1. This study examined the effects of a seven-month psychological skills training program on the cohesion of a men's soccer team.
2. Thirty soccer players were divided into an experimental group (first team) that underwent the intervention and a control group (reserve team). Measures of task and social cohesion were taken before, during, and after the program.
3. The results showed that the first team players who participated in the intervention program exhibited increased levels of task and social cohesion among teammates and with the coach, compared to the reserve team players who did not participate.
Impact of Team Cohesion on performance among Tunisian Women Soccer Playersiosrjce
Group cohesion is a dynamic process where the group tends to remain together and united in the
pursuit of its goal for the satisfaction of the affective needs of group members (Paskevich, Estabrooks, Brawley,
and Carron, 2001). Team cohesion exists where players are united in a common purpose (Cashmore, 2002).
Athletes often spend time together or share common interests outside of their chosen sport. A challenge to any
team is the maintenance of the team, rather than focusing on the individual. Our Study aims to identify the
relationship between sport cohesion and performance among Tunisian women football players. Our results have
shown a significant impact of team cohesion on the football performance
If employees are rewarded and valued in the organization they will be more satisfied and relaxed that will raise job performance and organization citizenship behavior
Impact of Team Cohesion on performance among Tunisian Women Soccer Playersiosrjce
Group cohesion is a dynamic process where the group tends to remain together and united in the
pursuit of its goal for the satisfaction of the affective needs of group members (Paskevich, Estabrooks, Brawley,
and Carron, 2001). Team cohesion exists where players are united in a common purpose (Cashmore, 2002).
Athletes often spend time together or share common interests outside of their chosen sport. A challenge to any
team is the maintenance of the team, rather than focusing on the individual. Our Study aims to identify the
relationship between sport cohesion and performance among Tunisian women football players. Our results have
shown a significant impact of team cohesion on the football performance
If employees are rewarded and valued in the organization they will be more satisfied and relaxed that will raise job performance and organization citizenship behavior
Organizational Commitment: A Comparative Study of Public and Private Sector B...inventionjournals
In spite of an increasing number of studies on organizational commitment, no unifying work focused on the measurement of organizational commitment of managers of banking sector. Organizational commitment is a feeling of one's dedication towards the employing organization, his/her willingness to work hard for that organization, and the intention to remain with that organization. There are various factors that affect the employees' commitment towards the organization. This study was carried out to establish the association of banking sector (public/private) and managerial levels with the organizational commitment among bank employees. Data was collected from 633 managers of banking sector using questionnaire method. Organizational commitment scale developed by Allen and Mayer (1990), was used as a tool for data collection. Regression analysis, t-test and one way ANOVA were used as statistical tools for data analysis. The results from the t-test of the study revealed that the public sector bank managers were more committed towards the organization than the private sector bank managers. The affective, continuance and normative commitment are high in public sector bank managers than private sector bank managers. Also, the ANOVA-test revealed that the top levels managers had the highest organizational commitment than the middle and the lower level managers. The affective, continuance and normative commitment of top level bank managers are higher than the middle and lower level managers. The t-test analysis results also, revealed that organizational commitment, affective commitment, continuance commitment of middle level bank managers is higher and significant than that of lower level bank managers. The difference of normative commitment between middle level and lower level managers is not statistically significant.
The Effect of Teacher Motivation on Teacher Performanceijtsrd
The purpose of this study is to To analyze the effect of motivation on the performance of the teachers at Madrasah Tsanawiyah Negeri Biringkanaya. The research method uses a quantitative research design, so the approach used is a quantitative approach quantitative approach , which emphasizes the theories or concepts of testing through metric numeric measurement and data analysis procedures with statistical tools for hypotheses. The data used are primary data and secondary data. The population in this study was a total of 87 teachers at Madrasah Tsanawiyah Negeri Biringkanaya, and as many as 47 respondents were sampled. Data collection was carried out through observation, interviews, questionnaires, and documentation. The data analysis method used descriptive statistical analysis and simple linear regression. The results showed that motivation has a positive and significant effect on the performance of Biringkanayah State Madrasah Tsanawiyah teachers, but the motivation indicators have not been able to provide support for increasing overall motivation. Bahriansyah | Afiah Mukhtar "The Effect of Teacher Motivation on Teacher Performance" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd37984.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/general-management/37984/the-effect-of-teacher-motivation-on-teacher-performance/bahriansyah
Engagement not only contributes to individual performance, but is also a source of energy for teams and a way for high-performance teams to differentiate themselves. That is why it is useful to understand exactly what team engagement is, how it arises and above all, how it can be stimulated.
