The Historical Quests For Suffrage And Significant Voting Changes Since 1950s

The Historical Quests For Suffrage And
Significant Voting Changes Since 1950s
John Shin Kim
A Thesis Submitted For Partial Fulfillment Of The
Bachelor Of Arts Degree At Faith Christian College

This Thesis I Dedicate To Those Who Have Shaped My Mind And Values
To My Parents Whom Instilled Into Me A Need For Education
Who Made Me Recognize The Importance Of Education In Shaping Values
Who Have Instilled Into Me A Desire For More Wisdom To Apply The Learning
To My Friend Lee Heins Who Encouraged Me To Continue My Struggle For A Degree
To My Friend Gary Terry Who Reminds Me The Meaning Of An Education
Who Shows Me How Much Heart Means More Than Education In Everything
To My Friends Michael Alcaraz And Zak Young Who Have Been There Since Childhood
To My Friend Brian Demgen Who Shows Me How We Must All Learn Together
To The Professors And Faculty At Faith Christian College
Who Have Provided Me These Opportunities
Who Have Taught Me Value Of Hard Work And Witness It Paying For An Education
Who Have Shown Me A Glimpse Of What World Lies Beyond What I See Daily

Introduction
Many theories of democracy are fundamentally dependent upon the notions of educated
and enlightened individuals voting in the best interests of themselves along with their
community. But such theories rest upon certain conceived notions of educated and enlightened
when actual results differ greatly. We witness many cases where individuals vote “against their
self-interest” as well although such can be very unclear at times. The information which voters
depend upon have oftentimes been from a limited and biased nature as well many times in
practice.
What drives individuals to vote and what are some historical events which changed the
definition of who could vote? Many traditional and revisionist historians have provided
numerous answers to these questions. But they additionally have underemphasized some of the
smaller movements and institutions which were critical to such. Far too much literature conclude
these massive changes as results of top-down decisions and movements when much of the
evidence is contrary to such.
When applied to groups of individuals, election outcomes are largely unpredictable and
subject to major changes. Voting is conducted as a primary and as a reactionary measure since
people oftentimes vote with hopes of setting certain trends along with agendas of answering
whether existing politicians have performed well. The worldviews which people rely upon to
vote are influenced by numerous different factors, some of which have been placed upon them
from an early age.

Throughout this paper, I will introduce historical expansions of the right to vote, attempt
to explain the environment within which people vote, provide examples of serious changes
which affected voting patterns of large populations, and describe some of the individual
phenomena which are likely predictors of voting decisions. Some of the major historical events
affecting these trend and phenomena will be specifically addressed as well.
Elections During The Infancy Of The U.S.
In the first four decades following the birth of the United States, it was extremely rare for
voting be allowed amongst non-property owning males and many other classes of different
residents from women to immigrants to those of color were limited from the ballots. There were
some minor attempt at reform occurring at the local and state levels of government although such
was a rarity in practice. It would take over a century for female suffrage to be recognized at
national elections. Many believe that the fight for suffrage is not over since many Americans still
have had problems accessing ballots and the information to make a clear decision. Exactly how
crucial different voting legislation impacted the common American is largely unknown with
evidence largely circumstantial at best.
The First Industrial Revolution had the greatest effect on the lifestyles of many people in
the beginning four decades of the 19th century. While it created enormous wealth to unforeseen
levels and expanded opportunities for many Americans, there was tremendous displacement
along with high inequality. Such combined with the emergence of modern corporations,
increasing levels of pollution, vulnerability to interconnected economies of scale, and
complicated machinery created a world which exposed many people the need for governmental
regulations and oversight. All of these critically redefined what a vote meant and caused many to

reexamine what political privileges people were entitled to. The combination of industrialization
and modernization led to the formation of many political alternative ideas along with their
growing popularity around this time. Many alternative ideas additionally gained sympathy as the
times changed.
Although there wouldn't be massive changes until the Civil War and the Progressive Era,
we witnessed the major upheavals as society underwent modernization and unforeseen
challenges. The spread of capitalism, peaking of first Industrial Revolution, and growing
population created an environment where the following views became very common:
i.) There was an increased advocacy of westward expansion in order to gain more
access to land and capital. Such would allow capitalism to expand, faster
economic growth, and more opportunities of land ownership for those displaced.
ii.) Modernization created many uncertainties such as industrial accidents, massive
pollution, and hazardous chemicals needed to become regulated to a certain
degree to protect the environment and health. Such views weren’t common as
modernization happened yet became more popular as time passed.
iii.) The changing demographics along with increased inequality created a need for
suffrage in order for the political system to provide minimum security and
opportunities for the lower classes.
The Industrial Revolution, Jacksonian Era, and westward expansion had created
tremendous changes which led to the rise of modern ideas and needs which corresponded more
and more with the abolitionist and suffrage movements. These movements all only had a

minority of dedicated followers yet were movements which many Americans came to discuss
and become conscious about.
Suffrage Of Voting And Questions Of Relevance
Even though the U.S. has always been relatively a very free and egalitarian society, many
individuals and groups have been disenfranchised from voting throughout history. Such
disenfranchisement is often attributed to the human nature and phenomena of those in power
wanting to remain in power and fighting to maintain the status quo. Further analysis shows that
things are much more complicated than such analysis and how even people who had the right to
vote were often desiring to expand the right to vote when it was reasonable to believe the new
voters would agree with their stances. The limits of challenging and overturning restrictive
voting additionally demonstrates how the system doesn’t always work as planned in actual
practice.
Dorr’s Rebellion
One of the most underemphasized events which had a significant influence upon voting
was the Dorr Rebellion. In 1843, massive immigration and new industrialization had changed the
entire political landscape of Rhode Island although such ironically didn’t favor business and
industry interests as well. The rural elites enjoyed advantageous representation while the urban
areas which had a greater share of the population were often neglected. This led to much
criticism against the political system.
Thomas Wilson Dorr, a successful and progressive lawyer, took note of such and began
leading protests for male suffrage throughout the state. He initially desired to extend this to

