- The document describes a study that aimed to identify personal characteristics that differentiate successful entrepreneurs from others using objective tests.
- It administered interviews and tests measuring needs for achievement, autonomy, aggression, recognition, independence and leadership to 60 male entrepreneurs.
- The study found few differences between 22 black and 34 white entrepreneurs, supporting the hypothesis of no racial differences. It did find white entrepreneurs had businesses longer and were more likely to cite a special idea.
This report focuses on the different types of organisational behavior and how they apply to Morrison's supermarkets. It looks at the work of F.W. Taylors Scientific Management and Motivation (Hertzberg and McGregor). Complete with Harvard referencing and 3,191 words, 21 pages.
This report focuses on the different types of organisational behavior and how they apply to Morrison's supermarkets. It looks at the work of F.W. Taylors Scientific Management and Motivation (Hertzberg and McGregor). Complete with Harvard referencing and 3,191 words, 21 pages.
Industry Insights: Productivity on a Plate?Simon Elliot
White Paper: Exploring the connection between employee amenities, productivity and labor turnover and how a cost can be turned around to a tangible and valuable strategic business investment.
Influence of Labour Turnover on Business Growth: A Case Study of Petrol Stati...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance (IOSR-JEF) discourages theoretical articles that are limited to axiomatics or that discuss minor variations of familiar models. Similarly, IOSR-JEF has little interest in empirical papers that do not explain the model's theoretical foundations or that exhausts themselves in applying a new or established technique (such as cointegration) to another data set without providing very good reasons why this research is important.
Leadership Styles of Industrial Engineers in Pottery Industries in PampangaIJAEMSJORNAL
The researchers conducted this study which evaluated the leadership styles of industrial engineers in pottery industries in Pampanga in the Philippines. The twenty-six (26) respondents were profiled and the correlation between each characteristic and the three leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, and free-reign (laissez-faire), was computed. After analyzing the results, it was observed that most of the respondents favored a democratic leadership style. Moreover, the researchers draw out that as the young IE supervisors tend to support free-reign leadership less as compared to older IE supervisors.
Over the years, business analysts, economists, and academic researchers have pondered several theories that attempt to explain the dynamics of business organizations, including the ways in which they make decisions, distribute power and control, resolve conflict, and promote or resist organizational change.
“Exploring the Relationship between Personality and Job Performance” "New App...inventionjournals
This paper investigates the relationship between personality and job performance of the fivefactor model with job performance. Personality psychology is concerned with the analysis and theories surrounded by the personality are related to the five factors. Conscientiousness and extraversion appear to be positively correlated with productivity and performance. Neuroticism and agreeableness are negatively correlated with leadership capabilities. Individuals make high performance on conscientiousness, while individuals missing conscientiousness and having neuroticism tend to perform poorly at work.
The Role of Personalitytraits in Predicting the Individualdesire Forentrepren...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: In terms of leadership, management, innovation, efficiency, making job, competition,productivity and establishing new companies, entrepreneurship contributes significantly in economic growth. It was believed that the entrepreneurshipwaslike a necessary revolution for the society. The present research aimed to investigate the relation of the personality traits in predicting the entrepreneurial acts among the students. Thiswas a descriptive correlational-based study. In the present paper, the sample populationwasthe students of Isfahan University from 2016-2017. The sample with 120 participants was chosen by the available method. For thispurpose, thesoftware SPSS wasused. In order to gather data from Neoʼs inventory on five factor measures Robins and Colter’s organizational entrepreneurshipwasused. The result of the study showed that the entrepreneurship was positively correlated with personality traits like extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and conscientioness and negatively correlated with neuroticism. The result from the regression analysisillustrated that the personality trait like extraversion has the highest strength in predicting the entrepreneurship among the students. On this base, it could be concluded that the personality traits including effective factors in the individual desire for entrepreneurship.
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Industry Insights: Productivity on a Plate?Simon Elliot
White Paper: Exploring the connection between employee amenities, productivity and labor turnover and how a cost can be turned around to a tangible and valuable strategic business investment.
Influence of Labour Turnover on Business Growth: A Case Study of Petrol Stati...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance (IOSR-JEF) discourages theoretical articles that are limited to axiomatics or that discuss minor variations of familiar models. Similarly, IOSR-JEF has little interest in empirical papers that do not explain the model's theoretical foundations or that exhausts themselves in applying a new or established technique (such as cointegration) to another data set without providing very good reasons why this research is important.
Leadership Styles of Industrial Engineers in Pottery Industries in PampangaIJAEMSJORNAL
The researchers conducted this study which evaluated the leadership styles of industrial engineers in pottery industries in Pampanga in the Philippines. The twenty-six (26) respondents were profiled and the correlation between each characteristic and the three leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, and free-reign (laissez-faire), was computed. After analyzing the results, it was observed that most of the respondents favored a democratic leadership style. Moreover, the researchers draw out that as the young IE supervisors tend to support free-reign leadership less as compared to older IE supervisors.