Organizational Commitment: A Comparative Study of Public and Private Sector B...inventionjournals
In spite of an increasing number of studies on organizational commitment, no unifying work focused on the measurement of organizational commitment of managers of banking sector. Organizational commitment is a feeling of one's dedication towards the employing organization, his/her willingness to work hard for that organization, and the intention to remain with that organization. There are various factors that affect the employees' commitment towards the organization. This study was carried out to establish the association of banking sector (public/private) and managerial levels with the organizational commitment among bank employees. Data was collected from 633 managers of banking sector using questionnaire method. Organizational commitment scale developed by Allen and Mayer (1990), was used as a tool for data collection. Regression analysis, t-test and one way ANOVA were used as statistical tools for data analysis. The results from the t-test of the study revealed that the public sector bank managers were more committed towards the organization than the private sector bank managers. The affective, continuance and normative commitment are high in public sector bank managers than private sector bank managers. Also, the ANOVA-test revealed that the top levels managers had the highest organizational commitment than the middle and the lower level managers. The affective, continuance and normative commitment of top level bank managers are higher than the middle and lower level managers. The t-test analysis results also, revealed that organizational commitment, affective commitment, continuance commitment of middle level bank managers is higher and significant than that of lower level bank managers. The difference of normative commitment between middle level and lower level managers is not statistically significant.
The Effect of Teacher Motivation on Teacher Performanceijtsrd
The purpose of this study is to To analyze the effect of motivation on the performance of the teachers at Madrasah Tsanawiyah Negeri Biringkanaya. The research method uses a quantitative research design, so the approach used is a quantitative approach quantitative approach , which emphasizes the theories or concepts of testing through metric numeric measurement and data analysis procedures with statistical tools for hypotheses. The data used are primary data and secondary data. The population in this study was a total of 87 teachers at Madrasah Tsanawiyah Negeri Biringkanaya, and as many as 47 respondents were sampled. Data collection was carried out through observation, interviews, questionnaires, and documentation. The data analysis method used descriptive statistical analysis and simple linear regression. The results showed that motivation has a positive and significant effect on the performance of Biringkanayah State Madrasah Tsanawiyah teachers, but the motivation indicators have not been able to provide support for increasing overall motivation. Bahriansyah | Afiah Mukhtar "The Effect of Teacher Motivation on Teacher Performance" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd37984.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/general-management/37984/the-effect-of-teacher-motivation-on-teacher-performance/bahriansyah
Engagement not only contributes to individual performance, but is also a source of energy for teams and a way for high-performance teams to differentiate themselves. That is why it is useful to understand exactly what team engagement is, how it arises and above all, how it can be stimulated.
The extent to which soccer players construct and share analogous mental model...SportSciencePapersSu
In recent years, researchers have increasingly studied how cognitive processes
influence sport performance, in order to help athletes accomplish higher results not only
physically, but also psychologically. In particular, one of the main factors that influences, in a
positive way, the teams’ performance and has begun to be subject to studies is the sharedness
of team mental models (TMMs). The more a mental model is shared within team members,
the more the performance of a team will be successful. While it is acknowledged that it is
necessary, for the team members, to be “on the same page”, it is still unclear which is the best
method to detect and analyse a team mental model.
The aim of this study was to identify the mental representation of a female football
team that competes in the first national football division, through the comparison of the data
from small-sided games, an online questionnaire and individual interviews. In particular, the
study focused on detecting whether there was congruence between what the players said
during the interviews and in the questionnaires and their practical behaviour while playing in
small-sided games. We were interested in testing the methodology described, and in
understanding to what extent the TMM of this female football team is shared within the
group. It emerged that, through the methodology applied, it is indeed possible to detect the
degree of sharedness of the team mental model within the players of a team, and in this
specific case, the TMM shared by the players resulted to be low.
The present findings could have important implications for coaches and others close to
the athletes, who can benefit from these results to detect their team’s own mental model and
work on it, in order to reach the best performance. Further research is necessary to determine
whether the same results can be found in lower football teams divisions and in younger teams,
in order to verify the possibility to generalise this type of research method.