African–Americans but withdrew such after many within his own movement saw such as too
radical. When tensions grew, Dorr and his followers set up an extralegal government and made
plans to institute a new constitution with extended voting rights after taking over the state
government.
Dorr was met with resistance from the Charites who represented the official government
of Rhode Island. Under Governor Samuel King, they finally compromised and agreed to allow
non-property holding citizen men to vote in Rhode Island, a decision that would encourage
massive desertion from Dorr’s forces. Since these men were driven mostly by self-interest, they
saw no need to remain fighting for more suffrage when they received their right to vote. There is
little doubt that what happened in Rhode Island was a major precursor and precedent to what
would happen across the U.S. in the upcoming years. The conflicts consisted of no major
engagement with the exception of a near skirmish which ended with the accidental death of a
bystander. Dorr fled the state and attempted to rally potential supporters but it was evident that
his movement had declined.
Dorr's Rebellion was one of the defining moments in the quest for expanding male
suffrage yet was largely ignored by scholars until the 1970s. Major public funding of the social
sciences; emergence of cliometrics and such research methods; and a growing movement
supporting historical revisionism would change such. Although there were many problems with
this historical revisionism, new research from scholars practicing it have given us some accurate
new insights into the Dorr Rebellion along with demonstrating its effectual importance. Such has
demonstrated how it is one of the most understated series of historical events which had a major
impact upon the entire country.

Northern Great Awakening
Various women’s suffrage movements, abolitionist movements, and Dorr Rebellion
emerged around a critical time in U.S. history. Most of these were largely secular movements
with individualistic aims. Key questions of how much religious influence along with perceptions
of how such played a role in these movements are continuously debated by scholars and one
which we must ponder about.
A major religious awakening featuring exponential growth in church denominations
throughout the country began in the 1820s. This Second Great Awakening greatly focused on
improving society and many of those involved saw extending suffrage and ending slavery as
among the ways to achieving such. Many Christian congregations were very lukewarm about
both movements although major issues regarding slavery and suffrage were beginning to be
widely debated. Many evangelical movements would begin specialized schools for African-
Americans, begin newspapers, emphasize volunteering on the Underground Railroad, and
provide charity for many poor urbanites in the following decade.
Another debates scholars have is whether the Second Great Awakening was influenced
greatly or minimally by politics. While we can’t fully know the answer to this question, we do
witness the movement becoming more and more political as it dragged on.
Seneca Falls Convention And Female Suffrage
The first major organized gathering emphasizing woman suffrage happened at the Seneca
Falls Convention in 1848. Prominent attendees were Susan B. Anthony, Lucretia Mott, and
Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Although women's suffrage was one of the key issues, the conference

was aligned with many progressive issues and woman's suffrage was actually even somewhat
undermined as only one of the vehicles for achieving the end goals. Many historians view this
convention as the defining moment when women’s suffrage took off into a nationwide
movement.
Although the women at the Seneca Falls Convention emphasized and supported extended
suffrage, there were many disagreements among them and it is heavily disputed as to what the
main agendas of the organizers were. Kerr (1992) and Isenberg (1998) describe the various
differences between the women involved along with the fundamental ends they aim for along
with a brief overview of the educational background such women had (Kerr, 1992 and Isenberg,
1998). We will never know fully to what the aims of the women individually sought yet it is far
from reality that there was much harmony amongst them as historians have traditionally
portrayed.
Many of the most fervent female suffragists supported and/or at least sympathized with
the goal of expanding the right to vote for African-Americans. However, the two parties had
come into conflict prior to the Civil War and were separated to a great extent. Many scholars cite
how much more powerful the movements could have been if they had united rather than been
separate.
DuBois (1998) explains how suffrage extended to women marked the first time gender
issues became debated and examined for political reasons, something which had a very positive
influence. Such is definitely an important analysis and one with many implications for today
(DuBois, 1998). All of us definitely have benefitted from women obtaining the right to vote.

Conclusion Of Civil War And African-American Suffrage
Citizenship and voting rights were granted to African-Americans upon the conclusion of
the Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments. Many
African Americans quickly found that such rights were small gains in practice as opposed to a
gateway for broadened freedom and increased opportunities. Numerous incidents of violence and
voter intimidation kept many of them from the polls. They were politically disenfranchised to a
great degree as well despite having the right to vote.
The Republican Party secured the loyalty of nearly all voting African-Americans,
something it could count upon until the mid-20th century when party realignment and different
alliances would make the Democratic Party and Republican Party essentially switch sides on
many issues. Many saw Reconstruction as an opportunity for reintegrating the South into the
Union, rebuilding destroyed sections of the South, and achieving more racial harmony amongst
the racial tensions. The federal intervention was meant to curb voter intimidation and fraudulent
elections continued at many local and state levels of government.
Political Machines
During the 19th century, political machines became a crucial part of urban politics with
such trend being especially true in the largest cities of the U.S. at the time. The large urban areas
held more importance as many Americans migrated towards cities and the immigrant population
grew. Such meant that there was often rampant electoral fraud along with votes gained through
manipulation and/or threats to a large degree.

