (1995) researched the social
support systems of gay men and found that gay men depend on social support from their friends
significantly more than heterosexual men. Finally, Grabill and Kerns’ (2000) research found that
women seek out intimacy with others through self-disclosure. All of this research supports the
idea that gay men are engaging in co-rumination. Gay men and heterosexual women are both
having more conversations with their friends than lesbians or heterosexual men. Also, gay men,
similar to heterosexual women depend on their friends for social support. Heterosexual women
tend to self-disclose to their friends in an attempt to increase intimacy in the relationship, and
this study could suggest that gay men are perhaps doing the same thing. Possibly they are
disclosing information to their friends in an attempt to increase intimacy as well. It would appear
that there is a considerable degree of overlap in the friendship styles of gay men and heterosexual
women.
Although it appears that gay men have some similar friendship characteristics as
heterosexual women, their cortisol levels are not increasing in a response to the co-rumination.
This is interesting because past research found that increased levels of co-rumination of
heterosexual females led to increases in cortisol (Byrd-Craven et al., 2008; Byrd-Craven et al., in
press). Perhaps gay men did not have responses in cortisol because co-rumination isn’t stressful
to them. Stroud et. al’s (2002) research found that men’s cortisol levels rose significantly more
than women’s cortisol levels when they experienced achievement stressors, and women’s
cortisol levels rose significantly more than men’s cortisol levels when they experienced social
rejection stressors. Maybe gay men didn’t experience a rise in cortisol levels due to something
because of their biological make-up.
14. Effect of Peer 14
Another explanation why there wasn’t a significant increase in cortisol in response to co-
rumination could be due to the small sample size of this study. Perhaps if there were more
participants in this study a better representation of this population would have been accounted for
and an increase in cortisol could be apparent in response to co-rumination. One final reason why
there wasn’t a cortisol increase in response to co-rumination could be due to cortisol levels that
are already raised when participants arrived at the experiment. Participants could have come into
the laboratory with anticipatory stress, due to the nature of the experiment. Researching a special
population in a conservative city most likely put some stress on participants. Also, since this
study was conducted in one session participants were not able to get acclimated to the laboratory.
The mean for the pre-task cortisol was -1.67 and the mean for the post-task cortisol was -1.81
which doesn’t appear to be that great of a difference. Possibly their pre-task cortisol is a
reflection of an already elevated stress response, thus a further increase in cortisol is not possible
or not as likely.
Finally, the finding that co-rumination is related to negative affect is consistent with
previous research on heterosexual girls and women (Rose et al., 2007; Byrd-Craven et al., 2008;
Byrd-Craven et al., in press). This has been posited as a potential link between engaging in co-
rumination and depression and anxiety symptoms (Byrd-Craven et al., in press). This finding
suggests the co-rumination may have costs for gay men as well, and that there is some transfer of
distress. Gay men may be more relationship-focused than heterosexual men, and in addition to
societal issues they face (e.g., discrimination), may be more likely to show internalizing
symptoms. Excessively discussing these problems with a close friend may, ironically, do more
harm than good.
15. Effect of Peer 15
As limitations are present in all research, this study is no exception. One of the biggest
limitations in this study is the small sample size. Doing research which involves special
populations is definitely challenging, and this challenge was present in this study as well. Future
research of this area could include a larger sample size to increase the power of the study. By
increasing the sample size this would allow future researchers to determine if cortisol levels are
increasing in response to increased levels of co-rumination or if they weren’t. Another limitation
of this study includes the session style. If participants were getting anxious because of the
laboratory setting and because of the nature of the study (research involving gay men in a very
conservative city) then this confound could be ameliorated by breaking up the experiment into
two sessions. The first session could be devoted to filling out questionnaires, and the second
session could involve participants being video recorded in the menu planning warm up task as
well as being video recorded in either the problem talk or the control condition. This would
allow participants to become acquainted and feel comfortable in the lab setting. Then, more
accurate cortisol measures could be ensured.
Additionally, future research could examine friendships of gay men and heterosexual
women. Schneider and Witherspoon’s (2000) research revealed that gay men’s friendships were
composed of 68 percent heterosexual women. It would be very interesting to look at the
friendships of gay men and heterosexual women and see if co-rumination is present in their
friendships in addition to examining if co-rumination increased cortisol levels.
16. Effect of Peer 16
References
Byrd-Craven, J., & Geary, D. C. (2007). Biological and evolutionary contributions to
developmental sex differences. Reproductive BioMedicine, 15, 10-20.
Byrd-Craven, J., Geary, D. C., Rose, A. J., & Ponzi, D. (2008). Co-ruminating increases stress
hormones in women. Hormones and Behavior, 53, 489-492.
Byrd-Craven, J., Granger, D.A., & Auer, B. J. (in press). Stress reactivity to co-rumination in
young women’s friendships: The relationship between cortisol and alpha-amylase.
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships.
Carbery, J., & Buhrmester, D. (1998). Friendship and need fulfillment during three phases of
young adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(3), 393-409.
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical
integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130(4), 355-391.
Dorfman, R., Walters, K., Burke, P., Hardin, L., & Karanik, T. (1995). Old, sad and alone: The
myth of the aging homosexual. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 24(1/2), 29-44.
Galupo, M. P. (2007). Friendship patterns of sexual minority individuals in adulthood. Journal of
Social and Personal Relationships, 24(1), 139-151.
Grabill, C. M., & Kerns, K. A. (2000). Attachment style and intimacy in friendship. Personal
Relationships, 7, 363-378.
Rose, A. J. (2002). Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Development, 73(6),
1830-1843.
Rose, A. J., Carlson, W., & Waller, E. M. (2007). Prospective associations of co-rumination with
friendship and emotional adjustment: Considering the socioemotional trade-offs of co-
rumination. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 1019-1031.
17. Effect of Peer 17
Schneider, M. S. & Witherspoon, J. J. (2000). Friendship patterns among lesbian and gay youth:
An exploratory study. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 9(4), 239-246.
Stroud, L.A., Salovey, P., & Epel, E. S. (2002). Sex differences in stress response: Social
rejection versus achievement stress. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 52, 318-327.
Uchino, B. N., Uno, D., & Holt-Lunstad, J. (1999). Social support, physiological processes, and
health. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(5), 145-148.
18. Effect of Peer 18
Appendix 1
Measures Group Mean Standard Deviation
Observed co-rumination Problem Talk condition 12.58 1.49
Observed co-rumination Control condition 4.25 .29
Post-task cortisol Problem Talk condition -1.74 .78
Post-task cortisol Control condition -2.02 .29
Observed negative affect Problem Talk condition 2.83 .39
Observed negative affect Control condition 1.00 .01