Over the years, business analysts, economists, and academic researchers have pondered several theories that attempt to explain the dynamics of business organizations, including the ways in which they make decisions, distribute power and control, resolve conflict, and promote or resist organizational change.
“Exploring the Relationship between Personality and Job Performance” "New App...inventionjournals
This paper investigates the relationship between personality and job performance of the fivefactor model with job performance. Personality psychology is concerned with the analysis and theories surrounded by the personality are related to the five factors. Conscientiousness and extraversion appear to be positively correlated with productivity and performance. Neuroticism and agreeableness are negatively correlated with leadership capabilities. Individuals make high performance on conscientiousness, while individuals missing conscientiousness and having neuroticism tend to perform poorly at work.
The Role of Personalitytraits in Predicting the Individualdesire Forentrepren...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: In terms of leadership, management, innovation, efficiency, making job, competition,productivity and establishing new companies, entrepreneurship contributes significantly in economic growth. It was believed that the entrepreneurshipwaslike a necessary revolution for the society. The present research aimed to investigate the relation of the personality traits in predicting the entrepreneurial acts among the students. Thiswas a descriptive correlational-based study. In the present paper, the sample populationwasthe students of Isfahan University from 2016-2017. The sample with 120 participants was chosen by the available method. For thispurpose, thesoftware SPSS wasused. In order to gather data from Neoʼs inventory on five factor measures Robins and Colter’s organizational entrepreneurshipwasused. The result of the study showed that the entrepreneurship was positively correlated with personality traits like extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and conscientioness and negatively correlated with neuroticism. The result from the regression analysisillustrated that the personality trait like extraversion has the highest strength in predicting the entrepreneurship among the students. On this base, it could be concluded that the personality traits including effective factors in the individual desire for entrepreneurship.
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Analysis of the Influence of Personality Traits on NeedAchievement and Its Im...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This study aims to analyze the effect of each of the Big Five Factors on the Need for
Achievement and analyze the effect of personality trait configurations on the Need for Achievement and
Entrepreneurial Intentions in final semester students of Jambi University, Indonesia. This study adopted an
inferential design with cross-sectional data. The sample was final semester students of 7 faculties at Jambi
University, totaling 2,600 (50% male, 50% female). The results showed that Big Five Factors (except Emotional
Stability) have a positive and significant effect on Entrepreneurial Intentions. Big Five Factors positively and
significantly influence Need for Achievement and Entrepreneurial Intentions. The limitation of this study
recognizes that the sample used, namely students with final year status, may not represent the total population of
prospective student graduates as a whole. For future research, the representativeness of the sample should be
increased. Future research, using a broader and more diverse sample in terms of age, education, ethnicity, city,
and socio-economic background may reveal a greater Need for Achievement between men and women found in
Jambi University students. This research was analyzed with perception or attitude-based survey-type data
processing. The researcher suggests that to capture more in-depth phenomena and dynamic relationships in
uncovering the big five personality factors among university students in starting entrepreneurship, more
qualitative research is highly recommended, which includes longitudinal observations and intensive behavioraloriented interviews.
This is a structure of a typical research proposalContents paGrazynaBroyles24
This is a structure of a typical research proposal:
Contents page
Introduction
Literature review
Methodology
Reflections and Resources
Bibliography
Appendices
There is no research question or aims and objectives. Critical evaluation.
Introduction
The success of an organization or corporation is contingent upon the level of employee motivation. Motivation is critical to the accomplishment of the organization's goals and objectives. It is critical for firms with varied cross-cultural teams to guarantee that their employees are highly engaged. The management is responsible for ensuring that workplace goals and objectives are consistent with the company culture (Vlaev et al., 2019). Setting workplace goals is critical for establishing and monitoring the organization's level of employee motivation (Pang & Lu, 2018). Employee commitment, engagement, and motivation are critical components of an organization's success. Financial remuneration practices play a significant role in motivating employees.
According to many surveys, if an organization does not try to motivate its employees through monetary incentives, the organization is likely to have low performance (Vlaev et al., 2019). Organizations in the United States work diligently to increase employee engagement through monetary and financial pay and awards. Financial and monetary incentives have a stronger effect on employee motivation, according to studies (Pang & Lu, 2018). The United States government has implemented policies aimed at increasing compensation and incentive programs throughout all sectors of the labor market (Vlaev et al., 2019). As with any other firm, the government is attempting to improve employee performance through a variety of financial incentives.
The Federal Reserve System is the United States of America's central bank. It is in responsible of issuing currency to all financial institutions and exercising influence over the economy via monetary policy (Coccia & Igor, 2018). The Federal Reserve System has a number of financial incentives in place to motivate its personnel. Several of these tools include the following:
· This assists in meeting rental obligations.