Many political parties and interest groups hostile towards immigrants grew during this
time. There were numerous riots and mob lynches targeting immigrants throughout the U.S.
Although many laws against immigrants voting are sometimes easily dismissed as very cruel
measures and primitive ones, we must also realize how those laws were meant to keep some
educational requirements and prevented political bosses from manipulating poor immigrants.
Many arrangements of the political bosses consisted of corrupt privileges and generous
subsidies being promised to voters in exchange for votes. Political machines suddenly vanished
around 1950. Many reasons have been given for such by scholars and some of the most popular
are:
i.) As the party lines realigned with conservatives increasingly moving to the
Republican side and liberals moving to the Democratic side, these machines
became left behind.
ii.) The rise of suburban neighborhoods, urban gentrification, changes in family
structure, and demographic changes created an environment which the political
machines didn’t interact as much with people and couldn’t adapting to recruiting
from.
iii.) Massive increases in people finishing at least a few years of college/university
education, increased mobility for different careers, and recruitment for the Army
all transformed people’s career paths.
iv.) The rise of the modern media, kingmaker church leaders, and Christian radio
networks all provided alternatives for sources of political information along with
the changes in political landscape for many people.

v.) Crackdowns by anti-corruption federal units and prosecution of those deemed to
be engaging in corruption became much stronger during the Progressive Era.
vi.) Passage of the Taft-Hartley Act and other anti-union measures along with factors
leading to decline of labor unions were key. There were many alliances between
political bosses and labor unions which were major alliances necessary for the
political bosses. Political bosses declined as the labor unions declined.
Technology And Voting
Alongside voting trends which forever changed American politics, technology changed
voting patterns and the information people considered in their voting decisions. But technology
additionally challenged and uprooted the delivery methods through which votes were distributed.
Voting through mailing of special forms or paper ballots at voting stations were the common
way to vote for most of U.S. history. Many votes are now counted through electronic voting
systems rather than by staff although there are pros and cons to such as well.
One of the most contested elections where voting by electronic means became an issue
occurred in Florida during the 2000 Presidential Election between George Bush and Al Gore.
These voting systems became very controversial even though recount of the ballots and
reexaminations of the procedures demonstrated that George Bush had clearly won the election.
New Role Of Technology In Elections
By the end of the decade, technology and dynamics of it had eased and increased access
to internet-based connections which changed what people became exposed towards along with
options on what they could share. Many scholars consider social media as the most decisive

factor in the 2008 election, one which resulted in the election of Barack Obama. A few weeks
ago, Obama was elected to another term and it was clear to most people that he had better
recognition and more exposure from social media.
The Realignment Into A New South And Rise Of Modern Conservatism
Beginning in the 1960s, we saw a realignment of the Republican and Democratic parties
along with a very different political structure. What conservatives and liberals wanted changed
vastly with some ideas being in agreement and many others being in opposition to one another.
Some trends we witnessed were the following which seemed to generally apply to the entire
U.S.:
i.) Many policies favored massive increases in the national debt.
ii.) Americans were more open to socially liberal policies and the economic climate
made many undermine social issues for what they felt were important.
iii.) Although the effective taxes paid as a percentage of income remained nearly the
same, many taxes were lowered and a small percentage of taxpayers paid almost
all of the taxes.
iv.) More awareness and political demands for environmental conservation and
protection.
v.) There was a major growth in the military industrial complex and such gained
support as more Americans became exposed to new dangers abroad and many
people became integrated into such systems. The military had become amongst
the largest employers in the U.S.

These trends reflect the way actual legislation passed by politicians from both parties came to
reflect to a greater degree.
Examples where conservatives and liberals agreed greatly were on issues surrounding
foreign-policy, free trade, financial deregulation, and land regulations. When examined at the
local and state levels of government, the agreements tend to be more commonly held as well.
The bipartisan passage of major legislation a such as the Garn - St. Germain Act, North
American Free Trade Agreement (N.A.F.T.A.), and the Gramm - Leach - Bliley Act are all
powerful examples of how both parties were in agreement on many issues although the media
and people often portrayed it very differently.
Many scholars cite the South as being the supplier of key ideals necessary to the
emerging Republican Party. The Jacksonian expansionist foreign policy, allowing of free trade
with ignorance of the trade deficit, realignment of welfare to become more about subsidies rather
than actual government services, and strong agricultural price supports are all ideals which have
been popular throughout Southern history and policies most favored by political elites in the
region. The South has additionally been much more socially conservative than many other parts
of the U.S. All of these unique features remained a common part of Southern politics even as
Southern society underwent vast changes in the aftermath of Civil War defeat, Reconstruction,
new industrialization, modernization, etc.
Southern areas continue to be a key decisive area for national politics to this day,
something I will explain later in this paper.
The New South

The century following the Civil War was a period of relative decline for the Southern
states. The entire Civil War had brought destruction of major cities, hyperinflation, and social
upheaval about which government was legitimate upon the South. Davis (1990), Nixon (1943),
and Woodward (1971) describe how some Southerners saw a need to reform and change the
South towards an industrial direction. They describe Henry Grady, a journalist and social thinker,
as being one of the most influential thinkers of the movement to turn the agricultural economy in
a new direction (Davis, 1990; Nixon, 1943; and Woodward, 1971). Although these directions
were greatly accepted by the public, the devastation of the Civil War and the political power of
the North limited Southern growth to a great degree. The last three decades of the 19th century
had been one of economic prosperity to an unforeseen degree and arguably at rates we haven't
seen ever since. Much of this boom was fueled within the North through industrial production,
railroad building, and westward expansion. The South relatively fell into a greater decline.
Many historians have argued that the South greatly became developed and modernized
during the New Deal and World War II to a great degree. There is no doubt such argument has a
lot of appeal and validity along with some statistical figures seeming to support such notion.
National infrastructure, public housing, centralized public utilities, and new public schools were
being built throughout the South. Many of these critical necessities are being used to this very
day and many more Southern institutions proudly trace themselves back to around the time of the
New Deal.
A closer examination demonstrates the New Deal and the U.S. entrance into World War
II as actually enacting many barriers to faster development and growth of the South along with
introducing many policies toxic to racial relations. The following arguments are some primary

ones which have become accepted into mainstream scholarship as legitimate and compelling
ones:
i.) Much of the New Deal centered around strengthening and maintaining the power
of banking systems and most of these were located in the North.
ii.) The New Deal centered around labor unions and the many African-Americans
were displaced and discriminated within such institutions. The rates of
unionization have always been lower throughout the South and the majority of the
labor friendly legislation passed favored Northern workers were based in
manufacturing areas. Such areas would eventually decline beginning in the 1950s.
iii.) The New Deal consisted of building many new public institutions which would
compete with many of smaller institutions which had been well-established
throughout the South. An example is the increasing public education institutions
that competed with the extensive networks of private educational institutions in
the South.
iv.) World War II is credited with the growth of many cities with burgeoning military
industrial complexes and the movement of troops. The reality is that much of this
growth happened in the Western states and people recruited to the South via such
industries were often there only temporarily with limited economic effects.
Many of these institutions haven’t been adapted for a new economy and some have even become
liabilities due to the corruption and wasteful spending they incur.
Changing Racial Demographics Of The New South And Implications On Voting

