The document discusses the transfer of learning and its application in therapy. It defines transfer of learning as the influence of experience with one task on another subsequent task, which can be positive, negative, or neutral. Therapists aim to facilitate positive transfer and avoid negative transfer. Theories of transfer include identical elements theory and transfer-appropriate processing. Methods to apply transfer principles in practice include adaptive training, part-task training, making practice difficult, varying practice, and reducing feedback. Organizing practice sessions with short, high-quality sessions can foster effective learning.

1. The Transfer or
Generalizability of Learning

2. The Transfer or Generalizability
of Learning
• Definition
• Transfer of learning is defined the influence
that experience or practice of one task has on
some other subsequent task.
• 1. Positive transfer : Performance on one task
may facilitate performance on another task.
• 2. Negative transfer : Performance on one
task may actually interfere with or inhibit
subsequent performance on a second task
• 3. Neural : Performance on one task may have
no effect whatsoever on performance of
another task.

3. 왜 치료사에게 Transfer 와 Learning 의 관
계를 이해하는 것이 중요한가 ?
• 1.Therapeutic Standpoint : Facilitate Positive
Transfer & Avoid Negative Transfer
• 2.The use of various instructional strategies is
based on knowledge about transfer
• 3.The use of simulators to train space shuttle
personnel, commercial pilots , and military
personal to operate expensive and often very
complex equipment rests on the assumption
that the skills and/or knowledge acquired in
training will positively transfer to the actual
performance situation Ex. BTE

4. Transfer 의 이론적 배경
• Theoretical views of transfer
• 1. Identical - Elements Theory
• (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901;
Thorndike,1914)
• Identical-elements theory was that in
order for the transfer of learning between
skills and/or movement contexts to occur,
the elements underlying the two skills or
situations must be identical.

5. Transfer 의 이론적 배경
• The Major assumption of this theory was that
transfer of learning was not based on any general
extraction of knowledge, but rather, was very
specific in nature
• Osgood(1949) and Holding(1976) extended and
modified the ideas proposed by Throndike by
exploring the relationship between the stimulus
prompting an action and the action itself.
• Holding predicted that in situations where much
similarity existed between the stimulus and the
response of the first task learned and those of the
task currently being practiced, high levels of
positive transfer would occur.

6. Transfer 의 이론적 배경
• 2. Transfer-appropriate processing
• TAP framework의 가장 큰 가정은 어떠한 움직임의 학습이든지에
하나의 연습으로부터 파생된 다른 움직임 형태라든지, 혹은 다른
performance context 안에서 일어나는 같은 종류의 skill 형태가 기
초가 되는 연습의 경우 그 processing 안에 진행되는 activity의
nature가 포함되어 있을 경우 그 학습은 강화될 수 있다.
• The major assumption underlying the TAP framework is that
the learning of any movement skill is enhanced if the nature
of the processing activities engaged in during the practicing of
that skill is similar to the type of processing that underlies the
performance of the same skill in a different performance
context or in a different movement pattern from the one
practiced.
• (Bransford,Franks, Morris, & Stein,1979; Morris, Bransford, &
Frank,197) --사람들이 어떻게 verbal skill을 배우는가?

7. Transfer 의 이론적 배경
• Identical-elements theory - The
similarity of task elements
• TAP - The similarity of the cognitive
processing

8. • Lee(1988)
• Practicing a variety of structurally dissimilar
skills that nevertheless require the same types
of cognitive processing needed to perform
other related movement skills should promote
positive transfer.
• 형태적으로 유사하지 않은 다양한 skill들을 연습
시키더라도 다른 movement skill을 하는데 관련
된 같은 형태의 cognitive function이 포함되어 있
다면 positive transfer 가 촉진된다.

9. • 실질적인 관점으로 보자면 치료사가 TAP 관
점으로 학습 환경을 구축하고자 한다면 학습
자가 미래에 transfer situation(different
movement context or the performance of
a new but similar movement pattern)에서
필요할 연습이 포함되어야한다.
• Positive transfer is thought to be
optimized making the processing
activities similar between the practice and
the transfer situation.

10. • Ex. 체조선수가 새로운 기술을 배우거나 어려운 공
중회전을 연습해야할 때 코치는 trampolin 위에
멜빵을 매달고 연습하는 환경을 만든다.
• 이 상황은 비록 운동선수가 최종적으로 할 상황은
아니지만, 운동선수가 이 연습에 참여하고 있는 동
안에 cognitive processing은 후에 그 기술이
floor에서 시행할 때 필요한 cognitive
processing 과 매우 유사하다.
• 재활 환경도 이와 유사하게 환자가 일상생활에서
다양하게 행할 환경과 비슷한 관정을 치료 환경속
에 포함시키고 positive transfer를 기대할 수 있
다.( 단 본질적인 부분이 포함되어져야한다.)

11. • Transfer of training
• Two commonly used transfer of
training methods in motor skills are
presented

12. • 1.adaptive training(AT): is a method
that is performance sensitive. basically,
the difficulty of the task is adjusted
through feedback from performance

13. • AT방법으로 training 시키는데 기본적으로 필요한 3가지요소
• 1) a task variable (eg, some measure of performance) that
reflects performance of the trainee
• Ex. 환자의 상태에 따라 standing의 첫 단계는 modified
position(Walker, quadcane..)으로 training을 시작하고
performance 가 향상되면 BOS를 줄여가며 독립적으로 서있을 수
있도록 training 의 계획을 짠다.
• 2) an adaptive variable that is some dimension of the task
along which difficulty is regulated (eg, precision, speed)
• Ex. practice의 처음에는 speed를 느리게 시작하고 performance
가 증진 되면서 점차 그 속도를 늘여가는 방법이 있겠다.
• 3) adaptive logic that prescribes the relationship between the
adaptive variable and the performance measure.