The Effects of a Psychological Skills Training Program on Mental Toughness of...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: The present study aims to investigate the effects of a Psychological Skills Training(PST) program on mental toughness of skillful female volleyball players. The statistical population used in the study consists of two league 1 female teams in Tehran province, Iran with total members of 22 individuals. From them, 11 individuals were selected randomly for each control group and experimental group. The data related to mental toughness were collected using Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire of Sheard and Golby (2009). The subjectsof the experimental group performed psychological practices for 8 weeks, 2 sessionsa week or total of 15 sessions such that each session included 30 minutes of the program. No program for psychological skills was delivered to control group. After the 15th session, an after-test was taken through SMTQ from experimental group based on the pre-test. Statistical methods in two descriptive and inferential levels and Kolmogorov– Smirnov statistical tests and T-test were used for analyzing data. The obtained results indicated that volleyball players who participated in Psychological Skills Training program have earned meaningfully higher scores in all subscales compared to the control group. Finally, it can be concluded that a course on Psychological Skills training has a meaningful effect on mental toughness of female volleyball players.
Investigation of Coach Organizational Commitment Levelsinventionjournals
Aim: This study has been done with the aim of determining coaches organızatıonal commıtment levelsand attended by n=60 coaches who work in the city of Corum Provincial Directorate of Youth Service and Sports. Material and Method: In this study, Organizational Commitment Scale with three dimensions (Affective Commitment, Continuity Commitment and Normative Commitment) developed by Allen Meyer (1990) has been performed. Kruskal Vallisand Mann-Whitney U Test have been used in the statistical analysis of the data. Findings: In the study findings, it is clear that the levels of organizational commitment levels don’t become different in any sub-dimensions according to gender, ages and education conditions differs(p>0.05). When the perceptions connected with the organizational commitment levels are compared according to the marital status, it is discovered that affective commitment sub-scale in married persons is higher (p<0.01).>0.05). It is detected thatthe rate of continuity commitment of people who gave positive answer to the question of “Are there any persons who are interested in sports in your family?” Is higher statistically than those who gave negative answer to that question (p<0.01). Result: It is found that married coaches’affective commitment levels are higher than single ones. This condition shows that the sense of responsibility for married coaches increases their affective commitments to their organizations. Additionally, continuity commitment of the coaches in whose family there are persons interested in sports is higher. It might be evaluated that the continuity commitment of the coaches in whose family there are persons interested in sportsis higher because of their sportive culture they took from their family members.
The Impact Of Compansation Systemand Career Planning On Organizational Commit...inventionjournals
The purpose of the study is to analyse the impact of compensation and career plannng on organzational commitment. This study uses survey method to 113 lecturers as respondents. The data is then processed by multiple regression.The results showed that the Compensation, Career Planning, on Organizational Commitment. It can be concluded to encourage lecturers to do research publication it is necessary to apply the system of compensation based on the performance appraisal system elements of research faculty and careers to include research as compulsory elements that must be met lecturers to improve his career. With the compensation system and a good career planning can ultimately increase organizational commitment.The conclusion of this study is compensated significantly influential on organizational commitment at the 90% confidence level
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Results for LtCol Thomas Jasper, Marine, for the 2010 Marine Corps Marathon held October 31, 2010, marking the 35th annual marathon known as "The People's Marathon."
An impressive finishing time of 3:46:39, placing 324th in the Male division ages 40-44.
Boletin de la I Copa Panamericana de Voleibol Femenino U17 Guatemala 2024Judith Chuquipul
holaesungusto.- Boletín final de la I Copa Panamericana de Voleibol Femenino U17 - Ciudad de Guatemala 2024 que se realizó del 27 de mayo al 01 de julio, en el Domo Polideportivo Zona 13.
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Narrated Business Proposal for the Philadelphia Eaglescamrynascott12
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The effects of a psychological skills training program on the cohesion of a men抯 soccer team
1. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 3, No 4, 2012
The effects of a psychological skills training program on the
cohesion of a men’s soccer team
Zissis Papanikolaou¹, Vasilios Voutselas¹, Kostantinos Mantis², Kostantinos Laparidis²
1. Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, University of Thessaly,
2. Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Democritus University of Thrace
∗ E-mail of the corresponding author: zpapanik@pe.uth.gr
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a psychological skills training program on the
cohesion of a men's soccer team during a playing season. Thirty subjects were divided into an
experimental group (first team) and a control group (reserve team). All subjects were measured on
cohesiveness items before, in the middle, and after a seven-month psychological intervention program.
Seven items were used from Sports Cohesion Questionnaire (SCQ) to measure the cohesion of the
team by including both social and task elements. Test data were collected and analyzed. It was found
that participants (first team players) in the seven-month intervention program did exhibit increased
cohesiveness among team members and between team members and the coach. There are many
positive consequences associated with enhanced team cohesion. Coaches should work to increase the
task and social cohesion among members of soccer teams.