During the 1960s, many African-Americans migrated back to the deep South as industrial
jobs declined within many Northern urban areas, opportunities increased throughout large urban
areas in the South, and the New South became a more welcoming and de-segregated area. Such
was a sign of demographic changes which would overtake the South and transform it into a
different area nearly unimaginable in the past. There has additionally been an influx of migrants
and non-Caucasians throughout the South as well although the rates of those who permanently
remain in the area along with the percentage of those settling in the South relative to other
regions remain very low. African-Americans had traditionally unanimously voted with the
Republican Party yet such would change as well especially in the aftermath of the Civil Rights
legislations during the 1960s. Today nearly 90% of African-Americans side with the Democratic
Party and much of this electoral support often turns out to be most crucial at the local levels of
government.
Some examples of ethnic groups which have increasingly migrated to the Deep South
include Vietnamese – American communities and presence in Houston and Louisiana;
emergence of Korean – American communities and presence in Dallas and Atlanta; and Cuban –
Americans communities and presence throughout Florida and a very large increase in Hispanic
Americans throughout the South. Hispanic American migration into the South came very slowly
with the exception of Texas where they already had a traditional presence. The influx into the
South grew exponentially the first decade of the 21st century and is leading many to predict that
whites will even become a minority in Southern states by as early as 2020. The U.S. witnessed
record levels of immigration beginning during the 1970s. Although many of these immigrants
landed in California or East Coast generally, we saw influxes of them into major Southern cities

as well. We would witness a rapid acceleration of such in the first decade of the 21st century as
the South changed into a postindustrial economy and a more diverse place.
Minorities are disproportionately represented in politics yet we see many more minority
politicians who have become elected and well-known in even the Deep South. Some diverse
examples of the Southern minority politicians (other than African – American) who have taken
office in recent times are:
i.) Georgia: B.J. Pak (Korean – American GA House Of Representatives member)
ii.) Maryland: Kumar Barve (Indian – American MD House Of Delegates member
and former Majority Leader)
iii.) Texas: Hubert Vo (Vietnamese – American TX House Of Representatives
member)
iv.) Louisiana: Joseph Cao (Vietnamese – American US House Of Representatives
member)
v.) Florida: Ilenna Ros – Lehtinen (Cuban – American US House Of Representatives
member)
vi.) Florida: Mel Martinez (Cuban – American US Senator)
vii.) Florida: Marco Rubio (Cuban – American US Senator)
viii.) Texas: Ted Cruz (Cuban – American US Senator)
ix.) Florida: Bob Martinez (Cuban – American Governor)
x.) Louisiana: Bobby Jindal (Indian – American Governor)
xi.) South Carolina: Nikki Haley (Indian – American Governor)

The disproportionate representation of minorities in all bodies of governments continues
to remain. Yet the breakthrough of such politicians into mainstream politics along with their
emergence as national figures shows how much the South has changed. Once known as the
inclusive area limiting minority rights, it has now emerged to become a land of opportunity for
many of them.
In the past four decades, it is indisputable how crucial the South has been to winning
Presidential Elections. Among our past five presidents, they have all been from the South with
the exception of Reagan and Obama. The South has additionally arguably been the biggest swing
states in all of the elections of the past thirty years and votes within have greatly correlated with
the actual results of elections. Although he lost many of the Southern states and had limited
support, Barack Obama had to maneuver through the southern states and through a few crucial
swing states in order to win the Presidential Elections of 2008 and 2012. But such leads us to ask
further what influence the South will have on U.S. politics in the upcoming years and whether
such will decrease or increase as the demographics change.
A Brief Treatise On Asian American Politicians And Voting Patterns
One surprising trend we've witnessed over time is the changing voting preference of
certain ethnic groups all across the U.S. Korean Americans, Cuban Americans, and Vietnamese
Americans were once staunchly pro-market and anti-Communist voters whom supported the
Republican Party. We see more modern liberal views and increasing support of the Democratic
Party when examining the following generations. Education seems to have been a key factor in
changing the worldviews of many Asian Americans along with cultural changes on a massive

scale. It’ll be interesting to study how voting patterns change among all these demographics over
time and whether they will be directly represented through more Asian Americans.
In the past decade, we have witnessed the rise of many Asian Americans to political
offices at various levels. One state where Asian American politicians are very common has been
Hawaii where nearly a third of the population has some Asian ancestry. One trend we
additionally notice is how Asian American politicians were very common in Hawaii even prior
to and during the waves of Asian immigration which affected the U.S. in the 1970s and 80s.
Hawaii has been a very different state culturally, socially, and economically compared to the rest
of the U.S.
A surprising trend has been their rise into the city politics of many East and West Coast
City Councils and State Congresses. This has been a somewhat surprising trend despite the
diversity and pluralism which are popular worldviews held within cities. The amount of Asian
American activists and politicians within cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, San
Francisco, New York City grew exponentially in the first decade of the 21st century. Such
politicians were often very highly educated and nearly always from the Democratic Party.
We additionally witnessed the inauguration of Barack Obama bringing along promises
and inauguration of many more Asian American cabinet members and judicial appointments.
Moral Majority And The Religious Right
The new kingmakers of conservative politics who had major influential abilities and
lobbying powers were much less likely to be political bosses or labor leaders. They were much
more likely to be Christian pastors, televangelists, activists who saw the tumultuous 1960s as a

