This document provides a review of theoretical models of health behavior and their potential applicability to understanding workplace self-protective behavior. It discusses three categories of models: value-expectancy models like the Health Belief Model which focus on threat perceptions and cost-benefit analysis; environmental/contextual models that consider broader ecological factors; and behavior change models that conceptualize behavior change as occurring in distinct stages. The author proposes an integrative framework for understanding self-protective behavior as consisting of four stages (hazard appraisal, decision making, initiation, adherence) influenced by five key constructs (threat beliefs, response efficacy, self-efficacy, facilitating conditions, safety climate).
Unit III Annotated BibliographyUsing the CSU Online Library, cho.docxmarilucorr
Unit III Annotated Bibliography
Using the CSU Online Library, choose at least five articles—two of which must be professional, peer-reviewed journal articles—on the effects of accidents on individuals and the importance of safety and health training (including refresher training). After a careful review of these articles, write an annotated bibliography in proper APA format. The annotated bibliography must be around three pages in length.
The CSU Success Center offers a great resource regarding annotated bibliographies. The webinar below is designed to walk you through the process of creating an annotated bibliography. Topics covered will include selecting proper sources, highlighting key points, and summarizing contents of the source.
Annotated Bibliographies:
https://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/_a1174888831/annotatedbib/
Information about accessing the grading rubric for this assignment is provided below.
Relative Effectiveness of Worker Safety and
Health Training Methods
Michael J. Burke, PhD, Sue Ann Sarpy, PhD, Kristin Smith-Crowe, PhD, Suzanne Chan-Serafin, BA, Rommei 0. Salvador, iVIBA, and Gazi Islam, BA
An understanding of how best to implement
worker safety and health training is a critical
public need in light of the tragic events of
September 11, 2001, as well as ongoing ef-
forts to prepare emergency responders and
professionals in related areas to do their jobs
safely and effectively.' The need to gain a
better understanding of the effectiveness of
safety and health training is also apparent in
a broader context given that millions of in-
juries and illnesses are reported annually in
private industry workplaces,^ and health and
safety training is globally recognized as 1
means of reducing the costs assodated with
such events."* Indeed, researchers from differ-
ent fields, including business, psychology, en-
gineering, and public health, have long recog-
nized the need for comprehensive, systematic
evaluations of safety and health training to
address these types of critical public- and
private-sector concerns.''"^
The conclusion from several narrative re-
views has been that most training interven-
tions lead to positive effects on safety knowl-
edge, adoption of safe work behaviors and
practices, and safety and health outcomes.̂ '*'̂
However, these qucditative reviews are specu-
lative as to the specific factors that enhance
the relative effectiveness of safety and health
trsiining interventions in reducing or prevent-
ing worker injury or illness.'°~'^ Notably, a
fundamental question remains unresolved
within the scientific literature: What is the
relative effectiveness of different methods of
safety and health tniining in modifying safety-
related knowledge, behavior, and outcomes?
Attempts to address similar broad-based
questions related to the benefits of work-
related health and safety interventions'^ have
revealed the need for a large-scale, quantita-
tive analysis of the extant literature. Results
from such a ...
“Study of relationship between employees’ commitment, job satisfaction, job safety, job autonomy and employees’ turnover intention in a Construction Industry”
This article examines differences in safety schemas among upper managers, supervisors, and workers. The study used interviews and text analysis software to analyze safety perceptions. The software identified 10 themes in participants' discussions of safety. Upper managers focused on culture and people, supervisors on corporate values, management practices, and safety communication, and workers on procedures and safety training. The results suggest safety schemas differ between groups and this could impact safety efforts if not addressed.
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of many efforts t.docxduketjoy27252
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of many efforts to
improve patient safety and care quality. This systematic review
identifies and assesses interventions used to promote safety culture
or climate in acute care settings. The authors searched MEDLINE,
CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane, and EMBASE to identify relevant
English-language studies published from January 2000 to October
2012. They selected studies that targeted health care workers practicing
in inpatient settings and included data about change in patient
safety culture or climate after a targeted intervention. Two
raters independently screened 3679 abstracts (which yielded 33
eligible studies in 35 articles), extracted study data, and rated study
quality and strength of evidence. Eight studies included executive
walk rounds or interdisciplinary rounds; 8 evaluated multicomponent,
unit-based interventions; and 20 included team training or
communication initiatives. Twenty-nine studies reported some improvement
in safety culture or patient outcomes, but measured
outcomes were highly heterogeneous. Strength of evidence was
low, and most studies were pre–post evaluations of low to moderate
quality. Within these limits, evidence suggests that interventions
can improve perceptions of safety culture and potentially
reduce patient harm.
Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:369-374. www.annals.org
For author affiliations, see end of text.
THE PROBLEM
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of
many efforts to improve patient safety and care quality in
acute care settings (1, 2). Several studies show that safety
culture and the related concept of safety climate are related
to such clinician behaviors as error reporting (3), reductions
in adverse events (4, 5), and reduced mortality (6, 7).
Accreditation bodies identify leadership standards for
safety culture measurement and improvement (8), and promoting
a culture of safety is a designated National Patient
Safety Foundation Safe Practice (9). A search of the Agency
for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Patient
Safety Net (www.psnet.ahrq.gov) yields more than 5665
articles, tips, and fact sheets related to improving safety
culture. Although much work has focused on promoting a
culture of safety, understanding which approaches are most
effective and the implementation factors that may influence
effectiveness are critical to achieving meaningful improvement
(10).
Drawing on the social, organizational, and safety sciences,
patient safety culture can be defined as 1 aspect of an
organization’s culture (11, 12). Specifically, it can be personified
by the shared values, beliefs, norms, and procedures
related to patient safety among members of an organization,
unit, or team (13, 14). It influences clinician and
staff behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions on the job by
providing cues about the relative priority of patient safety
compared with other goals (for example, throughput or
efficiency) (11). Culture also shapes clinician and staff perce.
This document provides a literature review on global occupational safety and health practices and the severity of accidents. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The literature review identifies existing gaps in previous workplace safety and health management research and proposes areas for future study. Many studies have found that risks to occupational safety and health are increasing globally due to industrialization, but developing countries often overlook workplace safety in their economic policies. The review finds gaps in developing multilevel safety models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and approaches that consider multiple health factors, and suggests these areas need further research to improve workplace safety and health management.
A LITERATURE REVIEW ON GLOBAL OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICE ACCID...Justin Knight
This document provides a literature review on global occupational safety and health practices and the severity of accidents. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The literature review identifies existing gaps in previous workplace safety and health management research and proposes areas for future study. Many studies have found that risks to occupational safety and health are increasing globally due to industrialization, but developing countries often overlook workplace safety in their economic policies. The review finds gaps in developing multilevel safety models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and approaches that consider multiple health factors, and suggests these areas need further research to improve workplace safety and health management.
Questions for the article ----Safety Climate How can you measure .docxmakdul
Questions for the article ----Safety Climate/ How can you measure it…..
1. What do you think that Jane the truck driver and Joe the lineman should do?
2. You are to describe the difference and similarities between the terms safety culture and safety climate.
3. The authors suggest that employees’ perceptions are influenced by what they see, such as how well supervisors and managers support safety. What do you think influences these perceptions?
a. What specifically would you suggest to a supervisor/manager should do to influence the perceptions of their employees?
b. Why are we paying so much attention to perceptions?
4. What is the difference between validity and reliability? How would I know that my survey is both valid and reliable?
5. The survey shows that safety climate affects safety behavior. What is it that the authors suggest through their research that supports the previous statement?
6. The authors tell us it is important to have all employees be given an opportunity to take the survey. Do you agree with that position, or not? Be prepared to defend your answer.
7. In the event that you have an employee who is illiterate:
a. Would it be important for that/these individuals to participate in the survey?
b. If it were important to have them complete the survey, how would you accommodate their inability to read?
8. What is the ultimate purpose of attempting to measure safety climate in an organization?
9. The author suggests that once the surveys are completed, one of the issues that should be checked are differences between locations and/or departments (IE pilots, mechanics, ATC, etc.). Do you think this is a meaningful analysis? Why or why not?
28 ProfessionalSafety january 2017 www.asse.org
Yueng-Hsiang (Emily) Huang, Ph.D., is a senior research scientist
at Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety (LMRIS) in Hopkin-
ton, MA. She holds a Ph.D. in Industrial-Organizational Psychology/
Systems Science from Portland State University. She conducts both
laboratory and field research in areas such as occupational injury and
accident prevention, and organizational culture and climate. She is a
Fellow of the American Psychological Association and the Society for
Industrial-Organizational Psychology. Huang is an associate editor of
Accident Analysis and Prevention.
Susan Jeffries is a research specialist at LMRIS where she recruits
companies as potential partners in research for field studies and
serves as liaison between the institute and corporate safety profes-
sionals in such initiatives. She conducts qualitative research through
in-depth interviews and focus groups to investigate issues relating to
safety in the trucking industry and other lone worker environments.
Jeffries holds a B.S. in Marketing from Boston College.
George D. (Don) Tolbert, CSP, is technical director, organizational
practices, with Liberty Mutual’s Risk Control Service department.
His responsibilities incl ...
The document presents a case study that tested a safety culture intervention at an industrial plant. The intervention aimed to improve safety culture by creating more and better safety-related interactions through developing the health and safety organization (HSO). Results indicated the HSO's performance and interactions improved, and safety culture indicators and injury rates trended positively. This provides evidence the HSO can impact safety culture when focused on increasing safety-related interactions.
Unit III Annotated BibliographyUsing the CSU Online Library, cho.docxmarilucorr
Unit III Annotated Bibliography
Using the CSU Online Library, choose at least five articles—two of which must be professional, peer-reviewed journal articles—on the effects of accidents on individuals and the importance of safety and health training (including refresher training). After a careful review of these articles, write an annotated bibliography in proper APA format. The annotated bibliography must be around three pages in length.
The CSU Success Center offers a great resource regarding annotated bibliographies. The webinar below is designed to walk you through the process of creating an annotated bibliography. Topics covered will include selecting proper sources, highlighting key points, and summarizing contents of the source.
Annotated Bibliographies:
https://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/_a1174888831/annotatedbib/
Information about accessing the grading rubric for this assignment is provided below.
Relative Effectiveness of Worker Safety and
Health Training Methods
Michael J. Burke, PhD, Sue Ann Sarpy, PhD, Kristin Smith-Crowe, PhD, Suzanne Chan-Serafin, BA, Rommei 0. Salvador, iVIBA, and Gazi Islam, BA
An understanding of how best to implement
worker safety and health training is a critical
public need in light of the tragic events of
September 11, 2001, as well as ongoing ef-
forts to prepare emergency responders and
professionals in related areas to do their jobs
safely and effectively.' The need to gain a
better understanding of the effectiveness of
safety and health training is also apparent in
a broader context given that millions of in-
juries and illnesses are reported annually in
private industry workplaces,^ and health and
safety training is globally recognized as 1
means of reducing the costs assodated with
such events."* Indeed, researchers from differ-
ent fields, including business, psychology, en-
gineering, and public health, have long recog-
nized the need for comprehensive, systematic
evaluations of safety and health training to
address these types of critical public- and
private-sector concerns.''"^
The conclusion from several narrative re-
views has been that most training interven-
tions lead to positive effects on safety knowl-
edge, adoption of safe work behaviors and
practices, and safety and health outcomes.̂ '*'̂
However, these qucditative reviews are specu-
lative as to the specific factors that enhance
the relative effectiveness of safety and health
trsiining interventions in reducing or prevent-
ing worker injury or illness.'°~'^ Notably, a
fundamental question remains unresolved
within the scientific literature: What is the
relative effectiveness of different methods of
safety and health tniining in modifying safety-
related knowledge, behavior, and outcomes?