14. • 2. Part-task training : practice on some
components of the whole task as a pretraining for
performance of the whole task.
• PT의 경우 neurotherapetic intervention에 많은 경
우가 있다.
• 예를 들어 환자에게 standing up 연습을 시킬 때 환자
는 등을 펴서 hip 앞쪽으로 이동하고 다리 쪽으로 숙
여서 cog를 이도시키는 방법을 배우게 된다. 이와 같
은 방법은 보통 의자에서 시작해서 각 구성요소를 숙
달 시키게 된다.
• (비록 직관적으로 AT & PT가 motor learning 에 효과
가 있다는 것을 추측하고 있지만 확실한 증거들은 없
다.)

15. Application of theory
• Three methods
• Outlined by Christina & Bjok (1991)
• 1.Make Practice difficult
• 2.Vary the type of practice
• 3.Reduce the frequency of feedback

16. • 1.Make Practice difficult
• practice can be made more difficult by having
learners practice several skills interchangeably
• This practice method, known as contextual
interference, has been shown to promote
significantly better retention and transfer of
certain movement skills.
• Introducing high levels of contextual
interference to the practice situation
promotes the development of cognitive
strategies that guiding the performance of
other skills in different movement contexts.

17. • 2.Vary the type of practice
• The second method creates a less complex practice situation by
simply providing learners or patients with the opportunity to practice
many variations of one movement skill in a variety of different
contexts
• Having learners practice many variations of one movement skill in a
variety of different contexts promotes positive transfer
• CI program을 시작하기 어려운 어린이 초기 환자들에게 적용하기 좋
다.(Wrisberg & Mead, 1983)
• 여러 가지 다른 연장을 가지고 다른 크기 &모양의 물건을 치는 연습을 할
경우 물건을 치는 일반적인 기술이 증가할 뿐만 아니라 전에 경험하지 않은
물건을 칠수 있는 skill 이 transfer 된다.
• CVA 환자의 경우 다른 크기,모양의 물건을 시작점이 다른 곳에서 reach &
grasp 연습을 한다 이와 같은 동작은 일상 생활 동작에서 positive transfer
를 촉진시켜준다.(슈퍼마켓 선반 집안의 싱크대 위의 물건)

18. • 3.Reduce the frequency of feedback
• 지나치게 많은 feedback 은 학습자에게 외적
feedback에 대한 의존성을 증가시키고 같은 상황
에서 feedback이 없을 때 혹은 한 skill에서 경험
해보지 않은 다른 skill을 학습할 때 negative
transfer 효과가 나타난다.
• 반대로 외적 feedback을 적게 받고 학습자 자신의
feedback(proprioception & vision) 등의 내적
sensory feedback을 이용 문제를 해결할 과정을
갖도록 유도할 경우 이어지는 다른 환경에서 문제
를 해결할 수 있는 능력이 향상된다.

20. • ADAPTIVE TRAINING
• Two main hypothesis
• 1. Learning a complex skill will be better if the
learner starts with a less difficult version of
the task and makes a gradual transition to the
more difficult version.
• 2. Learning is presumed to be better if the
transitions in difficulty are performance-based
rather than fixed externally by the trainer
• * The level of task difficulty can be adjusted
during performance so an optimal level of
difficulty is maintained throughout practice.

21. • PART-TASK TRAINING
• 계속적으로 질문 시 되어왔던 문제들은 연습초기부터 전체과
제를 연습 시키는 것이 좋을지 아니면 부분적인 연습이 효과
적인가? 하는 문제들이었다.
• 일반적으로 예전에 실험되었던 연구들은 부분적 연습의 효율
적인 면은 과제가 행해졌던 형태의 범위에 의존한다고 보았다.
• schmidt & young은 최근에 부분적 연습 방법 중 transfer의
효율성은 본래 이루어질 (criterion task)의 형태를 고려해야
만 한다고 말했다.
• 지시자의 경우 motor control representation 상에서 whole
task를 part로 나누는데 있어 naturally하게 나누지 못했을 경
우 동떨어진 unnatural part practice 는 criterion task 의 같
은 동작과는 다르게 표현된다.

22. • Part-task training for locomotion
• 최근에 postacute hemiparetic subjects 에게
dynamic weight-shifting part-task practice 가
locomotor performance로 transfer 되는가에 대하여
실험을 했다.
• 1. Two group of matched subjects in this study
• 2.one group : standing weight - shifting pt with a
specially designed video feedback- dynamic visual
information & standard gait training
• 3.The other group : standard gait training
( whole- task)
• 3-4주 치료 후 teston standing weight-shifting &
locomotion performance

23. • 결론 more symmetrical standing
posture after treatment than did the
whole- task trained group, a
correspondingly greater improvement
in locomotor performance was not
obtained
• Indeed, in this study Part-task training
was as effective for locomotor
performance as whole task training

24. • This suggests that the individual parts
or phases of a locomotion cycle may
represent relatively inseparable
portions of a rapid short-duration,
centrally generated action.
• Part-task training a complex
perceptural -motor task

25. • Organizing the practice environment
• These issues include the length and
number og practice sessions per week,
the types of activities to be practiced
during each session, the order in which
they are to be practiced, and the time
allotted to each activity.
• Practice sessions that are relatively short
but of high quality generally foster more
effective learning than practice sessions
that are long and unstructured

26. • Organizing the practice environment
• These issues include the length and
number og practice sessions per week,
the types of activities to be practiced
during each session, the order in which
they are to be practiced, and the time
allotted to each activity.
• Practice sessions that are relatively short
but of high quality generally foster more
effective learning than practice sessions
that are long and unstructured