sign of moral decay and believed political agenda was needed to curb such. Major figures such
as Jerry Falwell, Robert Grant, Oral Roberts, Chuck Swindoll, and Mike Huckabee became
leading national figures. Many of these figures often came from the South where religious
leaders had great community influence and Christian radio networks had become a main source
of information for many people.
Such figures were often negatively portrayed by the mass media but it was the same
media attention which gave them nationwide exposure and influence ironically. Their powerful
connections allowed them to collect major donations from outside of their traditional regions.
Endorsements from such leaders became keys to winning elections for many politicians.
Hudson (2008) describes how many Catholics and Protestants united to support the Moral
Majority to a great degree. This entire phenomena he sees as part of a religious revival affecting
America after a long decline towards secularization (Hudson, 2008). Such analysis can be very
controversial as many scholars debate whether there is even a trace some religious revival
happened during the 1970s. Whether there was a small revival or not, we witnessed the
movement of many Christians from mainline Protestant denominations to nondenominational or
Southern Baptist congregations on an increasing level.
In the following decades, we would see many divergent views between mainline
Protestant churches and other denominations of those claiming the Christian faith. Numerous
surveys saw adherents and members of mainline Protestant churches having much more different
political tastes and views. Many churches also became realigned the same time the Republican
Party and the Democratic Party became realigned. The realignment of churches along with how

they affected voting patterns was a complicated process yet careful scholarly analysis leads to the
following views which are mainstream among scholars and agreed by a very large percentage:
i.) The differences in worldviews between different pastors increased as seminaries
became more diverse. Starting in the 1950s, these different worldviews were often
manifested into very different political views with different pastors coming to see
the religious scriptures as emphasizing very different agendas. These different
implications were often then expressed politically by many pastors.
ii.) As religion became more individualistic and private for many people, they moved
towards churches with more similar political views and worldviews.
iii.) There was an increasing secularization of the Democratic Party as realignment
made it more representative of Northeastern, Northwestern, and Western areas
where church attendance, religious participation, percentage of self-described
Christians were much lower. This led to more willingness amongst the
Democratic Party leadership to take actions which many Christians saw as anti-
religion and cost the Democratic Party dearly in elections.
iv.) The increasing willingness to regulate homeschooling and colleges led to many
unnecessary regulations upon such institutions. Pastors soon found themselves
having to become political to preserve these institutions in ways they saw fit.
Many homeschooling communities and Christian universities were begun during the
1980s by leaders of the Moral Majority and others influenced by them. They sought to counter
the growing secularization, increased radical faculty, and restrictive government control of many
public universities. Examples of institutions they primarily began include Bob Jones University,

Liberty University, Oral Roberts University, Patrick Henry College, Pensacola Christian College,
and Regent University. Some of the activities at such universities to this very day remain
controversial although they have reformed to a great degree as well. Pensacola Christian College
has been accused by many former students as pursuing cult tactics in order to entice students to
behave a certain way although such opinions tend to come from a very small group of former
students. They joined numerous independent fundamentalist Baptist colleges which were key
places political leadership decisions and campaigns were settled throughout this time.
The idea of religious institutions beginning educational institutions is absolutely nothing
new as nearly all of the higher education institutions and learning communities in the U.S. can
ultimately be traced back to a religious denomination. With the exception of state flagship
universities and a very few small liberal arts schools, nearly all universities in the U.S. have
some origins in religious denominations. The Ivy League schools are a defining mark of U.S.
education and are considered the most prestigious in the world. They were once founded in order
to provide educational training for ministers. The Moral Majority invested in attempting to
change society for the future and realized how education was a key to spreading their ideas and
increasing adherents to their culture. Many of these attempts weren’t realized as many of the
smaller institutions became defunct and the Moral Majority lost power.
Groups similar to the Moral Majority along with many televangelists had a major
influence upon U.S. elections for the next quarter century although such groups lost power
during the late 1980s due to scandals and alternatives people became exposed to. Excessive
profiteering, money laundering, and sex scandals brought down many nationally acclaimed

leaders. This loss in influence was realized even more as the U.S. increasingly became more
secular and less religious.
Changes And Challenges For The Moral Majority
Although the Moral Majority quickly lost power, many of their agendas were in
agreement with mainstream views of many Americans and continued to hold sway. Many
Americans additionally were able to limit the Democratic Party from passing certain legislation
with some issues emphasized greatly by the Moral Majority. Many politicians during the 1990s
were therefore limited from advancing many pieces legislation and pressured into voting for
federal level legislation which prompted the agendas of the Moral Majority.
Some of those who were the most affiliated and enchanted with the Moral Majority went
on to form third-party candidacies. These people were discontented with the scandals they saw
within it along with what they perceived as members becoming cozy rather than maintaining
promises to fight for certain issues they so vehemently promised. This third parties often ran
along stances of originalist Constitutional interpretations along with proclamations of adding a
religious touch upon them. These third party candidates ran along parties such as America's First
Party, Constitution Party, and Reform Party. Many voters were either disgruntled Republicans or
former members who were now voting for a third party candidate. Although very few
independent and third party candidates won elections, some of them gained the power to greatly
influence primaries and elections.
Another interesting phenomenal we would see is how fast the Catholic demographic
dropped out of these movements and how much they changed their values. By the end of the