· Gratuities are paid to all contract employees. This is a component of their terminal benefits and a token of appreciation for their long-term contribution to the business.
· Employees are eligible for personal loans and medical insurance coverage if they have worked for the bank for an extended length of time.
Problem Statement
Numerous researchers have sought to determine the effect of motivation on working institutions. According to research, motivating employees increases their performance and morale by making them feel wanted in the workplace (Coccia & Igor, 2018). However, there is a dearth of research on the effect of financial incentives on employee motivation. The purpose of this study is to close this gap by determining the relationship between financial incentives and employee motivation. Th ...
Recent researches on entrepreneurship have focal point on entrepreneurs that assesses their
personality traits and characteristics along with entrepreneurial outcome. However, few studies were conducted
to understand the entrepreneurial
An Investigation on the Impact of the Factors of Quality of Worklife on Socio...RSIS International
This research was designed to explore the impact of favourable Quality of worklife (QWL) on Socio-psychological aspects of workers and make suggestions to the policy makers to improve the QWL and the factors of socio-psychological aspects of weaving mill workers. This present study concentrated on QWL of the workers of weaving mills (shuttle-less power looms) in specific and found the relationship between the prevailing factors of Quality of Worklife (QWL) and its impact on socio-psychological factors of workers’ attitude and then how the weaving mill workers are behave in groups with present work environment. There are five principal socio-psychological factors are identified here, such as Job involvement, workers’ behaviour pattern, sense of competence, response to family and physical activity in work. The researcher has used both primary and secondary data and they were analysed with appropriate statistical tools. It is found that the existing QWL factors influence 75% on the attributes of socio-psychological of the workers. This survey clearly indicates that the existing quality of worklife in weaving mills is positively influencing the socio-psychological aspects of the workers. The present study has a few limitations. Based on the study, analysis of data and the findings, some suggestions have been given. It is solemnly believed if the various measures suggested are fully implemented; the weaving mills in Tamilnadu will get an exemplary position on achieving better QWL of the workers and improve the socio-psychological aspects of workmen.
Managerial psychology is a sub-discipline of industrial and organizational psychology, which focuses on the efficacy of individuals, groups and organizations in the workplace. It's purpose is to specifically aid managers in gaining a better understanding of the psychological patterns common among individuals and groups within any given organisation. Managerial psychology can be used to predict and prevent harmful psychological patterns within the workplace and can also be implemented to control psychological patterns among individuals and groups in a way that will benefit the organisation long term.
Role of work life balance on employee productivity: a survey of commercial ba...paperpublications3
Abstract: Motivation of employees has always been quantified in financial attributes. For productivity to occur then there is need for using non-financial motivational initiatives. The banking industry has produced best trading results although characterized by lack of flexibility, high work pressure and longer working hours. This study purposed to analyze the role of motivational initiatives on employee productivity with specific reference to commercial banks in Bungoma County. The study was guided by the objective: to establish the role of Work life balance on employee productivity. The study adopted a survey design with a focus on 536 bank employees drawn from the different job cadres. A sample size of 229 was obtained using Yamane’s formula. Stratified sampling technique was employed with six strata’s obtained from six job cadres from top management to clerical staff. Structured questionnaires were the main data collection tools upon which analysis was undertaken using Statistical Program for Social Scientist (SPSS) where descriptive and inferential statistics was applied and thereafter presentations of findings was done using tables. The findings of the study indicated that effective work life balance leads to employee productivity r= .538 which was significant at p (0.00) < α (0.05). The study concluded that the non-financial motivation strategies influence employee productivity in commercial banks. The study recommends use of surveys and other evaluation methods to better understand the different needs of different employees to enable provision of customized work life balance.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Thesis Statement for students diagnonsed withADHD.ppt
Theorizing about Entrepreneurship
1. PEKSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
1971, 24, 141-153.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL
ENTREPRENEURS'
JOHN A. HOENADAY AND JOHN ABOUD
Babson College^
Introduction
IN an earlier article in Personnel Psychology, Hornaday and Bun-
ker (1970) discuss the importance of achieving a better understand-
ing of the psychological nature of the successful entrepreneur through
a research program designed to identify and measure the personal
characteristics of those persons who have successfully started a new
business. Such knowledge would be of much interest to lending orga-
nizations such as banks, to enfranchising organizations such as oil
companies and restaurant chains, and to federal government pro-
grams, both domestic (in loans to small businesses and in such efforts
as the poverty programs) and international (as in using foreign aid
more effectively to help strengthen the economy of underdeveloped
countries). Further, colleges of business administration can make
significant contributions in entrepreneurial education if it is possible
to understand the nature of entrepreneurship and if workable pro-
grams can be developed from the results of the research.