Keywords: Soccer Cohesion, Social Cohesion, Task Cohesion, Intervention Program
1. Introduction
Team is a group and a group is a collection or set of individuals who interact with and depend on each
other. Sport and physical activity are carried out in the context of groups, and cohesiveness is a
fundamental property of all groups. Team Cohesion “is a dynamic process which is reflected in the
tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives
and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs” (Carron, Brawley, & Widmever, 1998,
p.213)."Cohesion is the total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group" (Bird, 1986,
p. 272). Because a soccer team is a group, Carron’s definition of group cohesion applies equally well
as a definition for team cohesion (soccer cohesion).
Peterson and Martens (1972) have all demonstrated that they are at least two distinct and independent
dimensions associated with team cohesion. One dimension is related to interpersonal attraction and
is identified as social cohesion. The second dimension of team cohesion is called task cohesion and
reflects the degree to which members of a group work together to achieve a specific and identifiable
goal.
Anyone who has been involved in any team sport knows the value of cohesiveness. Coaches try to
develop cohesiveness in their teams because they believe cohesive teams win more games. Sports
announcers, spectators, coaches, and players praise the unity, teamwork, and cohesiveness of
8
2. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 3, No 4, 2012
successful teams. Given the popularity of cohesiveness in sport talk, it is not surprising that
cohesiveness is a popular research topic.
Human behavior in sport and exercise requires consideration of many complex factors, relationships,
and interactions. Cohesion is viewed in the literature as a phenomenon that bonds members to the
group and inclines them to remain together. Team cohesion does not necessarily evolve naturally, but
requires careful planning and leadership from the coach. Many researchers consider cohesiveness as
an ongoing process that requires the coach's attention during the off-season, pre-season, and in-season
phases, and suggest an intervention program including several strategies for enhancing cohesiveness
among our team members. (Yukelson, Weinberg & Jackson, 1984)
1.1 Social Cohesion
Social cohesion reflects the degree to which the members of a team like each other and enjoy each
other's company. Social cohesion is a part of the group cohesion which includes processes associated
with the development and maintenance of harmonious interpersonal relationships (social related
processes). Smith (2007) noted that an individual’s connection to his/her peer group and opportunities
for friendships are factors that consistently have been discussed with regard to the concept of
affiliation in sport.
The coach needs to be concerned about the players’ social interactions in addition to other coaching
responsibilities. As Carron ( 1984a) asserts, “ whereas cohesion is a group construct, satisfaction is an
individual one”. Carron’s review of related literature indicates “a strong positive relationship
between cohesion and satisfaction”. (p.349) Weinberg and Gould (1995) suggest that “leaders do well
in building group cohesion because being in a cohesive group is satisfying and also indirectly and
directly enhance performance”. (p.191)
A warm supportive climate on sport teams, of which group cohesion is a relevant component, is highly
desirable for group member satisfaction, performance and team success. Other aspects of a healthy
team environment include autonomy, recognition, natural trust among coaches and teammates, the
players’ perception of fairness, opportunities for innovation and the absence of social loafing. The
manner in which group members interact is referred to as group dynamics coaches should monitor the
frequency with which players interact and the nature of these interactions. From this ongoing
assessment coaches can determine the role of each player on the team. Coaches must promote team
cohesion, develop the team’s beliefs about the competence of its members called collective efficacy,
and to build team player satisfaction. The research by William (1986) demonstrates that social
cohesion causes members satisfaction.
Sports participants who exhibit high levels of social cohesion also exhibit high scores in the
expectations that they will participate in sport during the following season. Thus, social cohesion is a
predictor of the intension to continue sport involvement (Sprink, 1990). This prediction is undoubtedly
related to the further observation that high levels of team cohesion are related to lower state anxiety
( Prapavessis & Carron, 1996).
9
3. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 3, No 4, 2012
Several constructs have been found to relate to cohesion such as team satisfaction, team size, coaches
efforts to faster cohesion and team goals. Widmeyer & William (1991) found that the best single
predictor of cohesion on a team was total satisfaction, with total satisfaction including: 1) good
competition, 2) social interaction, 3) improving skills and 4) recognition to member satisfaction.