decade, we would see many self-proclaimed Catholics identifying more with liberal causes on
many issues to a greater extent with such trends accelerating beginning in 2008. A trend which
moved the Catholic Church towards more liberal views were increasing willingness of clergy
members to move towards more economically liberal views and the lack of opportunities faced
by many members across the globe in a modernized society where economic and wealth
inequality rose. Socially liberal movements greatly gained popularity as well to an unforeseen
degree. Many scholars debate the meaning of this trend since there were a lot of non-practicing
Catholics self–identifying as such more from a cultural rather than a religious perspective. The
Millennial Generation of Catholics who identified themselves as more liberal on social issues are
considered to have gained such from increased levels of secular education and the changes
popular culture promoted.
The Ideals Of Reaganomics
Popular media portrayals and election claims center around the tale of deregulation,
lower taxes, and individual freedoms increasing under Ronald Reagan. Many additionally see
him as a crusader who desired to return the U.S. to traditional values and economic growth. Yet
such portrayals are easily busted as myths and far from reality when we combine what actually
happened during the Reagan Administration, read his personal philosophical writings, and study
the changing world of his time. Reagan may have held some of these ideals dearly, but practice
was far from what was envisioned.
Although the media portrays deregulation as has having occurred greatly during the
Reagan era, scholarly analysis also lends credibility to arguments that such is a myth to a large
degree as well. Firstly, much of the “deregulation” was more about re-regulation as opposed to

actually limiting regulations. They were more about slight changes to regulations along with
modernizing them as opposed to actual systematically overhauling him. Furthermore, much of
that deregulation had occurred during the Carter Administration although it had been very
bipartisan between cooperation amongst the Carter Administration and a Republican-leaning
Congress with all regards. Deregulation additionally came at the federal level and increasing
regulations at lower levels of government along with increasing judicial activism sometimes
undermined the effects of such efforts.
Party Realignment
During the 1980s, party realignment continued with conservatives continually moving
towards the Republican Party while liberals entrenched themselves into the Democratic Party.
Such realignment additionally happened on a geographical basis as Northeastern liberal
Republicans and Southern conservative Democrats became a dying breed. Rae (1994) describes
how there remained conservative Southern Democrats who attempted to move their political
party in a more moderate direction and de-emphasized party alignment to a great degree (Rae,
1994). But so much would change in the following year after Rae’s analysis with numerous
Southerners defecting to vote for the newly emerging Republican Party.
Some prominent examples of very conservative politicians who are new leaders of the
Republican Party yet were once staunch conservative southern Democrats include Senator
Spencer Bachus of Alabama, Senator Thad Cochran of Mississippi, Governor Nathan Deal of
Georgia, Senator Elizabeth Dole of North Carolina, U.S. Representative Virgil Goode of
Virginia, U.S. Representative Parker Griffith of Alabama, Senator Jesse Helms of South
Carolina, Governor Mike Huckabee of Arkansas, Senator Trent Lott of Mississippi, Governor

Sonny Perdue of Georgia, Governor Rick Perry of Texas, U.S. Representative Billy Tauzin of
Louisiana, and Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina. By the end of the 1990s, we would
witness nearly all staunchly conservative Southern Democrats leaving for the Republican Party
or at least supporting Republican candidates. We additionally witnessed some staunch liberal
Republicans from traditionally liberal or moderate states becoming either staunchly Independent
or Democratic politicians on the other hand in recent years. Good examples of such include
Governor Charlie Crist of Florida, Senator Lincoln Chafee of Rhode Island, Senator Jim Jeffords
of Vermont, Mayor Michael Bloomberg of New York City.
In a fateful twist of irony, we would see Democrats and Republicans basically switching
places when the realignment became complete. But times had definitely changed to where many
could now proclaim that divisive racial issues and agendas were no longer to be worried about as
much as in the past.
Final Days Of Southern Democrats
The final conservative Democrat politician at any federal level of government was
Senator Zell Miller of Georgia. His Jacksonian expansionist foreign policy, anti-union stances,
staunch resistance to any form of gun control, support of tax cuts, and view of states’ rights are
nearly in line with the Republican Party. He even spoke at the Republican Party convention and
has endorsed Republican candidates for the Presidency for nearly two decades at least. Miller
(2003) even described the Democratic Party as having lost touch with American values (Miller,
2003). Why Miller didn’t switch parties is a major question scholars ask and one he has provided
limited answers about. Regardless, he has now become alienated from the party. Miller’s
reasoning centered around party loyalty, desire to respect tradition, will of his constituency, and

his belief he could help move the Democratic Party to more conservative stances. Whatever the
reasons, Miller’s political stances were more conservative than even many Republicans and his
departure meant the ending of the political lifestyle for the last conservative Democrat in federal
politics we ever saw.
Miller left Congress at a tumultuous time when both parties had become divided and
there were only a handful of moderate Democrats and Republicans remaining. These moderates
included Republican Senator John McCain of Arizona, Republican Senator Olympia Snowe of
Maine, Republican Senator Susan Collins of Maine, and Democratic Senator Ben Nelson of
Nebraska. All of the other Congressmen were all leaning one side without much moderate
tendencies and the political environment compelled this to a great degree. Within the next few
years, even these politicians would increasingly fail to come up with any bipartisan solutions
necessary.
The Democratic Party had been a major player in Southern politics for over a century.
Moderate Democrats along with those having foremost loyalty to the party saw the losses of
many elections and a changing political landscape as signs the Democratic Party was out-of-
touch with the American population. Some of them grouped together to form the New
Democratic Coalition. Other similar organizations which advocated the Democratic Party
moving more towards centrist positions including market based progressive strategies along with
moderate social policies followed.
One politician that took advantage and campaigned on such stances was Bill Clinton.
Although he was ideologically liberal and would not actually promote moderate policies until the
Republicans swept Congress, he used such stances to appeal towards voters. The Democratic