Attempts to address similar broad-based
questions related to the benefits of work-
related health and safety interventions'^ have
revealed the need for a large-scale, quantita-
tive analysis of the extant literature. Results
from such a ...
“Study of relationship between employees’ commitment, job satisfaction, job safety, job autonomy and employees’ turnover intention in a Construction Industry”
This article examines differences in safety schemas among upper managers, supervisors, and workers. The study used interviews and text analysis software to analyze safety perceptions. The software identified 10 themes in participants' discussions of safety. Upper managers focused on culture and people, supervisors on corporate values, management practices, and safety communication, and workers on procedures and safety training. The results suggest safety schemas differ between groups and this could impact safety efforts if not addressed.
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of many efforts t.docxduketjoy27252
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of many efforts to
improve patient safety and care quality. This systematic review
identifies and assesses interventions used to promote safety culture
or climate in acute care settings. The authors searched MEDLINE,
CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane, and EMBASE to identify relevant
English-language studies published from January 2000 to October
2012. They selected studies that targeted health care workers practicing
in inpatient settings and included data about change in patient
safety culture or climate after a targeted intervention. Two
raters independently screened 3679 abstracts (which yielded 33
eligible studies in 35 articles), extracted study data, and rated study
quality and strength of evidence. Eight studies included executive
walk rounds or interdisciplinary rounds; 8 evaluated multicomponent,
unit-based interventions; and 20 included team training or
communication initiatives. Twenty-nine studies reported some improvement
in safety culture or patient outcomes, but measured
outcomes were highly heterogeneous. Strength of evidence was
low, and most studies were pre–post evaluations of low to moderate
quality. Within these limits, evidence suggests that interventions
can improve perceptions of safety culture and potentially
reduce patient harm.
Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:369-374. www.annals.org
For author affiliations, see end of text.
THE PROBLEM
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of
many efforts to improve patient safety and care quality in
acute care settings (1, 2). Several studies show that safety
culture and the related concept of safety climate are related
to such clinician behaviors as error reporting (3), reductions
in adverse events (4, 5), and reduced mortality (6, 7).
Accreditation bodies identify leadership standards for
safety culture measurement and improvement (8), and promoting
a culture of safety is a designated National Patient
Safety Foundation Safe Practice (9). A search of the Agency
for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Patient
Safety Net (www.psnet.ahrq.gov) yields more than 5665
articles, tips, and fact sheets related to improving safety
culture. Although much work has focused on promoting a
culture of safety, understanding which approaches are most
effective and the implementation factors that may influence
effectiveness are critical to achieving meaningful improvement
(10).
Drawing on the social, organizational, and safety sciences,
patient safety culture can be defined as 1 aspect of an
organization’s culture (11, 12). Specifically, it can be personified
by the shared values, beliefs, norms, and procedures
related to patient safety among members of an organization,
unit, or team (13, 14). It influences clinician and
staff behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions on the job by
providing cues about the relative priority of patient safety
compared with other goals (for example, throughput or
efficiency) (11). Culture also shapes clinician and staff perce.
This document provides a literature review on global occupational safety and health practices and the severity of accidents. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The literature review identifies existing gaps in previous workplace safety and health management research and proposes areas for future study. Many studies have found that risks to occupational safety and health are increasing globally due to industrialization, but developing countries often overlook workplace safety in their economic policies. The review finds gaps in developing multilevel safety models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and approaches that consider multiple health factors, and suggests these areas need further research to improve workplace safety and health management.
A LITERATURE REVIEW ON GLOBAL OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICE ACCID...Justin Knight
This document provides a literature review on global occupational safety and health practices and the severity of accidents. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The literature review identifies existing gaps in previous workplace safety and health management research and proposes areas for future study. Many studies have found that risks to occupational safety and health are increasing globally due to industrialization, but developing countries often overlook workplace safety in their economic policies. The review finds gaps in developing multilevel safety models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and approaches that consider multiple health factors, and suggests these areas need further research to improve workplace safety and health management.
Questions for the article ----Safety Climate How can you measure .docxmakdul
Questions for the article ----Safety Climate/ How can you measure it…..
1. What do you think that Jane the truck driver and Joe the lineman should do?
2. You are to describe the difference and similarities between the terms safety culture and safety climate.
3. The authors suggest that employees’ perceptions are influenced by what they see, such as how well supervisors and managers support safety. What do you think influences these perceptions?
a. What specifically would you suggest to a supervisor/manager should do to influence the perceptions of their employees?
b. Why are we paying so much attention to perceptions?
4. What is the difference between validity and reliability? How would I know that my survey is both valid and reliable?
5. The survey shows that safety climate affects safety behavior. What is it that the authors suggest through their research that supports the previous statement?
6. The authors tell us it is important to have all employees be given an opportunity to take the survey. Do you agree with that position, or not? Be prepared to defend your answer.
7. In the event that you have an employee who is illiterate:
a. Would it be important for that/these individuals to participate in the survey?
b. If it were important to have them complete the survey, how would you accommodate their inability to read?
8. What is the ultimate purpose of attempting to measure safety climate in an organization?
9. The author suggests that once the surveys are completed, one of the issues that should be checked are differences between locations and/or departments (IE pilots, mechanics, ATC, etc.). Do you think this is a meaningful analysis? Why or why not?
28 ProfessionalSafety january 2017 www.asse.org
Yueng-Hsiang (Emily) Huang, Ph.D., is a senior research scientist
at Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety (LMRIS) in Hopkin-
ton, MA. She holds a Ph.D. in Industrial-Organizational Psychology/
Systems Science from Portland State University. She conducts both
laboratory and field research in areas such as occupational injury and
accident prevention, and organizational culture and climate. She is a
Fellow of the American Psychological Association and the Society for
Industrial-Organizational Psychology. Huang is an associate editor of
Accident Analysis and Prevention.
Susan Jeffries is a research specialist at LMRIS where she recruits
companies as potential partners in research for field studies and
serves as liaison between the institute and corporate safety profes-
sionals in such initiatives. She conducts qualitative research through
in-depth interviews and focus groups to investigate issues relating to
safety in the trucking industry and other lone worker environments.
Jeffries holds a B.S. in Marketing from Boston College.
George D. (Don) Tolbert, CSP, is technical director, organizational
practices, with Liberty Mutual’s Risk Control Service department.
His responsibilities incl ...
The document presents a case study that tested a safety culture intervention at an industrial plant. The intervention aimed to improve safety culture by creating more and better safety-related interactions through developing the health and safety organization (HSO). Results indicated the HSO's performance and interactions improved, and safety culture indicators and injury rates trended positively. This provides evidence the HSO can impact safety culture when focused on increasing safety-related interactions.
Face Construct And Criterion-Related Validity EssayDeb Birch
The document discusses validity and reliability as they relate to psychological assessment tools. It describes different types of validity, including face validity, construct validity, and criterion-related validity. Face validity assesses whether a test appears to measure what it intends to, construct validity examines how well a test measures a theoretical construct, and criterion-related validity determines whether test scores correlate with a criterion measure. The document also discusses reliability and notes that internal consistency and test-retest reliability are two important reliability considerations. Internal consistency ensures items on a test consistently measure the same construct, while test-retest reliability examines consistency of scores over time.
This document discusses the health effects of hydraulic fracturing on employees, surrounding communities, and the environment. It examines relevant literature from the disciplines of human resource development and organizational leadership to understand how fracturing has impacted worker health and safety, and what industry leaders are doing to address issues. Studies have found harmful exposure to crystalline silica dust for certain job roles, increasing risks of lung diseases. Air emissions from sites also pose health risks to nearby residents. The document concludes that while fracturing provides benefits, more must be done to protect workers, communities, and the environment from its negative impacts.
This study examined the relationship between perceived organizational values, safety climate, and safety outcomes. The researchers surveyed employees in high risk industries to assess their perceptions of organizational values, safety climate, and safety incidents. Using a statistical technique called Modal Profile Analysis, the researchers identified four commonly perceived profiles of organizational values. The results of the analysis showed that employees who perceived an emphasis on employee well-being or employee well-being and goal attainment reported higher safety climate and fewer incidents. Employees who perceived an emphasis on formal processes/procedures or formal processes/procedures and goal attainment reported lower safety climate and more incidents. The findings suggest that different perceived patterns of organizational values are related to safety climate and outcomes.
99
6
C H A P T E R
The Importance and
Use of Theories in
Health Education and
Health Promotion
99
Key Terms: model, theor y, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived
benefits, perceived barriers, precontemplation, contemplation, decision/determi-
nation, action, maintenance, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, rein-
forcement, expectations, obser vational learning
Both Jose and Dee remember from when they were in college that all
their professors kept using the term theor y-based. Fortunately, they
both remembered to take a look at some of these theories while they
were developing the needs assessment plans. Several of the theoret-
ical concepts they measured became priorities that they will address
with the target populations. But how will they do that?
This chapter will give a brief overview of the use of theories in program plan-
ning. It is intended to give you some background information and examples,
but it cannot, in one chapter, give you a full understanding of theory and its
uses. At the end of the chapter, you will find a list of recommended reading to
expand your understanding in this area.
What Are Theories?
Goldman and Schmalz describe theories as “summaries of formal or informal
observations, presented in a systematic way, that help explain, predict, describe,
or manage behavior” (2001, p. 277). Theories contain factors that attempt to
describe the behaviors, explain the relationships among the factors, and outline
99
17487_Hodges_ch6_99_112 6/11/04 10:08 AM Page 99
100 Chapter 6: The Importance and Use of Theories in Health Education
the conditions under which these relationships exist. Some theories focus on
explaining why a problem or behavior might exist, while other theories describe
concepts and relationships that will help us to put a program into place in a
way that will increase its likelihood of being successful and reaching its intended
group (Glanz & Rimer, 1997).
Just as there are varying levels at which program planners can work to ef-
fect change, there are varying theories associated with these levels. Various
theories can assist us further in identifying specific information that may be col-
lected to more completely paint the picture of our population and our prob-
lem. Table 6.1 reviews these various levels and indicates where they may fit into
the Precede–Proceed model. Table 6.2 presents commonly used theories in
health at various levels and provides the related concepts we may assess or use
to guide us in our planning.
Why Use Theories and Models?