1.2 Task Cohesion
Carron and Hausenblas (1998) define the task aspect of cohesion as “motivation towards
accomplishment, productivity, and performance” (p.239). It may be that an athlete’s identity or ego is
directly tied to group goals, the task aspect of cohesion. Task cohesion reflects the degree to which
members of a group work together to achieve a specific and identifiable task. The task is usually
associated with the purpose for which the team or group was formed. We can find teams with high
task cohesion but very low in terms of social cohesion. Teams, with task cohesion, can work
together very well.
Cohesiveness can be hindered if, for example, a coach has a task-oriented goal of winning and team
members are mainly participating for social reasons. The task aspect can be seen as a general
orientation toward achieving the group's goals and objectives. The nature of the group task is a
strong mediator of group cohesion (Carron, Widmeyer & Brawley, 1985).
Teams that have developed high levels of team cohesion tend to exhibit high levels of group efficacy
as well. This effect is stronger for task cohesion than for social cohesion. (Kozub & McDonell. 2000).
Research by Eisler and Spink (1998), demonstrated, that a high level of task cohesion is associated
with perceived psychological momentum. Teams that enjoy a high level of task cohesion are more
likely to enjoy the benefits of psychological momentum. There are times in an athletic contest at
which the momentum seems to be in favor with your team.
Quality of teamwork is related to task cohesion since it is important to get athletes to work together
within well-defined compatible roles in order to achieve successful team performance. Support and
mutual respect for one another, unselfishness, team task discipline and feelings of closeness all seem
to be important considerations under this factor. It is important for an individual to feel his/her role
or contribution to the team is valued and appreciated by both coaches and athletes. When an
individual is made to feel important, his/her senses of belonging within the team are enhanced as well.
(Scott & Cotter, 1984). Team cohesion, especially task cohesion, tends to improve performance of
interactive team sports.
2. Purpose of the study
This paper attempts to develop and modify an intervention program, and to develop a single-case
experimental design to assess the utility of the intervention program. Because the research on cohesion
in sport teams is still in its relative infancy, we can provide some basis for generalization in teams of
the conditions associated with high cohesiveness. The Psychological Skills Training Program (PSTP)
was a cohesion-enhancing program designed to increase the quality of players mutual efforts and the
10
4. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 3, No 4, 2012
degree of team pride satisfaction. It was a program of general principles to develop team cohesion.
This program was designed to improve friendships and interpersonal attraction because it leads to
feelings of satisfactions. Final, this intervention program was designed to develop cooperation among
team members and between players and coach, because soccer is an interactive sport. Also, this paper
was an attempt to investigate the development of the soccer team cohesion and not the sport cohesion.
This study examined changes in the effect of cognitive and behavioral techniques of soccer team
cohesion.
3. Methodology
3.1 Subjects
Subjects were 30 male soccer players, age 18 to 34 (M age=24,6 years), participating in a major soccer
league from the Philadelphia region of the United States. Both teams including a mixture of students
and non-students were examined before season. There was a wide variation in playing experience
among members of each team. To avoid situation-specific response bias, the questionnaires was
administered to players at times not immediately proceeding or subsequent to competition.
3.2 Design
The experiment was conducted over a seven-month period. Three observations were made. On
September 10, before the first game, Martens & Peterson, (1971) Sport Cohesiveness Questionnaire
(SCQ) was administered to each player asking each individual to complete the questionnaire at that
point in time. The second observation was on December 10. The last observation was on April 10.
The study involves a single variable, dependent group’s design. The reserve team was used as a
control group. The reserve team did not practice the same time with the first team. This team was
not involved at all in the items of the intervention program. The strength and conditioning coach of
the club applies only real physical practice with the control group during the time of this experiment.
This repeated measures design (pre-test, mid-test, post-test) was involved for correlated observation
because the same subjects are used for both conditions of the study. Intervention program was
applied to develop the cohesion during the season.
3.3 Measuring Instrument
The dependent variable, team cohesion was measured by the subject's response to the SCQ. The SCQ is a
7-item scale regarding group cohesion in sports including friendship or interpersonal attraction within the
group personal power of influence within the group, enjoyment, teamwork, and closeness, since of
belonging and value placed on group membership. The first five items of the SCQ measure attraction, to
either the team or to the individual (social cohesion). The last two items dealing with teamwork and
closeness seem to be measuring task cohesion. The questionnaire was completed by an athlete in less than
15 minutes. An example item with its corresponding scale is as follows: How good was the teamwork on
your team?
11
5. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 3, No 4, 2012
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
X x x X x X x X X
Not Very
Good Good
Identical cohesion questions were used with pre, mid, and post-measure. Also, players were to respond
to two coach-players questions from Team Cohesion Questionnaire ( TCQ) in order to investigate the
cohesion between the players and the coach (Gruber & Gray, 1982). Administration occurred at
weekday practices within the regular season.