Party had endured a tumultuous time during the 80s with the defection of many conservatives
and its weak appeal to many whom saw the party as outdated. Clinton’s campaign was meant to
appeal towards Southern moderates who feared a very liberal leader along with white college-
educated Americans who generally favored economically and socially moderate policies. Other
special issues like increased environmental conservation, more health regulations, and larger
government employment opportunities were promoted by the Clinton campaign to specifically
appeal to college-educated and wealthy urban voters.
Fall Of The U.S.S.R.
Although greatly underemphasized by many people, the fall of the U.S.S.R. affected
voting to a great degree as it realigned politics globally as many nation-states now saw the
irrelevancy of large scale socialism. That ending of U.S.S.R. support, financial insolvency of
many formerly socialist regimes, and the new business climate led to political restructuring in
many nation-states throughout the 1990s. Even many self-proclaimed socialist administrations
turned to economic liberalization as a means to keep up with the world and largely because
global economic factors allowed no other alternatives. Crawshaw (1992); Kotz and Weir (1992);
and various other literature describe how the collapse of the U.S.S.R. was a major blow to even
the idea of a far-left political economy being sustained in the short term. Such additionally meant
the expansion of democracy and capitalism into many new areas (Crawshaw, 1992; Kotz and
Weir, 1992; et al.). Nearly every minority far-left agendas and parties would nearly vanish in the
following decades within the U.S. as it continued towards prosperous times.
The end of such statist policies resulted in a global economic boom where all of the
developed economies with the exception of Japan enjoyed rapid expansion. Such economic

success reaffirmed the fundamental truth of capitalism bringing many benefits for the entire
global economy along with improving the lives of many individuals. We would witness some
reexamination and thinking of capitalism as it was blamed for the Financial Crisis of 2007 -
2011. Yet it was evidently clear that only small reforms were required and the capitalist system
continues to be the best out of any we have. As a result of recognizing these developments,
nearly all voters and politicians during the 1990s were more overwhelmingly economically
conservative.
Final Division Of The Democratic Party: N.A.F.T.A. And Contract With America
N.A.F.T.A. is seen as one of the most crowning piece of legislation in the lifting of trade
barriers across the world. The politics of Canada, U.S., and Mexico were merged in many ways
as well. Subsequent studies after the passage of N.A.F.T.A. have shown how the economies of
all three places became very interconnected.
One criticism of N.A.F.T.A. has been erasure of sovereignty from many provincial, state,
and federal agencies. International regulatory agencies monitored the relationship between
Canada, Mexico, and the U.S. which was ultimately an experiment in the erasure of borders
between them when all was said and done. Infrastructure, labor laws, and trading regulations
have now been built between those states with governing boards which can now overrule state
and even federal government agencies. This has caused critique from many different politicians
although the critics tend to come from either the far-left or far-right sides of the political
spectrum. Those critics from the far opposite sides of the political spectrum have additionally
gathered together for large protests across the U.S. as well.

A closer analysis does reveal that N.A.F.T.A. was more of a political agreement as
opposed to an economic one. Much of the gains from free trade and the breakdown of barriers
occurred before the passage of N.A.F.T.A. A good argument can be made that the passage of
N.A.F.T.A. even hindered trade through the multiple legislation and regulatory oversight it put
over international trade although there was lax enforcement often.
Barriers to international trade across the world had been falling since the passage of
G.A.A.T. along with the formation of the World Trade Organization. Other aspects leading to the
demand of such and justifying the passage of such legislation were driven by the following
general phenomena which are agreed upon by the scholarly community:
i.) The emergence of unforeseen massive growth in the economies of Hong Kong,
Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan along with high quality export
products and services they provided were highly demanded by many throughout
the entire U.S.
ii.) There were increasing waves of immigrants from areas and Americans came to
understand and sympathize with different cultures more. The multicultural and
pluralistic movements of the 1960s further led to many youth sympathizing with
such more.
iii.) The Western European countries had rebuilt themselves from the destruction of
World War II and were now becoming postindustrial and advanced societies.
Many Americans saw how trade with these areas would benefit everyone.
iv.) The 1970s oil crises where O.P.E.C. succeeded in raising the price of oil and
spurring a global recession led many to look abroad for extra sources of oil and

alternative fuels. The end of the U.S.S.R. along with newfound economic
prosperity from growing economies throughout the world led many to
increasingly support free trade and become more accepting of production done
abroad.
v.) Many employers were now more likely to go abroad for cheaper labor as
communications systems, global knowledge, and deregulated governments all
increased.
vi.) Major changes in information technology allowed giant retail corporations like
Walmart, Kroger's, and Amazon.com to place pressure on suppliers to lower
costs. Many of these suppliers began producing abroad to cheapen labor and
production costs.
vii.) The dollarization of the global economy where nearly all nation - states came to
accept the dollar along with the global hegemony of the U.S. contributed to an
environment where international trade could be conducted with more stability.
viii.) There was an increase in the number of investors throughout the U.S. along with
more cultural acceptance for them to invest abroad. The fall of the U.S.S.R. and
more neoliberal policies across the globe caused such to accelerate.
ix.) Many elite foreigners who wanted access to U.S. markets successfully lobbied the
U.S. government to loosen barriers to trade. We would see many U.S. lobbying
firms getting hired by the Canadian and Mexican governments prior to the
passage of N.A.F.T.A.

x.) A major rise in immigration beginning in the 1960s along with globalization led
to the formation of new economic interconnections and many more people
involved were determined to send money abroad for personal and private reasons.
xi.) Some of the elite wanted to ease the formation and maintenance of financial
institutions in offshore places with low regulations.
The issue of free trade agreements had been a major issue during the 1992 presidential
election with both major candidates, George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton, endorsing an
upcoming trade agreement. The election was a very interesting one with nearly 20% of the
popular vote going to Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot whose entrance perhaps decided the
outcome of the election. Such was the first time in almost a century that a third-party candidate
had received over 15% of the popular vote. Although many interest groups were led to vote for
Bush or Clinton with upcoming free trade agreement possibilities being a major factor, such
legislation would not pass for a few years.
The passage of N.A.F.T.A. was secured with the endorsement of President Bill Clinton
and many Democratic congressman. Many of the Democratic establishment (including figures
such as former President Jimmy Carter) were crucial in the passage of the bill as they continually
lobbied and begged Congress to pass this piece of legislation. The Democratic Party united to
help pass N.A.F.T.A. Promises were made to far-left politicians within the Democratic Party that
the environmental, labor, and health regulations within N.A.F.T.A. would be strictly enforced in
order to procure their votes. When the actual legislation passed, we would witness a major divide
within the party all of a sudden. This divide would seal a decade of Republican dominance in a
decade which saw the longest economic expansion and prosperity in U.S. history.