Using theories help program planners think beyond the individual when con-
ducting needs assessments and planning programs. As a result, they help plan-
ners understand the influences on health behaviors and environments (Goldman
& Schmalz, 2001; Glanz & Rimer, 1997). The ability to consider factors within
and beyond the individual enable program planners to select appropriate tar-
gets for interventions, develop strate.
SF 470Assignment #3For this assignment you are to read the.docxlesleyryder69361
SF 470
Assignment #3
For this assignment you are to read the article titled “Corporate Culture” by Judith Erickson.
1) You are to read and summarize the article, identifying the key points made in the article. Reflect on the issues you find enlightening.
2) Identify at least three points that you agree and/or disagree with that the author made in her article. Present cogent arguments, from your perspective, with supporting citations. Be sure to cite your support sources.
Safety ManagementSafety Management
S
Corporate
Culture
Examining its effects on safety performance
By Judith A. Erickson
SAFETY PERFORMANCE is divided into two
aspects: safety program elements and safety process
elements (Erickson, 2006). The program elements
deal with basic safety functioning: regulations, legis-
lation, training, audits and related items. These ele-
ments are considered hard skills and are under
control of the safety professional. The process ele-
ments are the underlying factors within an organi-
zation that either help or hinder the safety effort.
These soft skills are indicators of the corporate cul-
ture, and they are not under the safety professional’s
control (Erickson, 1994).
To achieve optimal safety functioning, both cultur-
al elements and compliance issues must be
addressed. The scientific evidence is overwhelming
that both hard and soft skills are needed to attain opti-
mal safety and business performance (Erickson, 1994;
2001; Shannon, Mayr & Haines, 1997; DeJoy, Schaffer,
Wilson, et al., 2003; Vredenburgh, 2002; Zohar &
Luria, 2004; Parker, Axtell & Turner, 2001; Hofmann &
Morgeson, 1999; Hofmann, Morgeson & Gerras, 2003;
Turner & Parker, 2003; Maierhofer, Griffin & Sheehan,
2000; Maister, 2001; Drucker, 1954; O’Toole, 1996;
Maister, 1997; Buckingham & Coffman, 1999).
However, some in the technical or engineering
fields believe that soft skills are not measurable by
any standard technique or protocol. Within acade-
mia, natural and physical research scientists often
posit this view when discussing the social sciences.
Yet, with rigorous research design and protocol,
social scientists can conduct scientific research that is
quantitatively and statistically equivalent to that of
natural and physical scientists. Through such meth-
ods, the effects of these soft skills have been statisti-
cally correlated with safety performance and
organizational functioning. These measurements are
available to researchers to help organizations im-
prove their safety and business performance.
When assessing organizational culture, SH&E
professionals must be aware of the scientific bases of
the cultural interventions they select. They must
Abstract: Research
demonstrates that cor-
porate culture influences
an organization’s safety
performance. When
assessing organizational
culture, SH&E profession-
als must be aware of the
scientific bases of the
cultural interventions
they choose. This will
help them decide ration-
ally and logically how
they w.
The document discusses several models of health behavior:
1) The Basic Risk Perception Model focuses on likelihood and severity of harm from not acting. Higher risk perception predicts greater motivation to act.
2) The Health Belief Model includes perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, and barriers in predicting preventive health behaviors. Perceived barriers are the strongest predictor.
3) Protection Motivation Theory assesses threat and coping appraisal processes. Response costs have the strongest impact on health behaviors and attitudes.
4) The Transtheoretical Model proposes stages of change and processes of change to explain behavior progression. Decisional balance and self-efficacy also predict stage of change.
This document describes a case study that aimed to improve safety culture at an industrial plant through interventions targeting the health and safety organization (HSO). Baseline assessments were conducted to map safety culture and the HSO's efficiency. Then three developmental processes were initiated: one focused on the health and safety committee, one on the entire HSO, and one on safety representatives. Follow-up assessments after 23 months found improvements in HSO performance, safety-related interactions, safety culture indicators, and injury rates. These changes suggest a cultural shift occurred as the interventions led to modification of underlying assumptions through organizational double-loop learning. The study provides evidence that focusing an HSO on increasing safety-related interactions can positively impact company safety culture.
2013 optimising workplace interventions for health and well-being a comme...Pamela Bobadilla Burgos
This document discusses the limitations of applying a public health perspective to workplace health interventions. While workplaces can support public health goals, the scope and options for interventions differ between the two contexts. Public health typically focuses on motivating individual behavior change, while workplaces have more control over the systems, policies, and environment that influence employee health and well-being. The document argues for differentiated, evidence-based workplace interventions that target specific at-risk groups and address both individual and organizational factors.
Control Mechanisms in Health Services Organizations Analysis.docxstudywriters
Control mechanisms in healthcare organizations help administrators direct resources and identify opportunities for improvement. Understanding how to interpret and modify control mechanisms is an essential skill for administrators. A discussion post should select a control mechanism, like checklists or teamwork, and explain how it could promote a safety culture by preventing errors at a specific healthcare organization. As an administrator, the control mechanism would be applied, like using checklists, to continuously improve safety over time through learning from past issues.
This document discusses behavioral safety interventions that can benefit the San Juan Regional Corporation in improving its safety management system and safety culture. It outlines how behavioral safety focuses on continuous improvement through interventions like information sharing, training, supervision, teamwork, communication and management commitment. While effective for reducing accidents, behavioral interventions require proper implementation to avoid drawbacks like lack of trust between workers and management. Overall behavioral approaches aim to lower costs from accidents by improving culture and management through ongoing assessment and improvement.
Social Cognitive TheoryThis theory was introduced by Albert Band.docxpbilly1
Social Cognitive Theory
This theory was introduced by Albert Bandura, which stated that individuals could learn positively by using interactive behavior, human dialogue, direct experiences, and common observations. The sole purpose of the theory is to comprehend and predict the individual or group behavior and to identify methods by which change or modification can be achieved. The major changes include the promotion of health activities, change in behavior, and improved personality. It is also indicated in the theory that environmental variations, behavior changes, and individual personal factors are the real causes to affect one’s behavior (White et al., 2019). Social cognitive theory is predominantly helpful when collaborated with educational institutions to improve behavior changes like introducing advanced knowledge into practice. Prochaska and DiClementi’s Model of Behavior Change is one of the most beneficial and productive models for health behavior changes.
Stages of Change Theory
Prochaska and DiClementi’s Model of Behavior Change was initially established to target the customers that need a change in health behavior, especially smokers under therapy treatment. There were four stages of this theory at the start, but now it has five different stages along with additional consideration of multiple audiences rather than individual cases. These stages of change theory are as follows:
Precontemplation
refers to the condition in which an individual does not understand and unaware consciously or unconsciously of the fact that change is a necessity for him/her.
Contemplation
indicates the situation of the person who is well aware of the problem and started to think about changing his or her attitude.
Preparation for action
indicates whenever the individual is ready to accept the challenge to change the attitude and start preparing to change is considered as “the act of preparation.” This stage may be clear within 02 weeks after making the decision to change. The
action
starts with the engagement of an individual into the change activities and understands how to cope with the behavioral change.
Maintenance
is considered as the final stage, which varies with individuals, but normally it may take up to six months. Any change in behavior must be strengthened in order to sustain the change.
Appraisal of evidence
There is a lot of evidence that proved that this model or theory could create a difference in the health behavior of an individual. Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross defined ten procedures that can evaluate and inspire the movement across the stages, which include Re-evaluation of environmental activities, Individual self-freedom, Social freedom, Sense of dramatic relief, Awareness levitation, Re-evaluation of self-esteem, Improvement in the relationships, Strengthening of management, Incitement control and Counter conditioning. These are some of the processes that can be achieved through this model or theory. The evide.
This document discusses frameworks and indices for assessing sustainability. It begins by introducing common types of sustainability assessment tools, focusing on indicators and indices. It then outlines several widely-used sustainability frameworks, including the Triple Bottom Line framework and pressure-state-response model. Next, it describes the process for constructing sustainability indices, including selecting indicators, standardizing data, assigning weights, and aggregating the results. It notes that indicator selection and weighting are often inconsistent due to a lack of standardized requirements. Finally, it argues that sustainability frameworks can effectively guide indicator selection for both standalone indicators and composite indices.
The document defines and discusses various types of validity and reliability in research experiments and measurements. It summarizes the key threats to internal and external validity in experiments. It also defines correlation research and distinguishes between explanatory and predictive research designs. Finally, it defines ethnographic research, when it should be used, and outlines the five key steps in conducting an ethnographic study.
the relationship between regulatory foci (promotion and prevention focus) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance, and normative commitment)
This document provides an overview of Betty Neuman's Health Care Systems Model. It describes the client system concept model which views the person as composed of layers surrounding a central core. Stressors can penetrate these layers and impact health. Nursing aims to retain, attain, and maintain client system stability through primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention interventions. The model takes a holistic, multidimensional approach and can be used in nursing education and research to improve care and strengthen client systems facing various stressors.
Journal of Organizational Behavior J. Organiz. Behav. 31, .docxSusanaFurman449
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 31, 24–44 (2010)
Published online 22 May 2009 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.621
Towards a multi-foci approach to
workplace aggression: A meta-analytic
review of outcomes from different
yperpetrators
M. SANDY HERSHCOVIS1* AND JULIAN BARLING2
1I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
2Queen’s School of Business, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Summary Using meta-analysis, we compare three attitudinal outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, affective
commitment, and turnover intent), three behavioral outcomes (i.e., interpersonal deviance,
organizational deviance, and work performance), and four health-related outcomes (i.e.,
general health, depression, emotional exhaustion, and physical well being) of workplace
aggression from three different sources: Supervisors, co-workers, and outsiders. Results from
66 samples show that supervisor aggression has the strongest adverse effects across the
attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Co-worker aggression had stronger effects than outsider
aggression on the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, whereas there was no significant
difference between supervisor, co-worker, and outsider aggression for the majority of the
health-related outcomes. These results have implications for how workplace aggression is
conceptualized and measured, and we propose new research questions that emphasize a multi-
foci approach. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
I admit that, before I was bullied, I couldn’t understand why employees would shy-away from doing
anything about it. When it happened to me, I felt trapped. I felt like either no one believed me or no
one cared. This bully was my direct boss and went out of his way to make me look and feel
incompetent. . . I dreaded going to work and cried myself to sleep every night. I was afraid of
losing my job because I started to question my abilities and didn’t think I’d find work elsewhere.
(HR professional as posted on a New York Times blog, 2008).
Introduction
Growing awareness of psychological forms of workplace aggression has stimulated research interest in
the consequences of these negative behaviors. Workplace aggression is defined as negative acts that are
* Correspondence to: M. Sandy Hershcovis, I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada. E-mail: [email protected]
yAn earlier version of this study was presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Honolulu, HI.
Received 28 April 2008
Revised 17 March 2009
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 4 April 2009
mailto:[email protected]
www.interscience.wiley.com
25 AGGRESSION META-ANALYSIS
perpetrated against an organization or its members and that victims are motivated to avoid (Neuman &
Baron, 2005; Raver & Barling, 2007). Much of this research (e.g., .