The earlier research led to the development of a structured in-
terview guide sheet as well as the selection of three standardized,
objective tests that appeared promising in differentiating successful
entrepreneurs from men in general. Although McClelland (Mc-
Clelland, Atkinson, Clark and Lowell, 1953) has reported success
in using both the Thematic Apperception Test (Murray, 1943) and
in using his own test for this purpose, these tests are projective in
nature and can be administered and interpreted only by a highly-
^ TMs study was supported by a grant from the Babson College Board of
Research.
2 The authors wish to express their appreciation to Margaret Courtnay
Stone who aided in the data collection.
141
2. 142 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
trained psychologist. The goal of this study was to develop objective
tests which will be valid and will have the advantage of a simple
format and ease of administration and interpretation.
Further, McClelland approaches the problem of predicting entre-
preneurial success by measuring, specifically, individuals' need for
achievement (n Ach) and he emphasizes that this characteristic is
to be considered even to the exclusion of other factors. In a recent
interview for Forbes (McClelland, 1969), he stated, "We've spent
twenty years studying just this [why one businessman succeeds and
another fails], twenty years in the laboratory doing very careful
research, and we've isolated the specific thing. We know the exact
type of motivation that makes a better entrepreneur. [Italics ours.]
Not necessarily a better head of General Motors; I'm talking about
the man who starts a business." He went on to say that the specific
characteristic is the individual's need for achievement.
Need for Objective Approach
The earlier research by Hornaday and Bunker and the present
study of entrepreneurs are predicated on two assumptions: (1) that
there would be great value in a system of selection that is objective
and structured so that non-psychologists could administer it, and
(2) that in addition to the admittedly important n Ach there may
be other factors which should be measured. The latter point is that
our prediction of success would have higher validity if measure-
ment were made of several factors, each of which makes some in-
dependent contribution to the ultimate success of the entrepreneur.
The need for objectivity in measuring need for achievement is
emphasized by Hermans (1970). He says, "During the past twenty
years, there have been a great many studies in the area of achieve-
ment motivation. These vary from psychometric investigations to
theoretical discussions. One of the most difficult problems in this
area is that of measurement. Projective techniques have been the
principal devices used to quantify the strength of the achievement
motive. . . . With regard to the projective needs for achievement
measures, several critical problems arise. Klinger (1966) pointed to
their lack of internal consistency, lack of test-retest reliability,
their deficient validity against performance criteria, and the low
intercorrelation among several projective n Ach measures. . . . The
need for a new measure for n Ach still exists."
The pilot study indicated that three objective tests held promise
of differentiating entrepreneurs from men-in-general. For the pres-
ent study, therefore, these tests, along with the structured inter-
3. HORNADAY AND ABOUD 143
view, were administered to successful entrepreneurs. As in the pilot
study, the "successful entrepreneur" was defined as a man or woman
who started a business where there was none before, who had at
least eight employees and who had been established for at least five
years. These criteria were selected because it was desired to eliminate
the "Mom and Pop" stores and because the first five years are the
most difficult. The criteria are similar to those established by Collins
et al. (1964) in their entrepreneurial studies. The three tests applied
to the entrepreneurs were: Kuder Occupational Interest Survey,
Form DD (Kuder, 1970), Gordon's Survey of Interpersonal Values
(Gordon, 1960), and a questionnaire composed of three scales drawn
from the Edwards Personal Preference Scale (Edwards, 1959).
Throughout this paper the abbreviations for these tests will be, re-
spectively, OIS, SIV, and EPPB.
Forty "successful entrepreneurs," as defined above, were inter-
viewed and tested in the summer of 1970. The sample was selected
without regard for geographic location (all were located in either
North Carolina, Rhode Island, or Massachusetts), but care was taken
to obtain twenty black and twenty white entrepreneurs. That racial
selection made possible a tentative investigation of the null hypothe-
sis relative to racial differences.
In addition to these forty entrepreneurs, use was made of the
twenty entrepreneurs who were interviewed and tested in the pilot
study (Homaday and Bunker, 1970) since they were given essen-
tially the same interview and the same tests. The number of cases
used for the several analyses varied because some entrepreneurs
completed only a part of the forms. For all sixty, however, inter-
view responses are available; most of the questions in the interview
were the same in the two studies.
Hypotheses
Specifically, the hypotheses investigated in this study were:
1. A number of personal characteristics differentiate successful
entrepreneurs from men in general and these characteristics can be
measured by objective, standardized tests. Entrepreneurs are signifi-
cantly higher on scales on the EPPS that measure need for achieve-
ment, need for autonomy, and need for aggression. On the SIV, the
examinees are expected to score higher on scales measuring the im-
portance attached to recognition, independence, and leadership.