Opposition to N.A.F.T.A. was only amongst a minority of people and generally among
those with heterodox views. Businesses had come to nearly universally support free trade
beginning in the 80s. Conybeare and Zinkula (1994) describe how N.A.F.T.A. was opposed by
individuals and institutions whom were very conflicted in their approaches against it with those
from the far-left and those from the far-right banding together to fight its passage. The far-left
was angered by this passage and alienated themselves from the mainstream wing of the
Democratic Party after N.A.F.T.A. (Coynbeare and Zinkula, 1994). The Democratic Party would
not recover from this and the remaining parts of the decade continued with the longest economic
expansion in U.S. history.
These events broke down as many conservative Democrats continued to defect to the
Republican Party in the aftermath of the Republican Revolution that swept Congress and
realigned the political parties with Republicans solidifying themselves as the more conservative
party.
Since 2008
Media analyses and scholarly reports demonstrate many Americans as feeling
disconnected and underrepresented by the political system. The record level of disapproval
against the U.S. Congress and the low levels of popularity enjoyed by the Presidency are signs of
growing unrest as well. Many scholars trace such polarization to surveys and research which
seem to indicate political districts being more divided than ever before.
Alongside such polarization, Americans have lost great trust in the entire political system
along with even the expected standards they once held for many politicians. Many view the

system as having become so corrupted that they now see it as unfixable. The definitions of
political leadership and what rights they imply have been manipulated negatively. Major increase
in political powers for the Supreme Court and the Presidency are two examples widely cited by
both conservatives and liberals. Such have been brought upon for many reasons with some of
them ironically conflicting.
The political polarization affecting Americans have greatly increased since the
inauguration of Barack Obama around 2008. Many scholars expected Obama to not win the
election with the power of the Southern states being a major factor but he managed to gain
enough necessary votes to win the election. The passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable
Care Act, enactment of the Dodd-Frank Act, Supreme Court hearings on L.G.B.T. issues, climate
change hearings by Congress, revisit of abortion issues at state-level governments, and proposals
of rare tax increases to prevent government shutdown have caused polarization across the nation
during the tenure of the Obama Administration. Never have we witnessed such systemic and
sweeping legislation which have caused both fear and uncertainty since the New Deal. Much of
the fear and uncertainty from both sides of the political spectrum have been for irrational reasons
many times to be exact. But in an ironic twist, the existence of such thoughts and expressions by
many people themselves create more fear and uncertainty for many people and become self-
fulfilling prophecies.
And although partisan divide has become a natural part of the political process, it is still
come as surprise how far the conflicts between President Obama and the Republican Congress
have come. Congressional gridlock over necessary legislation, fear mongering from party leaders
on both sides, and disagreement on nearly every policy has resulted in Americans distrusting the

Presidency, Supreme Court, and Congress more every day. Only time will tell where this distrust
goes and how voters will ultimately react towards it.

References
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Conybeare, J., Zinkula, M. (1994). Who Voted Against the NAFTA. World Economy 19, 1-12.
Crawshaw, S. (1992). Goodbye to the USSR: The Collapse Of Soviet Power. Bloomsbury.
Davis, H.E. (1990). Henry Grady's New South: Atlanta, a Brave Beautiful City. Tuscaloosa, AL:
University of Alabama Press.
Dawisha, K. & Parrott, B. (Editors). (1997). Conflict, Cleavage, And Change in Central Asia and
the Caucasus. Cambridge University Press .
DuBois, E.C. (1998). Woman Suffrage & Women's Rights. New York: NYU Press.
Gorbachev, M. (1996). Mikhail Gorbachev:Memoirs. London: Doubleday.
Hudson, D.W. (2008). Onward, Christian Soldiers: The Growing Political Power of Catholics
and Evangelicals in the United States. Threshold Editions.
Isenberg, N. (1998). Sex And Citizenship In Antebellum America. Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press.
Kerr, A.M. (1992). Lucy Stone: Speaking Out for Equality. New Jersey: Rutgers University
Press.
Kotz, D.M. & Weir, F. (1997). Revolution from Above: The Demise of the Soviet System.
London and New York: Routledge.

McClelland, E. (2010). Young Mr. Obama: Chicago and the Making of a Black President. New
York: Bloomsbury Press.
Miller, Z. (2003). A National Party No More: The Conscience Of A Conservative Democrat.
Macon, Ga: Stroud & Hall Pub.
Miller, Z. (2005). Zell Miller: A Senator Speaks Out On Patriotism, Values And Character.
Washington, D.C: Monument Press.
Nixon, R. (1943). Henry W. Grady: Spokesman of the New South. New York: Knopf.
O'Connor, B. (2002). Policies, Principles, and Polls: Bill Clinton's Third Way Welfare Politics
1992–1996 The Australian Journal of Politics and History. Vol. 48.
Rae, Nicol C. (1994). Southern Democrats. Oxford University Press.
Williams, Daniel K. (2010). God’s Own Party: The Making of the Christian Right. Oxford
University Press.
Woodward, C. (1971). Origins Of The New South, 1877-1913. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press.

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