Notes for question please no plag use references to cite wk 2 .docxcherishwinsland
Notes for question please no plag use references to cite
wk 2 1. Briefly summary of the comparison of the reliability and validity of responses on attitude scales
Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor MI, Retrieved from http://www4.wccnet.edu/departments/curriculum/assessment.php?levelone=tools
Strong words or moderate words: A comparison of the reliability and validity of responses on attitude scales
A common assumption in attitude measurement is that items should be composed of strongly worded statements. The presumed benefit of strongly worded statements is that they produce more reliable and valid scores than statements with moderate or weak wording. This study tested this assumption using commonly accepted criteria for reliability and validity. Two forms of attitude scales were created—a strongly worded form and a moderately worded form—measuring two attitude objects—attitude towards animal experimentation and attitude towards going to the movies. Different formats were randomly administered to samples of graduate students. There was no superiority found for strongly worded statements over moderately worded statements. The only statistically significant difference was found between one pair of validity coefficients ( r = 0.69; r = 0.15; Z = 2.60, p ≤ 0.01) and that was in the direction opposite from expected, favoring moderately worded items over strongly worded items (total scores correlated with a general behavioral item). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract)
wk 2 2. What are Effective ways to understand and organize data using descriptive statistics?
Organizing Quantitative Data
Organizing quantitative data [Video file]. (2005). Retrieved January 20, 2017, from http://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=18566&xtid=36200
http://fod.infobase.com/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=36200
Effective ways to understand and organize data using descriptive statistics. Analyzing data collected from studies of young music students, the video helps viewers sort through basic data-interpretation concepts: measures of central tendency, levels of measurement, measures of dispersion, and graphs. A wide range of organization principles are covered, including mode, median, and mean; discrete and continuous data; nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data; standard deviation; and normal distribution. Animation and graphics clarify and reinforce each concept. The video concludes with a quick quiz to assess understanding and focus on key areas. A viewable/printable instructor’s guide is available online. WE DISCUSSED HOW TO DESIGN AN EXPERIMENT AND CONTROL VARIABLES IN OUR FIRST VIDEO. AND NOW WE'RE GOING TO LOOK AT WHAT TO DO WITH ALL THE DATA THAT HAS BEEN COLLECTED. AN EXPERIMENT IS ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL WAYS TO SHOW THE CAUSE OF AN EVENT AND ITS EFFECT ON OTHER THINGS. BUT REMEMBER THAT AN INVESTIGATION CAN ONLY BE A SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENT IF IT HAS AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE WHICH IS MANIPULATED .
Face Construct And Criterion-Related Validity EssayDeb Birch
The document discusses validity and reliability as they relate to psychological assessment tools. It describes different types of validity, including face validity, construct validity, and criterion-related validity. Face validity assesses whether a test appears to measure what it intends to, construct validity examines how well a test measures a theoretical construct, and criterion-related validity determines whether test scores correlate with a criterion measure. The document also discusses reliability and notes that internal consistency and test-retest reliability are two important reliability considerations. Internal consistency ensures items on a test consistently measure the same construct, while test-retest reliability examines consistency of scores over time.
This document discusses the health effects of hydraulic fracturing on employees, surrounding communities, and the environment. It examines relevant literature from the disciplines of human resource development and organizational leadership to understand how fracturing has impacted worker health and safety, and what industry leaders are doing to address issues. Studies have found harmful exposure to crystalline silica dust for certain job roles, increasing risks of lung diseases. Air emissions from sites also pose health risks to nearby residents. The document concludes that while fracturing provides benefits, more must be done to protect workers, communities, and the environment from its negative impacts.
This study examined the relationship between perceived organizational values, safety climate, and safety outcomes. The researchers surveyed employees in high risk industries to assess their perceptions of organizational values, safety climate, and safety incidents. Using a statistical technique called Modal Profile Analysis, the researchers identified four commonly perceived profiles of organizational values. The results of the analysis showed that employees who perceived an emphasis on employee well-being or employee well-being and goal attainment reported higher safety climate and fewer incidents. Employees who perceived an emphasis on formal processes/procedures or formal processes/procedures and goal attainment reported lower safety climate and more incidents. The findings suggest that different perceived patterns of organizational values are related to safety climate and outcomes.
99
6
C H A P T E R
The Importance and
Use of Theories in
Health Education and
Health Promotion
99
Key Terms: model, theor y, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived
benefits, perceived barriers, precontemplation, contemplation, decision/determi-
nation, action, maintenance, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, rein-
forcement, expectations, obser vational learning
Both Jose and Dee remember from when they were in college that all
their professors kept using the term theor y-based. Fortunately, they
both remembered to take a look at some of these theories while they
were developing the needs assessment plans. Several of the theoret-
ical concepts they measured became priorities that they will address
with the target populations. But how will they do that?
This chapter will give a brief overview of the use of theories in program plan-
ning. It is intended to give you some background information and examples,
but it cannot, in one chapter, give you a full understanding of theory and its
uses. At the end of the chapter, you will find a list of recommended reading to
expand your understanding in this area.
What Are Theories?
Goldman and Schmalz describe theories as “summaries of formal or informal
observations, presented in a systematic way, that help explain, predict, describe,
or manage behavior” (2001, p. 277). Theories contain factors that attempt to
describe the behaviors, explain the relationships among the factors, and outline
99
17487_Hodges_ch6_99_112 6/11/04 10:08 AM Page 99
100 Chapter 6: The Importance and Use of Theories in Health Education
the conditions under which these relationships exist. Some theories focus on
explaining why a problem or behavior might exist, while other theories describe
concepts and relationships that will help us to put a program into place in a
way that will increase its likelihood of being successful and reaching its intended
group (Glanz & Rimer, 1997).
Just as there are varying levels at which program planners can work to ef-
fect change, there are varying theories associated with these levels. Various
theories can assist us further in identifying specific information that may be col-
lected to more completely paint the picture of our population and our prob-
lem. Table 6.1 reviews these various levels and indicates where they may fit into
the Precede–Proceed model. Table 6.2 presents commonly used theories in
health at various levels and provides the related concepts we may assess or use
to guide us in our planning.
Why Use Theories and Models?
Using theories help program planners think beyond the individual when con-
ducting needs assessments and planning programs. As a result, they help plan-
ners understand the influences on health behaviors and environments (Goldman
& Schmalz, 2001; Glanz & Rimer, 1997). The ability to consider factors within
and beyond the individual enable program planners to select appropriate tar-
gets for interventions, develop strate.
SF 470Assignment #3For this assignment you are to read the.docxlesleyryder69361
SF 470
Assignment #3
For this assignment you are to read the article titled “Corporate Culture” by Judith Erickson.
1) You are to read and summarize the article, identifying the key points made in the article. Reflect on the issues you find enlightening.
2) Identify at least three points that you agree and/or disagree with that the author made in her article. Present cogent arguments, from your perspective, with supporting citations. Be sure to cite your support sources.
Safety ManagementSafety Management
S
Corporate
Culture
Examining its effects on safety performance
By Judith A. Erickson
SAFETY PERFORMANCE is divided into two
aspects: safety program elements and safety process
elements (Erickson, 2006). The program elements
deal with basic safety functioning: regulations, legis-
lation, training, audits and related items. These ele-
ments are considered hard skills and are under
control of the safety professional. The process ele-
ments are the underlying factors within an organi-
zation that either help or hinder the safety effort.
These soft skills are indicators of the corporate cul-
ture, and they are not under the safety professional’s
control (Erickson, 1994).
To achieve optimal safety functioning, both cultur-
al elements and compliance issues must be
addressed. The scientific evidence is overwhelming
that both hard and soft skills are needed to attain opti-
mal safety and business performance (Erickson, 1994;
2001; Shannon, Mayr & Haines, 1997; DeJoy, Schaffer,
Wilson, et al., 2003; Vredenburgh, 2002; Zohar &
Luria, 2004; Parker, Axtell & Turner, 2001; Hofmann &
Morgeson, 1999; Hofmann, Morgeson & Gerras, 2003;
Turner & Parker, 2003; Maierhofer, Griffin & Sheehan,
2000; Maister, 2001; Drucker, 1954; O’Toole, 1996;
Maister, 1997; Buckingham & Coffman, 1999).
However, some in the technical or engineering
fields believe that soft skills are not measurable by
any standard technique or protocol. Within acade-
mia, natural and physical research scientists often
posit this view when discussing the social sciences.
Yet, with rigorous research design and protocol,
social scientists can conduct scientific research that is
quantitatively and statistically equivalent to that of
natural and physical scientists. Through such meth-
ods, the effects of these soft skills have been statisti-
cally correlated with safety performance and
organizational functioning. These measurements are
available to researchers to help organizations im-
prove their safety and business performance.
When assessing organizational culture, SH&E
professionals must be aware of the scientific bases of
the cultural interventions they select. They must
Abstract: Research
demonstrates that cor-
porate culture influences
an organization’s safety
performance. When
assessing organizational
culture, SH&E profession-
als must be aware of the
scientific bases of the
cultural interventions
they choose. This will
help them decide ration-
ally and logically how
they w.
The document discusses several models of health behavior:
1) The Basic Risk Perception Model focuses on likelihood and severity of harm from not acting. Higher risk perception predicts greater motivation to act.
2) The Health Belief Model includes perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, and barriers in predicting preventive health behaviors. Perceived barriers are the strongest predictor.
3) Protection Motivation Theory assesses threat and coping appraisal processes. Response costs have the strongest impact on health behaviors and attitudes.
4) The Transtheoretical Model proposes stages of change and processes of change to explain behavior progression. Decisional balance and self-efficacy also predict stage of change.
This document describes a case study that aimed to improve safety culture at an industrial plant through interventions targeting the health and safety organization (HSO). Baseline assessments were conducted to map safety culture and the HSO's efficiency. Then three developmental processes were initiated: one focused on the health and safety committee, one on the entire HSO, and one on safety representatives. Follow-up assessments after 23 months found improvements in HSO performance, safety-related interactions, safety culture indicators, and injury rates. These changes suggest a cultural shift occurred as the interventions led to modification of underlying assumptions through organizational double-loop learning. The study provides evidence that focusing an HSO on increasing safety-related interactions can positively impact company safety culture.
2013 optimising workplace interventions for health and well-being a comme...Pamela Bobadilla Burgos
This document discusses the limitations of applying a public health perspective to workplace health interventions. While workplaces can support public health goals, the scope and options for interventions differ between the two contexts. Public health typically focuses on motivating individual behavior change, while workplaces have more control over the systems, policies, and environment that influence employee health and well-being. The document argues for differentiated, evidence-based workplace interventions that target specific at-risk groups and address both individual and organizational factors.
Control Mechanisms in Health Services Organizations Analysis.docxstudywriters
Control mechanisms in healthcare organizations help administrators direct resources and identify opportunities for improvement. Understanding how to interpret and modify control mechanisms is an essential skill for administrators. A discussion post should select a control mechanism, like checklists or teamwork, and explain how it could promote a safety culture by preventing errors at a specific healthcare organization. As an administrator, the control mechanism would be applied, like using checklists, to continuously improve safety over time through learning from past issues.