2. Because of the nature of scoring the OIS, the scores of entre-
preneurs could not be compared to men-in-general. The Form DD
scores of OIS are lambdas (Clemans, 1968; Kuder, 1963), and the nft-
4. M4 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
ture of those scores does not permit comparison of an individual to a
group. The hypothesis for the OIB, therefore, must relate to the
scales on which entrepreneurs are higher relative to their other
scales. Entrepreneurs should score high on scales relating to busi-
ness occupations and business college majors. The greatest value
from the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey, however, would be
gained from an entrepreneurial key for the OIS, and development of
that key must await the gathering of considerably more data.
3. In answering the questions covered by the interviewers, entre-
preneurs are expected to indicate that they work long hours, that the
work interferes with their family relationships, that they rebel against
regimentation, and it was felt that their family background might re-
flect, generally, a rebellion against an attitude in the father that they
perceived with distaste. A number of additional areas were investi-
gated in the interviews as a further exploration into characteristics
which might be significant. On these, no specific hypothesis could be
formed nor is there any control group of the general population to
serve as a basis of comparison. Thus, the interview was largely ex-
ploratory.
4. On a self-rating form in which entrepreneurs subjectively com-
pared themselves to the general population, it was hypothesized that
the subjects would be above the general population in all of the sig-
nificant items (a few items were "fillers"). Those are such items as:
need for power over people, self-reliance, innovative tendencies, and
other characteristics as listed in Table 3.
5. Relative to race, the null hypothesis is to be tested for all scales
of the tests and items of the interview. Our hypotheses are that no
racial differences will be found between black and white entrepre-
neurs. Data, therefore, are presented for the races separately and,
where no difference is found, combined.
Procedure
The subjects of this study consisted of a total of sixty entrepre-
neurs. The distribution of the sixty by race and sex is as follows:
34 white males
22 black males
2 white females
2 black females
During the early work of this study, which began in the summer
of 1969, a total of twenty entrepreneurs were interviewed. It was in
5. HORNADAY AND ABOUD 145
the process of these interviews that the Interview Schedule was de-
veloped. Development consisted primarily of devising items, reorder-
ing most of them, and, subsequently, deleting or adding a very few
items. Also during this early phase of the work, the three tests used
to assess the personality traits of the entrepreneurs were selected. Be-
cause some experimentation with the formats and content of these
measurement devices was necessary, not all of the entrepreneurs
were subjected to identical items. As will be seen later, this, plus the
failure of some entrepreneurs to complete all of the forms, resulted
in the sample's containing somewhat less than sixty for the various
forms employed. Early experimenting with procedures of testing and
interview also yielded unequal numbers of completed forms for the
various questionnaires employed.
The forms which held the most promise in the pilot study and
were used in this study are:
The Standardized Interview Schedule
The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (Form DD)
The Gordon Survey of Interpersonal Values
A modified form of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule
A five-point scale of personal self-estimates called The Self-Evalu-
ation Scale
Results
Analyses were made separately and in combination for tbe white
males (34) and black males (22). Because of the small number of
cases for women (two white and two black), no meaningful compar-
ative analyses could be made by sex. Inspection of the data indicated
differences between the female and the male entrepreneurs, and it
could not be established that the sexes could be reasonably combined:;
therefore, only the male entrepreneurs were used in subsequent anal-
yses.
The structured interview was used with the full group of sixty en-
trepreneurs. Many of the items were administered to the total of
sixty, but a few items were introduced or revised at some time dur-
ing the first twenty contacts. For the last forty the interview schedule
was kept constant. The sample size for interview items, thus, may
vary between 40 and 56 (since the four female entrepreneurs were
not included).
Table 1 presents data for black males and white males on all of the
interview items that lend themselves to quantification. The items on
which significant differences occurred were:
6. 146 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
TABLE 1
Analyses of Quantifiable Items of the Structural Interviews
Time required for interview
Number of employees
Years ia this business
Hrs. work/week at start
Hrs. work/week now
Age of entrepreneur
Age started business
Previous ent. effort?
Special person import, ia getting
started
Special idea import, getting started
Never married
Divorced or separated?
Graduated high school?
Graduate coUege?
Level of school achievement
Serious in school
Consider dropping out
Active in extra-curricular activities
in school
Financed coll. primarily through
own effort
Accepts regimentation?
Statistic
Mdn.
Mdn.
Mdn.
Mdn.
Mdn.
Mdn.
Mdn.
%yes
%yes
%yes
%yes
%yes
%yes
%yes
Mdn. eval.
% serious
%yes
%yes
%yes
(of coU. group)
%yes
White
Male
(N < 34)
90
24
13
68
60
46
33
20
25
58
0
6
94
82
Above Av.
79
36
75
45
77
Black
Male
(N < 22)
75
15
8
70
60
42
34
27
9
18
0
32
82
32
Average
25
38
62
84
68
(1) Length of time in business. White males averaged 13 years
and black males averaged eight years. This perhaps is a
reflection of the more recent encouragement given blacks to
go into business for themselves.
