growth and development-definition, principles, factors affecting and theories

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2. UNIT III
THE HEALTHY CHILD
PRESENTED BY:
MS. MUHSINATH. A. R

3. GROWTH
AND
DEVELOPMENT

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INTRODUCTION:
Growth and development are closely
interrelated that it is virtually not possible
to separate one another.
The period of growth and development
extends throughout the life cycle; however
the period in which the principle changes
takes place from the conception to the end
period of adolescence.

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Stages of Growth and Development
• Infancy
– Neonate
• Birth to 1 month
– Infancy
• 1 month to 1 year
• Early Childhood
– Toddler
• 1-3 years
– Preschool
• 3-6 years
• Middle Childhood
– School age
– 6 to 12 years
• Late Childhood
– Adolescent
– 13 years to
approximately 18
years

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Meaning of growth and development:
Growth is a measure of physical
maturation, signifies an increase in size of
the body and its various organs.
Development is a measure of functional or
physiological maturation.

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Definitions of growth and development:
Definition of growth:
Growth refers to an increase in physical
size of the whole or any of its parts and can
be measured in inches or centimeters and in
pounds or kilograms.
Growth is considered as a triad
comprising of proliferation, differentiation
and hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the cells.

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Definition of Development:
Development is defined as the
functional maturation, that is the acquisition
of skills.
Development is referred as the
progressive increase in skills and capacities to
function.
Development signifies accomplishment of
mental, emotional and social abilities.

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Principles of growth
Growth is an orderly process, occurring in
systematic fashion.
Rates and patterns of growth are specific
to certain parts of the body.
Wide individual differences exist in growth
rates.
Growth and development are influences by
a multiple factors.

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Principles Continued…
Growth is a personal matter.
Growth comes within.
Growth is gradual and orderly but uneven.
Growth has certain characteristics common
and particular stages.

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Principles of development
Development involves change.
Early development is more critical than later
development.
Development is the product of maturation and
learning.
Developmental pattern is predictable.
Developmental pattern has predictable
characteristics.
There are individual differences in
development.

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Principles Continued…
There are periods in the developmental
pattern.
There are social expectations for every
developmental period.
Every area of development has potential
hazards.
Happiness varies at different periods in
development.

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Principles Continued…
Development proceeds from the simple to the
complex and from the general to the specific.
Development occurs in a cephalocaudal and a
proximodistal progression.
There are critical periods for growth and
development.
Rates in development vary.
Development continues throughout the
individual's life span.

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Growth Pattern

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Growth Pattern...
• The child’s pattern of growth is in a
head-to-toe direction, or
cephalocaudal, and in an inward to
outward pattern called
proximodistal.

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Factors affecting growth and development:
Heredity
Sex
Racial and national characteristics - a)
race b) nationality
Environment- a) prenatal environment b)
postnatal environment

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b) Postnatal environment-
i) external environment
ii) internal environment
i) External Environment- 1. Cultural influences 2.
Socio economic status of the family 3. Nutrition
4. Climate and seasons
5. Deviations from positive health
6. Exercise 7. Ordinal position in the family
ii) Internal Environment: 1. Intelligence 2.
Hormones 3. Emotions

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Theories of development:

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Intellectual development by Jean
Piaget.
Moral development by Jean Piaget and
Lawrence Kohlberg
Emotional development by Erik. H.
Erikson
Development of sexuality by Sigmund
Freud
Spiritual development by James. W.
Fowler

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Intellectual theory by jean piaget:

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Piaget’s Theory Concerning Intellectual Or
Cognitive Development:
 According to Piaget, maturation and growth
have certain signposts.
Although the newborn baby perceives the world
in a fragmented manner, as a vague mass, the
child gradually develops an integration or
coordination of the various sensory inputs from
touch, taste, smell, sight and sound into an
organized and objective understanding of
reality.

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 To the young child, the object constancy comes slowly,
but it is a milestone in development when it does
appear.
 The ability to use symbols to represent reality is
another important stage in development.
 The use of symbols leads the child to develop the
language which in turn produces greater symbolism
leading to further mental development.

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• Another idea important to Piaget’s theory is
egocentrism. For advanced cognitive
functioning to occur, children must move
through various stages of differentiating
themselves from objects around them to
learning to separate their own thoughts from
those of others.

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 According to Piaget, four major stages of development
correspond in a rough way to the stages of emotional
development.
 The sensorimotor stage 0-2 yrs : children are primarily
concerned with learning about the physical objects
 The preoperational stage (2-7yrs): children are
preoccupied with the symbols in language, dreams and
fantasy

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 The concrete stage (7-11yrs): children move
into the abstract world, mastering numbers
and relationships and how to reason about
them
 The formal operational stage ( 11- 15 yrs):
children tackle purely logical thoughts,
thinking about their own thinking as well as
that of others.