This document discusses behavioral safety interventions that can benefit the San Juan Regional Corporation in improving its safety management system and safety culture. It outlines how behavioral safety focuses on continuous improvement through interventions like information sharing, training, supervision, teamwork, communication and management commitment. While effective for reducing accidents, behavioral interventions require proper implementation to avoid drawbacks like lack of trust between workers and management. Overall behavioral approaches aim to lower costs from accidents by improving culture and management through ongoing assessment and improvement.
Social Cognitive TheoryThis theory was introduced by Albert Band.docxpbilly1
Social Cognitive Theory
This theory was introduced by Albert Bandura, which stated that individuals could learn positively by using interactive behavior, human dialogue, direct experiences, and common observations. The sole purpose of the theory is to comprehend and predict the individual or group behavior and to identify methods by which change or modification can be achieved. The major changes include the promotion of health activities, change in behavior, and improved personality. It is also indicated in the theory that environmental variations, behavior changes, and individual personal factors are the real causes to affect one’s behavior (White et al., 2019). Social cognitive theory is predominantly helpful when collaborated with educational institutions to improve behavior changes like introducing advanced knowledge into practice. Prochaska and DiClementi’s Model of Behavior Change is one of the most beneficial and productive models for health behavior changes.
Stages of Change Theory
Prochaska and DiClementi’s Model of Behavior Change was initially established to target the customers that need a change in health behavior, especially smokers under therapy treatment. There were four stages of this theory at the start, but now it has five different stages along with additional consideration of multiple audiences rather than individual cases. These stages of change theory are as follows:
Precontemplation
refers to the condition in which an individual does not understand and unaware consciously or unconsciously of the fact that change is a necessity for him/her.
Contemplation
indicates the situation of the person who is well aware of the problem and started to think about changing his or her attitude.
Preparation for action
indicates whenever the individual is ready to accept the challenge to change the attitude and start preparing to change is considered as “the act of preparation.” This stage may be clear within 02 weeks after making the decision to change. The
action
starts with the engagement of an individual into the change activities and understands how to cope with the behavioral change.
Maintenance
is considered as the final stage, which varies with individuals, but normally it may take up to six months. Any change in behavior must be strengthened in order to sustain the change.
Appraisal of evidence
There is a lot of evidence that proved that this model or theory could create a difference in the health behavior of an individual. Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross defined ten procedures that can evaluate and inspire the movement across the stages, which include Re-evaluation of environmental activities, Individual self-freedom, Social freedom, Sense of dramatic relief, Awareness levitation, Re-evaluation of self-esteem, Improvement in the relationships, Strengthening of management, Incitement control and Counter conditioning. These are some of the processes that can be achieved through this model or theory. The evide.
This document discusses frameworks and indices for assessing sustainability. It begins by introducing common types of sustainability assessment tools, focusing on indicators and indices. It then outlines several widely-used sustainability frameworks, including the Triple Bottom Line framework and pressure-state-response model. Next, it describes the process for constructing sustainability indices, including selecting indicators, standardizing data, assigning weights, and aggregating the results. It notes that indicator selection and weighting are often inconsistent due to a lack of standardized requirements. Finally, it argues that sustainability frameworks can effectively guide indicator selection for both standalone indicators and composite indices.
The document defines and discusses various types of validity and reliability in research experiments and measurements. It summarizes the key threats to internal and external validity in experiments. It also defines correlation research and distinguishes between explanatory and predictive research designs. Finally, it defines ethnographic research, when it should be used, and outlines the five key steps in conducting an ethnographic study.
the relationship between regulatory foci (promotion and prevention focus) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance, and normative commitment)
This document provides an overview of Betty Neuman's Health Care Systems Model. It describes the client system concept model which views the person as composed of layers surrounding a central core. Stressors can penetrate these layers and impact health. Nursing aims to retain, attain, and maintain client system stability through primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention interventions. The model takes a holistic, multidimensional approach and can be used in nursing education and research to improve care and strengthen client systems facing various stressors.
Journal of Organizational Behavior J. Organiz. Behav. 31, .docxSusanaFurman449
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 31, 24–44 (2010)
Published online 22 May 2009 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.621
Towards a multi-foci approach to
workplace aggression: A meta-analytic
review of outcomes from different
yperpetrators
M. SANDY HERSHCOVIS1* AND JULIAN BARLING2
1I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
2Queen’s School of Business, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Summary Using meta-analysis, we compare three attitudinal outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, affective
commitment, and turnover intent), three behavioral outcomes (i.e., interpersonal deviance,
organizational deviance, and work performance), and four health-related outcomes (i.e.,
general health, depression, emotional exhaustion, and physical well being) of workplace
aggression from three different sources: Supervisors, co-workers, and outsiders. Results from
66 samples show that supervisor aggression has the strongest adverse effects across the
attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Co-worker aggression had stronger effects than outsider
aggression on the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, whereas there was no significant
difference between supervisor, co-worker, and outsider aggression for the majority of the
health-related outcomes. These results have implications for how workplace aggression is
conceptualized and measured, and we propose new research questions that emphasize a multi-
foci approach. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
I admit that, before I was bullied, I couldn’t understand why employees would shy-away from doing
anything about it. When it happened to me, I felt trapped. I felt like either no one believed me or no
one cared. This bully was my direct boss and went out of his way to make me look and feel
incompetent. . . I dreaded going to work and cried myself to sleep every night. I was afraid of
losing my job because I started to question my abilities and didn’t think I’d find work elsewhere.
(HR professional as posted on a New York Times blog, 2008).
Introduction
Growing awareness of psychological forms of workplace aggression has stimulated research interest in
the consequences of these negative behaviors. Workplace aggression is defined as negative acts that are
* Correspondence to: M. Sandy Hershcovis, I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada. E-mail: [email protected]
yAn earlier version of this study was presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Honolulu, HI.
Received 28 April 2008
Revised 17 March 2009
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 4 April 2009
mailto:[email protected]
www.interscience.wiley.com
25 AGGRESSION META-ANALYSIS
perpetrated against an organization or its members and that victims are motivated to avoid (Neuman &
Baron, 2005; Raver & Barling, 2007). Much of this research (e.g., .
Notes for question please no plag use references to cite wk 2 .docxcherishwinsland
Notes for question please no plag use references to cite
wk 2 1. Briefly summary of the comparison of the reliability and validity of responses on attitude scales
Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor MI, Retrieved from http://www4.wccnet.edu/departments/curriculum/assessment.php?levelone=tools
Strong words or moderate words: A comparison of the reliability and validity of responses on attitude scales
A common assumption in attitude measurement is that items should be composed of strongly worded statements. The presumed benefit of strongly worded statements is that they produce more reliable and valid scores than statements with moderate or weak wording. This study tested this assumption using commonly accepted criteria for reliability and validity. Two forms of attitude scales were created—a strongly worded form and a moderately worded form—measuring two attitude objects—attitude towards animal experimentation and attitude towards going to the movies. Different formats were randomly administered to samples of graduate students. There was no superiority found for strongly worded statements over moderately worded statements. The only statistically significant difference was found between one pair of validity coefficients ( r = 0.69; r = 0.15; Z = 2.60, p ≤ 0.01) and that was in the direction opposite from expected, favoring moderately worded items over strongly worded items (total scores correlated with a general behavioral item). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract)
wk 2 2. What are Effective ways to understand and organize data using descriptive statistics?
Organizing Quantitative Data
Organizing quantitative data [Video file]. (2005). Retrieved January 20, 2017, from http://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=18566&xtid=36200
http://fod.infobase.com/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=36200
Effective ways to understand and organize data using descriptive statistics. Analyzing data collected from studies of young music students, the video helps viewers sort through basic data-interpretation concepts: measures of central tendency, levels of measurement, measures of dispersion, and graphs. A wide range of organization principles are covered, including mode, median, and mean; discrete and continuous data; nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data; standard deviation; and normal distribution. Animation and graphics clarify and reinforce each concept. The video concludes with a quick quiz to assess understanding and focus on key areas. A viewable/printable instructor’s guide is available online. WE DISCUSSED HOW TO DESIGN AN EXPERIMENT AND CONTROL VARIABLES IN OUR FIRST VIDEO. AND NOW WE'RE GOING TO LOOK AT WHAT TO DO WITH ALL THE DATA THAT HAS BEEN COLLECTED. AN EXPERIMENT IS ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL WAYS TO SHOW THE CAUSE OF AN EVENT AND ITS EFFECT ON OTHER THINGS. BUT REMEMBER THAT AN INVESTIGATION CAN ONLY BE A SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENT IF IT HAS AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE WHICH IS MANIPULATED .
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
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Joumal of Safety Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 61-72.1996
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Theoretical Models of Health Behavior and
Workplace Self-Protective Behavior
David M. DeJoy
This paper provides a critical review of the applicability of theoretical
models of health behavior to workplace self-protective behavior. Value-
expectancy, environmental/contextual, and behavior change models are
reviewed. On this basis, an integrative framework is proposed that
conceptualizes self-protective behavior as consisting of four stages or
phases: hazard appraisal, decision making, initiation, and adherence. In
addition, five general constructs are identified as being of either primary or
secondary importance at each stage: threat-related beliefs, response efficacy,
self-efficacy, facilitating conditions, and safety climate. The proposed
framework highlights the need to target interventions to each of the four
stages. Particular emphasis is also assigned to environmental or situational
factors in enabling and reinforcing self-protective behavior in the workplace.
INTRODUCTION
With very few exceptions, research on work-
place self-protective behavior has been piecemeal
and atheoretical. Studies have generally taken
one of three approaches. First, a number of stud-
ies have examined various employee characteris-
tics and their relationships to safety performance
and injury experience. Characteristics studied
have included: hazard and safety-related attitudes
and beliefs (e.g., Cox & Cox, 1991; Dedobbeleer
& German, 1987; Leather, 1988; Walters &
Haines, 1988); personality dimensions and risk-
taking tendencies (e.g., Jones & Wuebker, 1985;
Landeweerd, Urlings, DeJong, Nijhuis, & Bouter,
1990); subjective risk assessments (e.g., Edwards
David M. DeJoy is Professor and Head of the Department
of Health Promotion and Behavior at the University of
Georgia. He received his PhD from Penn State University.
Summer 1996Nolume 27hVumber 2
& Hahn, 1980; Goldberg, Dar-el, & Rubin, 1991;
Howarth, 1987; Zimolong, 1985); and job
demands and other stressors (e.g., Cooper &
Sutherland, 1987; Levenson, Hirschfeld, &
Hirschfeld, 1980; Murphy, 1984; Smith, Colligan,
Fmckt, & Tastn, 1982).
A second group of studies has attempted to
modify the safety-related behaviors of workers
through the use of contingent reinforcement or
operant-based approaches. Reinforcers have includ-
ed information feedback, goal setting, social mcog-
nition, and praise, as well as more conventional
rewards and incentives. Reinforcement protocols
have been used to improve the use of protective
eyewear (Smith, Anger, & Uslan, 1978) and hear-
ing protectors (Zohar, Cohen, & Azar, 1980), and
to increase compliance with safety regulations
(Rhoton, 1980). Other studies within this group
have been somewhat broader in scope and have
tried to influence multiple safety-related behaviors
61
2. and overall safety performance (e.g., Komaki,
Barwick, & Scott, 1978; Sulzer-Azaroff &
DeSantamaria. 1980). Supervisory behavior has
also been examined using this general approach
(Komaki, Zlotnick, 8 Jensen, 1986; Mattila,
Hyttinen, & Rantaneu 1994).