(2) Frequency of separation and divorce from wives. In this
study 6% whites and 32% blacks were divorced or separated.
This may reflect a general cultural difference rather than a
characteristic of entrepreneurship. (Divorce and separation
is considerably higher among the blacks in the U. S. according
to the Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1970.) In fact,
the per cent of divorce and separation among all entrepreneurs
is below that of the general population (16% among all
entrepreneurs combined; approximately 33% in the general
population).
(3) The frequency of a special idea as the basis of the develop-
ment of the enterprise was much greater for white entre-
preneurs than for blacks. This may have been a reflection of
the types of entrepreneurs in the two groups. A much higher
7. HORNADAY AND ABOUD 147
percentage of the whites were in manufacturing, where a
specific original idea might have been particularly important.
Almost all of the blacks were in sales and services; of the
three blacks who were in manufacturing, all had moved into
the field because of their having an innovative idea.
(4) Differences in per cent graduating from coRege and "serious-
ness" in school, as well as differences in self-support in college.
Again these may reflect cultural differences and differences
in socio-economic background.
On all other characteristics investigated in the interview, insignifi-
cant differences between races were found. It appears that each of the
obtained differences resulted from socio-economic differences or
from special considerations in sample selection, as in (3) above, and
it does not appear that any racial differences for entrepreneurs as
such were evident. The null hypothesis, therefore, cannot be rejected
on the basis of interview results.
Table 2 presents the objective scales of the EPPS and the SIV for
the two racial groups, separately and combined. Inspection of the raw
data indicated no justification for combining the sexes in this study.
In comparing black and white males, however, we find that on adl
scales except Benevolence there are no significant differences. The
only exception was a t of 2.48 produced by the very low score of
whites on the Benevolence scale. Because of the ipsative nature of
the BIV, and because of the very high scores by whites on Indepen-
dence and Leadership, the low Benevolence scores are interpreted as
relatively low for the entrepreneurs, not necessarily low compared to
the general population. Since the SIV is not normative, only interpre-
tation of relative values is appropriate. The f-tests were applied for
this survey only to point to direction and relative magnitude of dif-
ferences. Because of the small differences between blacks and whites
fotmd in Table 2, the results of the two races are combined in the
last column.
Compared to men in general, entrepreneurs are significantly higher
on scales reflecting need for achievement, independence, and effec-
tiveness of their leadership, and are low on scales refiecting emphasis
on need for support. Again the low need for support score may re-
sult from the high scores on other scales of this ipsative survey.
Note that only three of the EPPS scales were investigated in this
study. Only those three scales were investigated since it was assumed
that they were the most likely to relate to entrepreneurship. It is
recommended that, in later research, the full fifteen scales of the
8. 148 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
5^ ?r
re-
Gen.
H I °
fce-Gen.
ulation
i °
k-Gen.
ulation
W PH
i'l
JH ft
2
1o
if
S
!
d
0
so
d
Q
•IO
la
Q
ftjj
'M
ft
ft
•^
ft
CQ
40**
CO
OS
(N
60*
CO
o
rH
.76
oT.H
TH
00
rH
o
CO
g
rH
14
OS
00
CO
CO
78
IO
rt<
18
OS
IN
rH
IO
1
1
T-l
(N
T—i
§
T H
j ^
rH
o
K5
r-i
79
rH
IO
eo
00
IN
rH
14
to
rH
IN
iO
to
eo
to
CO
rt
1
8
o
09.08
1-H
rH
74
rH
IO
IN
00
IO
IO
rH
IN
lO
CO
IN
to
(N
a
O
I
*CO
CO
IN
*
91*
IN
00
SB
1.87
Si
S
OS
. , — •
o
lO
o
IO
IO
oIO
to
T H
CO
to
IN
T-H
_
to
CO
T-l
12pport
to
00
50*
IN
TO.
.77
B
*-<
CO
o
IO
to
00
CO
IO
to
o
IN
04
CO
T-H
IN
r H
rH
CO
!>>
i
6
OS
CO
IO
eo
1.62
eo
00
to
T-H
CO
IN
o
IN
lO
IN
T-H
to
00
-^
o
03
lO
•a
T H
rH
CO
rH
O5
00
fi
o
1
76**
(N
to
rH
¥r
99*
IN
O
IO
1.57
IN
eo
o
00
00
T-H
o
OS
CO
CO
CO
IO
TH
<N
eo
TH
CO
OS
T H
rH
»
T-^
O
IN
encedepen
o
T—t
r-i
22*
IN
Os"
1.06
T H
IN
£•(4
S
CO
00
IO
CO
t-.
lO
rH
rti
Oi
IN
TH
00
rH
CO
IO
17
§
§
M
15*
!N
t^
eo
86*
IN
O
lO
.85
00
ro
<N
eo
O
"^
rH
CO
00
O
[^
O3
OS
OS
O
T-H
T-H
IN
eo
CO
to
O2
T H
PI
9. HORNADAY AND ABOUD 149
EPPS be included in the investigation if cooperating entrepreneurs
would be agreeable to answering the full 225 items of that test.