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Moral development by jean piaget and Lawrence kohlberg

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The Theories of Piaget and Kohlberg
Concerning Moral Development:
According to Piaget, moral development parallels
mental development and consists of two stages:
respect for rules and a sense of justice.

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First stage: (3 to 11 yrs of age)
Morality Of Restraints.
- rules are considered sacred because
they are laid down by the parents or other
adults in authority.
- punishment for infraction of the rules is
either compensatory or vengeful.

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Second stage: (12 years onwards)
Morality Of Reciprocity Or Cooperation.
- because the adolescent can think
abstractly and is becoming highly sensitive to
other persons, rules can be changed if this
action is advantageous to all.
- a child’s concept of justice develops,
personality also develops. The child and
adolescent learn that other people have feelings
and that a cooperative effort will achieve
optimal results.

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Kohlberg postulates six stages of potential
moral development organized within three
levels.
i) pre conventional morality.
ii) conventional morality.
iii) post conventional morality.

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Level I: Pre conventional morality:-
(Egocentricity)
Children make moral judgments only on the
basis of what will bring them a reward(right
act) or punishment(a wrong act). This level is
divided into three stages.
 Stage 0:- the good is what I like and want.(0-
2yrs) infants and young toddlers are
egocentric, liking or loving that which helps
them and disliking or hating which hurts them.

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 Stage 1:- Punishment Obedience Orientation (2 – 3
Yrs). The older toddlers and young preschool children
believe that if they are not punished, their acts are
right; if they punished, their acts are wrong. Children
therefore act to avoid displeasing those who are in
power. This is the stage when mothers repeatedly say
“no no”
 Stage 2:- Instrumental Hedonism And Concrete
Reciprocity(4-7yrs):- children focus on the pleasure
motive. They consider those actions right that meet
their own needs or those of others. They carry out
rules to satisfy themselves or because of what others
might do if they did not carry them out.

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Level II: Conventional Morality:
Correct behavior is that which those in authority
will approve and accept; if behavior is not acceptable,
children feel guilty.
At this level, there are two stages.
 Stage 3:- Orientation To Interpersonal Relations Of
Mutuality(7-9yrs)
children of early school age are becoming socially
sensitive and want to gain the approval of others. If
their actions will help them gain the approval of others,
they are right; if disturbed relationships results, they
feels their actions are wrong. Justice means reciprocity
or equality between individuals.

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 Stage 4:- Maintainance Of Social Order Fixed
Rules And Authority (10-12yrs):-
the idea of right to these school age children
assumes a metaphysical perhaps a religious tone.
Children want to do what is right and what they
consider to be their duty. They obey rules for
their own sake. Children see justice as
reciprocity between individuals and the social
system.

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LEVEL III: Post Conventional Morality:
(adolescence and adulthood)
Adolescence make choices on the
basis of principles that have been thought
about, accepted and internalized.
Whatever actions conform to these
principles are considered right in spite of
the praise or blame of others. This level
also have two stages.

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 Stage 5A:- social contract, utilitarian law making
perspective.
 Stage 5B:- higher law and conscience orientation.
Adolescents place culturally appropriate values on
attitudes and actions that benefit society and tat lead to
cooperation and the good of all. They are concerned that
good laws be created that will maximize the individual’s
welfare. They think in something without paying for it,
and if they belong to a group they work towards its
goals.
 Stage 6:- Universal ethical principle orientation:-
this is the level of highest moral value, is the period
in which individuals can motivate and evaluate
themselves. They have reached the level of self
actualization.

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The theory of Erikson concerning emotional
development

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According to Erikson, a psychologist or
psychoanalyst, emotional development is a
continuous process. In each stage of a
child’s emotional development, a central
problem exists for which a solution should
be found. Solving problem at the child’s
particular stage of development lays the
basis for progress to the next stage.

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Birth to one year (infant):-
SENSE OF TRUST
Infants learn to trust the adults, usually the parents
who care for them and are sensitive to their needs. A
negative outcome of the period of infancy is a sense of
mistrust.
One year to 3 years (toddler):-
SENSE OF AUTONOMY
Infants develop clinging, dependant creatures into
human beings with mind and wills of their own.