The third group of studies has focused on the
organizational and environmental correlates of
good safety performance. Most of these studies
have sought to identify the programmatic fea-
tures of effective safety programs (e.g., Cohen,
Smith, & Cohen, 1975; Cohen & Cleveland,
1983; Fiedler, Bell, Chemers, & Patrick, 1984;
Planek & Feam, 1993; Simonds & Shafai-Sahmi,
1977; Smith, Cohen, Cohen, & Cleveland, 1978)
or the major dimensions of positive or supportive
organizational safety climates (e.g., Brown &
Holmes, 1986; Dedobbeleer 8z Beland, 1991;
Mattila, Rantanen, & Hyttinen, 1994; Niskanen,
1994; Zohar, 1980).
This research has been useful but it has not
provided a comprehensive understanding of
worker self-protection. More is now known
about the importance of certain individual and
organizational characteristics, but there has
been very little comparability from one study to
another, and few generalizable conclusions can
be drawn. For example, it is difficult to make
predictions about which factors are likely to be
important in a given work situation or how
these factors might interact with each other.
Almost nothing is known about the interplay of
individual and organizational factors in influ-
encing the safety-related actions of workers on
the job.
A number of conceptual models of workplace
safety and health have been proposed to help
organize research findings and guide the devel-
opment of occupational safety and health pro-
grams (e.g., Cohen, Smith, & Anger, 1979; DeJoy,
1990;DeJoy & Southem, 1993; Smith & Beringer,
1987). These models are useful in a heuristic
sense because they underscore the need to con-
sider the characteristics of the worker, the tasks
and jobs being performed, the total work envi-
ronment, and the organizational structure. But
for the most part, they fall far short of being
comprehensive or testable models. In view of
these limitations, it may be worthwhile to look
to related areas for more sophisticated and appli-
cable models. The general area of health behav-
ior offers a number of theoretical models that
have been tested and refined over the years.
62
Theoretical Models of Health Behavior
A variety of models have been developed to
explain why people do or do not engage in vari-
ous health enhancing and medically beneficial
activities. These models have been applied to a
wide variety of preventive and lifestyle behav-
iors (e.g. vaccinations, safe sex practices, smok-
ing, exercise, seat belt usage), screening or early
detection activities (e.g., breast self-examina-
tion, cholesterol and blood pressure testing,
genetic screening), sick role behaviors (e.g..
clinic utilization, physician visits), and adher-
ence to medical and other therapeutic regimens
(e.g., hypertension, diabetes). Although there
would appear to be an obvious link between
these models and workplace self-protective
behavior, very little attention has been given to
examining how they might apply to actions that
workers are asked to take to protect themselves
from job-related hazards.
Three categories of models are considered in
this paper. The first category includes the deci-
sion making or cost-benefit models derived
from value-expectancy theory. These models
have occupied a prominent position in the health
behavior literature during the last 30 years
(Glauz, Lewis, & Rimer, 1990, Weinstein, 1993).
The second category is referred to here as envi-
ronmental or contextual models. These models
attempt to go beyond person-focused variables
and take a more ecological or interactionist
approach to analyzing the determinants of health
behavior. The fmal category of models focuses
on the behavior change process itself. Models in
this category typically portray behavior change
as a series of qualitatively distinct stages.
Value-Expectaucy Models
Value-expectancy models are based on the
premise that people estimate the seriousness of
risks, evaluate the costs and benefits of various
actions, and then choose a course of action that
will maximize the expected outcome (Cleat-y,
1987). Value-expectancy models have taken a
variety of forms, and three prominent examples
are discussed here: the Health Belief Model
(Becker, 1974); the Theory of Reasoned Action
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980); and Protection
Motivation Theory (Rogers, 1983). The three
models are each different to some extent, but
they all emphasize the individual’s threat-related
Journal of Safety Research
3. beliefs or perceptions. Weinstein, (1993) argues
that value-expectancy models have four charac-
teristics in common: (a) that motivation for self-
protective behavior arises from the anticipation
of negative consequences and the desire to mini-
mize these outcomes, (b) that the impact of an
anticipated negative outcome on motivation
depends on beliefs about the likelihood that this
outcome will occur, (c) that motivation to act
arises from the expectation that the action will
reduce the likelihood or severity of harm, and
(d) that the expected benefits of a particular
action must be weighed against the expected
costs of taking the action.
Health Belief Model (HBM). Of the models pre-
sented in this section, the HBM has produced
the largest body of health-related research. It is
also the only one that was specifically devel-
oped to explain health behavior. The HBM
model has four basic components: (a) perceived
susceptibility to the health problem or condition
in question, (b) the perceived seriousness of the
problem or condition, (c) the perceived benefits
associated with taking a particular action, and
(d) the perceived barriers associated with taking
the action.
Published reviews of the HBM literature
(Becker, 1974; Harrison, Mullen, & Green, 1992;
Janz & Becker, 1984) show considerable support
for the model and offer some general conclu-
sions about the relative importance of its major
components. Perceived barriers have been shown
to be the most powerful single predictor across
all studies and behaviors. Perceived susceptibili-
ty and perceived benefits are also important,
with susceptibility being more important for pre-
ventive than sick role behaviors. As might be
expected, benefits are more important than sus-
ceptibility for sick role behaviors. In terms of
the total literature, perceived severity appears to
be the weakest of the four dimensions.
One of the major criticisms of the I-IBM is
that is does not specify relationships among the
major variables. Indeed, it has sometimes been
referred to as being more a list of variables than
a theoretical model (Wallston & Wallston, 1984;
Weinstein, 1993). Most applications of the
HBM combine the variables in a linear or addi-
tive fashion to test the model: susceptibility +
severity + (benefits - barriers). However, some
of the earlier writing on the model (e.g.,
Maiman & Becker, 1974) would appear to sug-
Summer 1996/Mohme 27LWmber 2
gest a multiplicative model: susceptibility x
severity x (benefits - barriers).
Theory of reasoned action (TRA). The TRA
posits that behavioral intention is the immediate
determinant of behavior and that all factors that
influence a particular behavior are mediated
through intention. Intention is determined by
two components: (a) attitude toward the behav-
ior, which consists of beliefs about the conse-
quences of performing the behavior and the
evaluation of those consequences; and (b) sub-
jective norms, which consist of normrutive
beliefs about what salient others think and the
individual’s motivation to comply with those
wishes. According to the model, intention can be
predicted by the linear combination of attitude
and normative beliefs multiplied by motivation
to comply with the beliefs. The model is
expressed as a multiple regression equation, with
the weights assigned to the major components
determined by multiple regression procedures.
The TRA has been applied with considerable
success to a number of health behaviors, inalud-
ing exercise, weight loss, child safety seats,
smoking, condom usage, and alcohol and drug
use (see Cleary, 1987; Kirscht, 1983; Sutton,
1987 for reviews). Besides its focus on behav-
ioral intention, the most obvious difference
between the TRA and HBM is that the TRA
includes subjective norms as a major determinant
of health-related behavior. The TRA also goes
further in specifying how its constructs should be
measured and how they combine to form behav-
ioral intention. On the negative side, much of the
research on the TRA has been confimed to pre-
dicting behavior intention rather than aatual
behavior (Baranowski, 1992-1993).
More recent versions of both the HBM
(Rosenstock, Strecher, & Becker, 1988) and the
TRA (Ajzen, 1985) have added self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1986) as an important component. The
principal argument for including self-efficacy is
that people must feel confident that they are
capable of performing the behaviors required to
produce the desired outcomes. Self-efficacy
appears to be especially important for lifestyle
modifications and other behaviors involving
long-term change and maintenance (Streaher,
DeVelLis,Becker, & Rosenstock, 1986).
Protection motivation theory (PMT). This model
features two cognitive processes, threat appraisal
63
4. and coping appraisal, which combine to form
protection motivation. Protection motivation
(typically measured as behavioral intention) is
conceptualized as an intervening variable that
activates coping behavior. Threat appraisal eval-
uates the intrinsic (e.g., pleasure) and extrinsic
(e.g., social approval) rewards that increase the
probability of making a maladaptive response
against perceptions of vulnerability and outcome
severity that decrease the probability. Threat
appraisal is the algebraic sum of these variables.
Coping appraisal consists of judgments about
the efficacy of a preventive response (response
efficacy) plus the assessment of one’s ability to
successfully perform the necessary responses or
behaviors (self-efficacy) minus the costs associ-
ated with the response.
Protection motivation is assumed to be great-
est when: (a) the perceived threat is severe, (b)
the individual feels vulnerable, (c) the adaptive
response is believed to be effective, (d) the per-
son is confident of his or her abilities to complete
the adaptive response, (e) the rewards of the mal-
adaptive behavior are small, and (f) the costs of
the adaptive behavior are low. Although this is an
additive model within each of the two appraisal
processes, interactive effects can occur between
threat and coping appraisal processes (e.g., self-
efficacy x severity). Presumably, this allows the
model to predict outcomes that are contrary to
totally rational decision making (Prentice-Dunn
& Rogers, 1986). Although less extensively
researched than the two previous models, the
major components of PMT have been supported
(Prentice-Dunn & Rogers; Rogers, 1983). Much
of this work has involved fear-arousing commu-
nications and attitude change.
Applicability to Workplace Setf-Protective
Behavior
Aside from some consideration of HBM con-
structs with respect to personal protective equip-
ment (e.g., Cleveland, 1984; DeJoy, 1986;
Terrell, 1984), very little effort has been made to
apply the value-expectancy models to worker
safety and health. However, viewed as a group,
these models do highlight several constructs that
should be relevant to workplace self-protective
behavior. These constructs include: (a) threat-
related beliefs, (b) self-efficacy, (c) response
efficacy, (d) barriers, and (e) normative expecta-
tions (see Table 1).
64
Threat-related beliefs. Beliefs about susceptibili-
ty (probability) and severity are featured in each
of the models. The interrelationship of suscepti-
bility and severity tends to be treated differently
in the various models, but a multiplicative rela-
tionship would appear to be most in line with the
value-expectancy tradition. For example, a high
level of perceived susceptibility may not neces-
sarily lead to self-piotective behavior if the
severity of the threat is minimal. On the other
hand, for a highly lethal outcome, perceived sus-
ceptibility may be the major dimension.
Self-efficacy. In one form or another, self-efftca-
cy has been incorporated into each of the value-
expectancy models. Because most instances of
worker self-protection involve the performance
of a set of prescribed actions on a long-term
basis, self-efficacy should be an important fac-
tor. Workers need to feel confident about their
ability to perform required behaviors on a regu-
lar and long-term basis.