Discussion
It is surprising that the EPPS Autonomy scale yielded no signifi-
cant t value (t = 1.34) since interest in independence is a character-
istic of successful entrepreneurs and since the SIV Independence
scale is highly significant {t — 2.76) and is correlated with the Auton-
omy scale .49 (Gordon, 1963).
On the OIS, the numbers cannot be treated as raw scores since the
figures are not quantitatively comparable from one person to another.
It is the relative standing that is significant. The highest 10' occupa-
tional scales and highest 10 college major scales were examined for
blacks and whites separately, and striking differences were evident.
Both college and occupational scales related generally to the occupa-
tions and a,vocations of the entrepreneurs. Since there were more
manufacturers (particularly in electronics and related areas) among
the whites, engineering scales were frequently high; for blacks they
were infrequently in the top five scales. The interviews (Table 1) in-
dicated that education level was significantly higher for the whites,
and the kinds of occupations ranking toward the top for them re-
flected higher educational requirements. For example, whites fre-
quently ranked high on computer programmer, engineer, psycholo-
gist, and travel agent. Blacks frequently ranked high on television
repairmen, plumbing contractor, automobile salesman, and florist.
Both rank high on manager, architect, and buyer.
It is of interest to note that lambdas greater than .60 were attained
on one or more scales by 40 per cent of the white entrepreneurs but
by none of the black entrepreneurs. Lambdas above .50 were at-
tained by 80 per cent of the whites and only 30 per cent of the blacks.
That difference is interpreted to mean that the interests of the black
entrepreneurs are not as highly developed and are more diverse; in-
terests of white entrepreneurs tend to be more sharply developed.
This again is probably the result in a large measure of the difference
in educational background.
Over-all, the OIS was not significant in selecting entrepreneurs or
in differentiating blacks and whites of comparable educational level,
but it still may prove to be fruitful if a scale for entrepreneurs can
be developed. This aspiration is reinforced by the fact that for many
blacks Business was a first or second preference as a college major.
The OIS was also useful in the present study in that the V scale, a
measure of accuracy of the test-taking by examinees, was checked
10. 150 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
TABLE 3
of Self-Ratings on The Self-Evalvation Scale for White and Black
Entrepreneurs, and Their Combined Scores, in Per Cent
Selecting Each Position.
1. Energy level
2. Physical health
3. Need Achievement
4. Willing to take lisks
5. Watch T.V.»
6. Creative
7. Need for affiliation
8. Desire for money
9. Tolerate Uncertainty
10. Desire for candy*
11. Authoritarian in Business
12. Liking for sports'
13. Get along with employees
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combiaed
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
6
67
47
63
79
68
64
70
66
65
60
56
68
0
0
0
47
43
46
6
19
11
21
65
33
30
43
35
9
0
4
38
35
24
0
6
4
64
47
51
4
27
26
27
15
25
21
18
28
22
27
28
27
9
11
10
37
43
39
9
14
13
35
10
26
27
29
28
0
0
0
38
30
35
27
19
22
36
35
35
3
17
26
20
5
19
15
12
14
13
9
14
11
30
17
24
10
14
12
10
29
20
35
25
32
20
10
16
0
0
0
19
12
27
27
6
16
8
12
9
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
4
47
22
36
7
0
4
16
24
24
9
10
9
13
14
14
9
6
7
6
12
6
18
26
22
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
50
29
0
0
0
20
14
32
0
0
0
10
5
8
81
94
89
0
12
9
27
44
37
4
6
5
11. HORNADAY AND ABOUD
TABLE 3 (continued)
151
14. Organized
15. Self-Relian.t
16. Likes to Collect Things"
17. Singleness of Purpose
18. Need for Power
19. Patience
20. Competitiveness
21. Take Initiative
22. Confidence
23. Versatility
24. Perseverance
25. Resilience
26. Innovation in Business
27. Leadership Effectiveness
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
White
Black
Combined
5
12
24
31
72
55
66
9
0
4
12
18
15
15
10
13
35
30
32
33
53
66
69
70
70
53
77
65
39
53
46
63
77
70
59
65
62
45
78
41
32
38
35
4
41
52
30
21
40
28
9
13
11
31
18
24
9
14
11
18
30
24
28
24
20
27
30
28
47
24
35
50
30
40
31
24
27
29
30
29
39
16
41
39
33
37
3
41
10
19
3
5
4
9
6
7
18
24
21
27
14
22
6
18
12
22
12
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
6
9
tooro
12
6
9
12
0
15
26
19
23
2
0
14
13
0
0
0
0
13
7
31
12
21
21
33
26
24
12
18
11
12
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
otoro
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
4
3
10
6
1
6
0
7
3
0
2
72
69
70
6
30
18
27
29
28
18
12
15
COOOS
4
0
2
0
0
0
0
6
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
» Indicate "filler" items which were inserted so that eBtrepreueurs would have the opportunity to
use the entire range of the scale.