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If children succeed in the development tasks of this
stage in their maturing process, they will have a degree
of self control caused not by fear but by feelings of self
esteem. If they don’t succeed, they will doubt their own
worth and that of others will have a sense of shyness,
doubt and shame.
3 to 6 years ( the preschool child):-
SENSE OF INITIATIVE
children in this age want to learn what they can do
for themselves. They have active imaginations, imitating
adult behavior and wanting to share in adult activities.

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They want to experience of following their wills to
extreme limit. The positive maturing outcome of this
force within children is a sense of initiative, delineated
by conscience or superego, which is developed from
parental attitudes and examples. The negative outcome
is a personality overwhelmed by guilt.
6 to 12 years(the school children):-
SENSE OF INDUSTRY
Children in this age has a strong sense of duty. they
want to engage in tasks in their social work that they can
carryout successfully and they want their success to be
recognized by adults and by their peers.

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The danger of this period is the development of a sense
of inferiority if the parents or the school expect a level
of achievement that children are unable to attain.
12years(beginning of adolescence):-
SENSE OF IDENTITY
It develops during adolescence. Adolescents want to
clarify who they are and what their roles in society are
to be. Success in this period brings self esteem, an
attitude toward the self that is essential to the normal
breaking away from dependency upon their parents and
to plan for their futures. the danger is identity diffusion,
for they face in reality and in their dreams of the future
a life full of conflicting desires; possibilities and changes.

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Late adolescence:-
SENSE OF INTIMACY
After puberty, youths outgrow the “gang age”,
the age when they find it essential to belong to a
group of their own sex and age. In adolescence, young
people develop a sense of intimacy with individuals of
their own and opposite sex and with themselves.
Failure to establish such intimacy results in
psychological isolation-keeping relations with others in
a formal basis that lacks warmth.

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Development of sexuality by Sigmund Freud

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Sexuality refers to the total quality of a human
being from the time of birth, and not just to the
genitals and their functions.
Freud believed that sexual feelings do not
suddenly emerge during puberty and adolescence.
They are present from infancy, and gradually change
from one form or state to another until adult sexual
life. Stages of sexuality includes oral, anal, phallic
and genital stages.

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The oral stage(infancy):-
During this period, the oral region or the sensory
area of mouth provides the greatest sensual satisfaction
for the infant.
The anal stage(toddler):-
the greatest amount of sensual satisfaction for the
toddler is obtained from the anal and urethral areas.
The phallic stage(preschool period):-
the site of greatest sensual pleasure is the genital
region. The oedipal stage occurs in the later part of the
phallic period. During this stage the child “loves” the
parent of opposite sex as the provider of sensual
satisfaction. The parent of same sex is considered to be
a rival

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The latency stage(school age period):_
at the beginning of the latency stage the child has
resolved or is resolving the oedipal conflict. During the
latency period children form close relationships with
others of their own age and sex.
The pubescent stage and adolescence(12
yrs to adulthood):-
during puberty, secondary sexual characteristics
appear in both sexes. The same psychosexual conflicts
that occurred during the oedipal period are revived. If
children resolve the conflicts, they are free to enter
into a heterosexual relationships as adults.

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Fowler’s theory concerning the development of faith
James. W. Fowler

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According to Fowler, faith is a human universal
that is expressed through beliefs, rituals and symbols
specific to religious traditions. It is multi dimensional
and a way of learning about life. Faith is an ongoing
process in which individual’s form and reform their
way of seeing the world.

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Stage 1: Primal Faith (infancy):-
Pre-linguistic and pre-conceptual this stage
embodies the trust between the parents and
infants. Parents and child form a mutual
attachment and progress through a period of
give and take. The primary care giver provides
the infant and young child with a variety of
experiences that encourage the development of
mutuality, trust, love and dependence,
progressing to autonomy.

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Stage 2: Intuitive Projective Faith (early
childhood):-
This stage is characterized by the child
forming long lasting images and feelings.
Imagination, perceptions and feelings are the
mechanisms by which the child explores and
learns about the world at large. The cultural
beliefs of the family influence the child’s
concepts of health and sex.

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Stage 3: Mythic- Literal Faith (childhood
and beyond):-
Children’s beliefs derive from the perspective of
others. In addition they are able to differentiate their
thinking from that of others. Stories become the
gateway to learning about life. In valuing the stories,
practices and beliefs of the family and the community,
the child reaches the stage III of faith development.

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Stage 4: Synthetic- Conventional Faith
(Adolescent period and beyond):-
in this stage the person’s experience extends beyond
the family to peers, teachers and other members of
society. As a result of cognitive abilities, the individual is
aware of the emotions, personality patterns, ideas,
thoughts and experiences of self and others that is
mutual interpersonal perspective taking.

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