Response efficacy. Beliefs about the conse-
quences or effectiveness of preventive action
also play a role in each of the models. They are
treated as benefits in the HBM, as part of atti-
tudes in the TRA, and as response efficacy in
PMT. In most workplace applications, response
efficacy involves perceptions about the effective-
ness of prescribed work practices or protective
equipment in preventing hazardous exposures.
Barriers. Barriers are considered explicitly in
the HBM and the PMT, and indirectly in the
TRA. Indeed, the HBM literature (Janz &
Becker, 1984) suggests that barriers or costs are
the single best predictor of health behavior.
Relevant to the workplace, research on the use
of personal protective equipment shows that job
related barriers are often a major factor in non-
compliance (Acton, 1977; Cleveland, 1984;
Terrell, 1984).
Normative expectations. The TRA is the model
that considers the effects of the social environ-
ment most directly. Social influences are also
considered, somewhat tangentially, in the intrin-
sic-extrinsic rewards portion of PMT. Research
on safety program effectiveness (e.g., Cohen &
Cleveland, 1983; Fiedler et al., 1984; Planek &
Feat-n, 1993; Simonds & Shafai-Sahrai, 1977)
and safety climate (e.g., Dedobbeleer & Beland,
Journal of Safety Research
5. TABLE 1
VALUE-EXPECTANCY CONSTRUCTS APPLIED TO WORKPLACE SELF-PROTECTIVE BEHAVIOR
COll~tnrCt
Threat-related beliefs
Self-efficacy
Response efficacy
Barriers
Normative expectations
Definition
Beliefs about hazard susceptibility and severity
Beliefs about one’s ability to follow indicated
safety measures successfully
Perceived effectiveness of available safety
measures
Factors that interfere with the use of available
safety measures
Social/organizational factors that influence
worker self-protection
Workplace Example
Construction worker’s beliefs about his/her
likelihood of falling off scaffolding
Emergency medical technician’s beliefs about
being able to dispose of used needles safely
Underground coal miner’s confidence in
automated carbon monoxide detection
system
Physical discomfort associated with wearing
hearing protectors in textile plant
Supervisor’s indifference to safe lifting
oractices in warehousino ooeration
1991; Mattila et al., 1994; Niskanen, 1994;
Zohar, 1980) highlight the important role of
social-organizational factors in supporting good
safety performance. The safety literature also
contains a number of studies indicating that per-
formance and other types of feedback from
supervisors and coworkers can be an important
factor in shaping work-related safety behavior
(see review by McAfee & Winn, 1989).
ning health education programs. This basic
framework has been adapted to workplace self-
protective behavior (Dedobbeleer & German,
1987; DeJoy, 1986; Peters, 1991).
Contextual or Environmental Models
The models discussed thus far have been pri-
marily concerned with how the individual’s atti-
tudes, beliefs, and expectations influence his or
her reaction to various health threats. Only lim-
ited attention is given to social or environmental
factors, or to the context in which the individual
operates. The need for a person x situation or
interactionist approach to workplace safety and
health has been discussed in general terms by
several authors (e.g., DeJoy & Southern, 1993;
DeJoy, Wilson, & Huddy, 1995; Sheehy &
Chapman, 1987; Smith & Beringer, 1987). The
interactionist perspective holds that individual
and situational (environmental) factors combine
multiplicatively in influencing worker behavior.
PRECEDE model. The PRECEDE model devel-
oped by Green and colleagues (Green & Kreuter,
1991; Green, Kreuter, Deeds, & Partridge, 1980)
would appear to qualify as a contextual model.
“PRECEDE” is an acronym for “predisposing,
reinforcing, and enabling causes in educational
diagnosis and evaluation,” and this model was
developed as a framework to be used in plan-
In the PRECEDE model, three sets of diag-
nostic or behavioral factors drive the develop-
ment of prevention strategies. Predisposing
factors are the characteristics of the individual
(beliefs, attitudes, values, etc.) that facilitate or
hinder self-protective behavior. Predisposing
factors are conceptualized as providing the
motivation for behavior. The threat-related
beliefs and efficacy expectancies that are promi-
nent features of the value-expectancy models
would be included here. Enabling factors refer
to objective aspects of the environment or sys-
tem that block or promote self-protective action.
Green and colleagues (Green et al., 1980) define
enabling factors as “factors antecedent to behav-
ior that allow motivation or aspiration to be
realized” (p. 68). The skill and knowledge
necessary to follow prescribed actions would be
included here, as would the availability and
accessibility of protective equipment and other
resources. Most barriers or costs would be clas-
sified as enabling factors. Reinforcing factors
involve any reward or punishment that follows
or is anticipated as a consequence of the behav-
ior. Performance feedback and the social
approval/disapproval received from coworkers,
supervisors, and managers would qualify as
reinforcing factors in workplace settings.
The PRECEDE model was developed as a
program-planning framework rather than as a
causal model of health behavior (Green et al.,
1980). The three diagnostic categories were
Summ~ I996Nolume 27LVumber 2 65
6. intended primarily as reference points for ana-
lyzing the determinants of behavior that would
be most responsive to health education efforts.
As such, little attention was given to delimiting
the categories or to specifying combinational
rules. The PRECEDE model has been used
extensively to plan and evaluate health educa-
tion and related programs in a variety of set-
tings, including the workplace (Green &
Kreuter, 1991). However, there have been rela-
tively few formal tests of this model.
Applicability to Workplace Self-Protective
Behavior
The PRECEDE model increases the salien-
cy of environmental or contextual variables in
two important ways: (a) by directing attention
to the skills and resources that are prerequisite
to the achievement of behavioral goals, and
(b) by viewing the environment as an impor-
tant source of support and reinforcement for
behavior change and maintenance. The recent-
ly revised version of the PRECEDE model, the
PRECEDE/PROCEED model (Green & Kreuter,
1991) is even more distinctly environmental.
The revised version proposes that an environ-
mental diagnosis should occur along with the
behavioral diagnosis, and that special atten-
tion should be given to the interaction of
behavioral and environmental factors. This
encourages the selection of both behavioral
and environmental targets for change within
the intervention program.
However, it is the interactive nature of the
three diagnostic factors that is probably of
greatest potential importance to understanding
worker behavior. In particular, efforts to influ-
ence the beliefs and attitudes of workers and,
thus, motivate them to follow safe practices
may fail if the environment is nonsupportive.
This calls attention to the importance of job-
related barriers, the ready availability of safety
equipment and devices, and the importance of
skill-based training in facilitating self-protec-
tive behavior. A second point is that even well-
motivated and well-trained workers may not
respond appropriately if doing so is not
acknowledged or reinforced by peers, supervi-
sors, and management. Performance feedback
and the safety-related attitudes and actions of
management would appear to be especially
important in this regard.
66
Behavior Change Models
The final category of models includes those
that focus on the process of behavior change.
The Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska &
DiClemente, 1982) and the Precaution-Adoption
Process (Weinstein, 1988) are perhaps the best
exemplars of this general category. Both of these
models portray the change process as a series of
stages. A fundamental tenet of the stage change
perspective is that people at different points in
the change process require different types of
information and assistance to move to the next
stage. The variables or factors important at one
stage may be quite unimportant at another stage.
For example, beliefs about susceptibility or
severity may be important early in the change
process, such as during initial awareness and
decision making, but become less important
once actual behavior change is underway.
Transtheoretical Model. Prochaska and col-
leagues (Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross,
1992) describe the process of behavior change as
consisting of five principal stages: (a) precontem-
plation, (b) contemplation, (c) preparation, (d)
action, and (e) maintenance. Precontemplation is
the stage in which the person is not seriously
thinking about changing his or her behavior.
Contemplation begins when the person starts to
think seriously about changing in the near future
(i.e., about 6 months). Preparation denotes that
the person intends to make a change in the very
near future, and that he or she has a plan for
action and has already made small or preliminary
behavior changes (thus, preparation has both
intentional and behavioral dimensions). Action is
the period following initial behavior change (usu-
ally about 6 months). Maintenance extends from
this point until termination.
A growing body of evidence exists for the
basic stages of change construct, mostly involv-
ing addictive behaviors and psychotherapy
(Prochaska & DiClemente, 1992). Work with
this model has also sought to uncover the pro-
cesses of change, or the activities that individuals
engage in when they attempt to modify problem
behaviors. Of considerable importance is the
observation that the processes of change appear
to be quite similar across a variety of different
behaviors (Prochaska et al., 1992). That is, for
many behaviors, information-seeking and con-
sciousness-raising activities are relevant for peo-
ple entering contemplation, and stimulus control
Journal of Safety Research
7. and social support are important processes for
those in the action and maintenance stages. The
ultimate goal is to integrate the stages and pro
cesses of change, and to identify the most effec-
tive strategies for moving people from one stage
to the next (DiClemente et al., 1991).
Precaution-adoption process. The precaution-
adoption process (Weinstein, 1988) also has five
stages: (a) has heard of hazard, (b) believes in
susceptibility for others, (c) acknowledges per-
sonal susceptibility, (d) decides to take precau-
tion, and (e) takes precaution. A central feature
of this model is that personal susceptibility is
treated as a series of three stages rather than as a
single dimension or continuum. This conceptual-
ization derives from the idea that people are
likely to have little interest in taking precautions
unless they feel personally vulnerable. A further
complication is that people tend to be optimisti-
cally biased in judging their personal levels of
risk. That is, for many different hazards, people
consider their own risk to be considerably less
than that of most other people (Weinstein, 1980,
1982, 1987). The decision making stage in this
model involves many of the same hazard-related
beliefs and cost-benefit considerations that are
featured in the value-expectancy literature.
However, since the stages are cumulative, deci-
sion making does not begin until the require-
ments of stage three have been met. Barriers are
particularly important in translating a decision
into action (stage 5). Weinstein and colleagues
have tested this model in several studies of home
radon testing (Weinstein & Sandman, 1992).
Applicability to Workplace Self-Protective
Behavior
Inherent in both stage models is the view that
different kinds of information and interventions
will have different saliencies depending on
where the individual is in the change process.
For example, minimizing the costs or barriers
associated with following a particular self-pro-
tective action will have very little impact on peo-
ple who are not yet aware of the threat or who
do not think that they are personally susceptible
to it. Value-expectancy models, in contrast,
assume that the probability of action is essential-
ly an algebraic function of the individual’s
beliefs and that this same predictive equation
applies across the entire behavior change pro-
Summer 1996Nohne 27/Number 2
cess. The stage change perspective argues that
different equations are needed for each stage.
Providing workers with information about
particular job-related hazards is likely to be
most useful for increasing awareness and a
sense of personal susceptibility. But beyond this
point, such information is likely to be of limited
effectiveness in changing and maintaining rele-
vant work practices. Once awareness and per-
sonal susceptibility are established, attention
might better be focused on related skill develop-
ment and self-efficacy enhancement, and with
actions that reduce barriers and create more
favorable cost-benefit ratios for safe behavior.