12. 152 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
to determine if the answers were valid. In only one case was the V
scale out of the acceptable range and for that individual all of the
forms were returned to the entrepreneur with the request that he
take them a second time more carefully. Since they were not
returned, he was not used in the test analyses.
The Self-Evaluation Scale is so highly subjective that it is of little
value. T o be interpreted meaningfully, it would have to be given to
a standardization group for comparison. As a matter of information
only, the distribution of answers for the 34 whites and 22 black en-
trepreneurs is presented separately and combined. Inspection of
Table 3 reveals a very high similarity of self-ratings by the two races
so that combination is most meaningful. Both races rate themselves
significantly above average on need for achievement, self-reliance,
competitiveness, initiative, confidence, versatility, perseverance,
resilience, innovation, and physical health.
In addition, as part of the structured interview each entrepreneur
was asked what qualities were necessary for success in business. The
characteristics listed by both blacks and whites are similar, but there
was some difference in emphasis.
The blacks mentioned naost often the need to have "Knowledge of
the Business." Also frequently mentioned was either skill in manage-
ment of finances or a source of financial advice. Frequently men-
tioned, but not as often as Knowledge of Business, was: honesty,
having a good character, possession of inner drive, willingness to
work hard, and pleasing personality. This latter list corresponds very
well with the characteristics most frequently mentioned by white
entrepreneurs: willingness to work hard, perseverance, single-mind-
dedness of purpose, and the ability to work with people.
Conclusions
Both the EPPS and the SIV yielded scales that significantly differ-
entiated entrepreneurs from men in the standardization groups for
those tests. These scales were achievement, support, independence
and leadership (Table 2). It is recommended, therefore, that these
two forms be used in further study of the entrepreneur. It is also
recommended that continued use of the OIS may be fruitful in order
to gather sufficient data for developing an entrepreneurial scale.
The interview items have not been analyzed for their effectiveness
in differentiating entrepreneurs from men in general, but the items
have been sharpened for clarity, and the authors' experience with
these sixty entrepreneurs indicates that the items as given elicit mean-
ingful responses from entrepreneurs. Compared to the laborious
13. HORNADAY AND ABOUD 153
procedures and technical training necessary for interpreting projec-
tive tests, the administration and scoring of the objective tests is
easy and accurate. Furthermore, not only does this procedure yield
n Ach scores but also other information, obtained by structured
devices and objectively evaluated, which further sharpens the dif-
ferentiation of the successful entrepreneur. It is yet to be deter-
mined whether these scales will differentiate between the successful
entrepreneur and the individual who has made an unsuccessful
attemp to be an entrepreneur but this study establishes (inso-
far as judgment can be made on a small number of cases) that the
structured interview and tests used here are objective indicators of
entrepreneurship.
REFERENCES
Clemans, William V. An analysis and empirical examination of some proper-
ties of ipsative measures. Psychometric Monographs, 1968, 14.
CoUins, Oivis F., Moore, David G., and Unwalla, Darab B. The Enterprising
Man. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1964.
Edwards, Allen L. Manual for the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule.
New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1959.
Gordon, Leonard V. Manual for Survey of Interpersonal Values. Chicago:
Science Research Associates, 1960.
Gordon, Leonard V. Research Briefs on Survey of Interpersonal Values
(Manual Supplement). Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1963.
Hermans, Huber, J. M. A questionnaire measure of achievement motivation.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 1970, 54, 353-363.
Homaday, John A. and Bunker, Charles S. The nature of the entrepreneur.
PBESONNEL PSYCHOLOGY, 1970, 23, 47-54.
Klinger, E. Fantasy need achievement as a motivational construct. Psycholog-
ical Bulletin, 1966, 66, 291-308.
Kuder, Freded.c. A rationale for evaluating interests. Educational and Psycho-
logical Measurement, 1963, 23, 3-10.
Kuder, Frederic. Manual for the Kuder Preference Record: Form DD. CM-
cago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1970.
McClelland, David C. In Forbes, June 1,1969, 53-57.
McClellmd, David C, Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., and Lowell, E. L. The
Achievement Motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953.
Murray, Henrjr A. Manual for the Thematic Apperception Test. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1943.
Statistical Abstract of the United States. U. S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census, Washington, D. C, 1970.