Long-term adherence ultimately requires con-
structing task and work environments that sup-
port safe behavior, even under the most adverse
workload conditions. Borrowing from relapse
prevention research (e.g., Marlatt & Gordon,
1985), conscious efforts are needed to assess the
situations and circumstances under which adher-
ence is likely to fail. Alternative strategies or
coping responses should be available to workers
for use in such situations. The identification and
analysis of special requirements and high risk
situations should be an important feature of a
comprehensive safety program.
The importance of environmental supports
during the action and maintenance stages blends
nicely with the preceding discussion of enabling
and reinforcing factors within the PRECEDE
framework. In the final analysis, high levels of
both individual and collective control may be
critical to successful long-term adherence.
Presumably, efforts to enhance self-efficacy have
the direct effect of increasing the individual’s
sense of personal control. However, groups of
people may also possess a sense of control.
Peterson and Stunkard (1989) describe collective
control as: “a norm - or shared belief - about
the way that the group works, what it is that the
group can and cannot accomplish by what
actions” (p. 822). As described by these authors,
collective control bears considerable resem-
blance to Zohar’s (1980) concept of safety cli-
mate. For Zohar, safety climate is: “a summary
of molar perceptions that employees share about
their work environments” (p. 96). It is generally
thought that safety climate serves as a frame of
reference for guiding relevant behavior in the
workplace and that employees develop reason-
ably coherent expectations regarding behavior-
outcome contingencies in their environment (cf.
67
8. Schneider, 1975). It follows that collective con-
trol or safety climate should be an important con-
sideration in fostering long-term and broad-based
adherence to safe work practices.
Au Integrative Framework for Workplace
Self-Protective Behavior
Each of the categories of models reviewed
thus far has something to contribute to under-
standing workplace self-protective behavior. The
value-expectancy models provide a fairly cir-
cumscribed set of person-focused variables that
are likely to be important to any type of self-pto-
tective behavior. The PRECEDE model, as an
environmental or contextual model, directs
attention to the interaction of person and situa-
tional factors, and to how the work environment,
broadly defined, can enable and reinforce self-
protective actions. The stage models emphasize
that precautionary behavior is inherently dynam-
ic and comprised of qualitatively different phas-
es or stages.
Figure 1 portrays self-protective behavior as
consisting of four stages: hazard appraisal, deci-
sion making, initiation, and adherence. These
stages may be viewed as representing different
levels of motivational readiness to engage in
self-protective behavior. However, the factors
that influence this readiness are not limited to
person-focused variables. Table 2 features five
general constructs that are likely to be important
to self-protective actions in the workplace. The
constructs build on those portrayed earlier (see
Table l), with two modifications. The termfacil-
i&.&g conditions expands the concept of barri-
ers relative to its usage in the value-expectancy
models and emphasizes the importance of envi-
ronmental supports in self-protective behavior.
Also, safety climate is used to represent the man-
ifold of social and organizational factors that
may impinge on workplace behavior. Each of the
five constructs can be further described in terms
of specific variables.
Because current knowledge is not sufficient
to exclude any of the constructs at a particular
stage, the five constructs in Table 2 are labeled
as being of either primary or secondary impor-
tance for each stage. As with other stage models,
the stages should be treated as cumulative; for
example, the individual must believe that a par-
ticular hazard represents a serious threat before
he or she will enter the decision making stage.
Efficacy considerations and facilitating condi-
tions will be of little importance for those who
are unaware of the hazard or for those who have
appraised the hazard as insignificant. A discus-
sion of the four stages follows.
Hazard appraisal. The individual’s threat-relat-
ed beliefs are of primary importance during this
stage. As discussed earlier, perceived suscepti-
bility (likelihood) and severity can be expected
to interact to form perceived threat. Response
efficacy, or the availability of effective preven-
tive strategies, may also be important at this
stage. Defensive or self-protective motives (e.g.,
Miller & Ross, 1975) may cause the individual
to dismiss or discount a hazard for which pre-
ventive strategies are unavailable or of limited
effectiveness. Unwarranted optimism or overcon-
fidence may also play a role in hazard appraisal
(Weinstein, 1987). At this stage, workers should
benefit from information about the hazard itself,
including risk estimates, exposure modes, avail-
able control measures, and so forth. The impor-
tance of having workers personalize the risks
should not be ignored.
FIGLJRE 1
STAGE OR SEQUENTIAL MODEL OF WORKPLACE SELF-PROTECTIVE BEHAVIOR
T
Appraisal I_C
Yes Decision- Yes I.tiation
Making-
No No No
ererice
No
+ + +
Exposure
toinjury/illness
68 Journal of Safety Research
9. TABLE 2
SELF-PROTECTIVE BEHAVIOR CONSTRUCTS AND THE STAGES OF SELF-PROTECTIVE BEHAVIOR
Construct Hazard Appraisal Decision-making Initiation Adherenoe
Threat-related beliefs ................ P s S S
Response efficacy .................. P P S S
Self-efficacy ...................... S P S S
Facilitating conditions ................ S P P P
Safety climate S P P P
Note: P= primary unponance: S =secondary importance
Decision making. Efficacy considerations
and the costs and benefits associated with
alternative courses of action become impor-
tant during the decision making stage. Efficacy
considerations include those related to the
effectiveness of available precautionary actions
(response efficacy), as well as the individu-
al’s perceptions of his or her ability to success-
fully accomplish these actions (self-efficacy).
Self-efficacy can be developed through educa-
tion/ training and skill-building exercises, as
well as actual experience in performing the
relevant behaviors. The modeling of these
behaviors by coworkers may also enhance
self-efficacy expectancies.
The cost-benefit portion focuses on weigh-
ing the benefits of the self-protective action
against the costs incurred. Costs may include
time constraints, actual or imagined reductions
in productivity or skilled performance, physical
discomfort, and any other encumbrances that
reduce “quality of life” on the job. Facilitating
conditions serve to counteract costs, and might
include the ready availability of needed safety
equipment, training in the correct usage of this
equipment, and redesigned jobs and equipment
that make self-protection easier and more effec-
tive. The cost-benefit analysis might also
include safety climate considerations.
Initiation. Facilitating conditions and safety
climate are the principal constructs during the
initiation stage. At this stage, attention shifts to
the environmental and organizational factors
that support and reinforce self-protective
action. These factors become very important as
behavioral intention is translated into action,
and as workers try out new behaviors.
Although safety climate remains a rather elu-
Summer I99tWohme 27/iVumber 2
sive concept, it appears reasonable to conclude
that the attitudes and actions of management
play a prominent role in the safety climate of
the organization (Brown & Holmes, 1986;
Dedobbeleer & Beland, 1991; Zohar, 1980).
Safety performance information and other
types of feedback received from coworkers and
supervisors is also likely to be an important
aspect of safety climate.
Adherence. Environmental and organizational
factors can be expected to play major roles in
sustaining long-term adherence. As workers
successfully follow prescribed actions, their
self-efficacy should increase, and with that, their
resistance to nonadherence. Many self-protec-
tive actions become relatively automatic over
time, and this should also help to sustain long-
term adherence. Response efficacy should also
increase with time as workers become more
confident of the effectiveness of the actions in
question. Still, efficacy considerations remain
secondary to barriers and safety climate at this
stage. Long-term maintenance ultimately
depends on creating task and work environ-
ments that support safe behavior, even under the
most stressful or demanding conditions.
Although this proposed framework certainly
needs to be tested and validated, there are sev-
eral lines of inquiry that support the general
organization of the framework and the assign-
ment of various self-protective behavior con-
structs to particular stages. First, it is generally
acknowledged that awareness and knowledge
are necessary but often insufficient to produce
and sustain behavior change, including self-
protective actions in the workplace. This sup-
ports the focus on threat-related beliefs and
response efficacy in the first stage, and the
69
10. view that hazard appraisal is only one stage in
the process. Second, there is considerable
agreement that behavior change and mainte-
nance are different processes. As such, a con-
struct or factor that is important in bringing
about initial behavior change may not play the
same role in sustaining the.change over time.
Third, there is broad agreement that the individ-
ual’s subjective beliefs related to costs and ben-
efits play a central role in most health- and
safety-related decision making. And fourth,
organizational and environmental factors appear
to be particularly important in facilitating and
sustaining desired behaviors. Indeed, the occu-
pational safety and health literature suggests
that these factors may be critically important in
workplace settings.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper reviewed three categories of theo-
retical models that have been used to analyze
and predict health-related behavior. On this
basis, an integrative framework was proposed
that conceptualizes workplace self-protective
behavior as consisting of four sequential stages:
hazard appraisal, decision making, initiation,
and adherence. The proposed framework is inte-
grative in that its basic structure comes from the
behavior change models, while the constructs or
factors considered relevant at each stage are
derived from the value-expectancy and environ-
mental/contextual models.
The principal implication of this framework
is that different constructs or factors can be
expected to be important at different stages.
Threat-related beliefs and response efficacy are
likely to be most important during hazard
appraisal. During this stage, workers determine
both what is dangerous and whether they can
protect themselves by taking specific actions
and/or by using specific protective equipment.
Efficacy considerations (response and self-
efficacy) and cost-benefit factors assume
increased importance during the decision mak-
ing stage. Workers determine that available safe-
ty protocols are both effective and practical. The
personal weighing of costs and benefits is at the
very heart of this stage. This calculus takes into
consideration beliefs about the threat itself,
expectancies surrounding the required actions,
barriers and environmental supports, and infer-
70
ences about the attitudes and actions of peers,
supervisors, and management.
During the initiation and adherence stages,
facilitating conditions and safety climate are the
primary factors. Attention is focused on the
environmental and organizational factors that
support and reinforce self-protective actions.
Performance feedback may be a particularly
valuable tool for encouraging workers to accept
that the self-protective actions in question are
effective and practical. Adherence, as the final
stage, requires the creation of task and work
environments that support safe behavior under
all conditions. High levels of both individual
and collective control may be critical to long-
term adherence, and creating a positive safety
climate may be the best way to foster perceived
control at both levels.
In practical terms, there is a need to match
interventions and stages; the utility of any inter-
vention depends on where the individual worker
is in the change process. For example, interven-
tions to improve worker self-protection typical-
ly revolve around hazard communication and
information-based training in safe work prac-
tices. Such efforts are likely to be most beneti-
cial during the hazard appraisal and decision
making stages. These particular interventions
are much less relevant to the factors hypothe-
sized to be most important during initiation and
adherence. It follows that programs to maxi-
mize self-protective behavior in the workplace
need to be multifaceted and should feature
interventions targeted to workers at each of the
four stages.
As a fmal point, the proposed framework also
highlights the importance of situational or envi-
ronmental factors in workplace self-protective
behavior. As Table 2 shows, the individual’s per-
sonal beliefs about the hazard and the effective-
ness of precautionary action are most important
during the first stage (hazard appraisal). But,
beyond this point, environmental factors become
increasingly more important, and become critical
as intention is converted into action (initiation),
and as self-protective behavior is sustained
(adherence). Given the interactive aspect of indi-
vidual and situational factors, even well-designed
efforts to influence the hazard-related beliefs and
attitudes of workers may fail if the environment
is nonsupportive. The importance of the environ-
ment in enabling and reinforcing safe workplace
behavior cannot be overemphasized.
Journal of Safety Research
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