3.4 Procedure
The players had been together from July 10 to April 10, which was the playing season period of 2006-2007.
The team had practiced twice a week plus the game every Sunday. The pre, mid, and post-test questionnaire
was administered by the first investigator. The members of the team took the test together at a time on the
playing field. The dependent variable in the study, the relative cohesiveness level of the team, was
determined by measures obtained by the anonymous responses that each player gave to the written
questionnaire.
3.5 Psychological Skills Training Program (PSTP)
In attempting to develop team cohesion, the following ideas and strategies were used (Orlick, 1980;
Carron 1984a; Widmeyer, Brawley & Carron, 1985; Bird & Cripe, 1986; Carron, Spink & Prapavessis,
1997; Janssen, J., 2002; Papanikolaou, Patsiaouras & Keramidas, 2003). These strategies helping
players feel like valued and important team members. We identified specific interventions calculated
to enhance team cohesion. Also, this intervention program (PSTP) can help a coach accomplish the
task of promoting team cohesion.
1. Developing Team Identity, 2. Enhancing Individual and Group Motivation,
3. Developing Social Cohesion, 4. Promoting Communication,
5. Developing Player Satisfaction, 6. Develop a feeling of “ownership” among the players,
7. Developing Team Leadership, 8. Emphasizing the Value of Discipline,
9. Stress Team Concept, 10. Optimistic Attitudes,
11. Players Help Each Other, 12. Positive - Negative - Positive Theme. (Note 1)
3.6 Statistical Analysis
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A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to measure the effects of the
intervention program. The repeated measures were the pre-, mid-, and post-test during treatment. The
repeated measures were used as three levels of the independent variable which was time. The dependent
variable was team cohesion. Statistical significance level for both teams were set at P<.05 for data analysis.
4. Results
The SCQ and the TCQ were administered to both the first team and reserve team. After the data were
compiled, a repeated measure ANOVA was utilized to identify any statistically significant differences
in cohesion among the players on both teams and between the players and the coach on both teams.
The means, standard deviations, and confidence intervals of cohesiveness from first and reserve team
are presented in tables 1, 2, 3, and 4. Analysis of the results indicated that there was a statistically
significant increase in social and task cohesion among first players.
There was a significant increase in the cohesion scores of first team players before and after the PSTP:
pre-(M=64.13, SD=2.03), Mid- (M=83.46, SD=4.12), and post-(M=102.13, SD=2.82)(Table 1). The
cohesion scores of the first team players and the coach before and after the PSTP was: Pre-(M=6.93,
SD=1.10), Mid-(M=12.06, SD=1.48), and post- (M=15.46, SD=1.24) (Table 2). It is thus fair to say
that the level at cohesion is relatively high.
For the reserve team players the means and standard deviations on cohesion was: pre-(M=68.33,
SD=1.79), Mid-(M=65.86, SD=2.06), post-( M=66.46, SD=1.08) (Table 3). There was no significant
increase in the cohesion between the reserve team players. Also, there was no significant increase in
the cohesion between the reserve team players and the coach: pre-(M=7.80, SD=.75), Mid-(M=6.60,
SD=1.35), post- (M=5.66, SD=1.17) (Table 4).
The repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a main effect on cohesion among first
team F(2,14)=538.56, P<.05 (Table 5). Also, an ANOVA showed a significant effect on cohesion
between the first team players and the coach, [F(2.14)=142.59, P<.05] (Table 6).
It is important to point out that the reserve team, which did not receive the intervention program, did
not increase in cohesion among team members nor between the coach and the players. We did not
observe a main effect of cohesion among reserve team players, F(2,14)=7.41, P<.05 (Table 7). Finally,
there was no significant effect on cohesion between reserve team and the coach, F(2.14)=14.84, P<.05
(Table 8).
High significant difference (p <.05) was found in cohesion values among the first players and between
the first players and the coach, while less cohesiveness was found among the reserve players
(control group) and between the coach and the reserve players during the playing season. Findings of
the present study suggest that the first team players reporting feeling an increase in cohesion and the
reserve team players reporting a decrease in cohesion.
5. Discussion
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It is evident from Table 1 and 2 that at the second and third periods of the study the cohesion was increased
very high from measure to measure on the experimental group. The statistical results determined that the
PSTP (Intervention Program) that was designed for this study was related to an increase in team cohesion.
The obtained F ratios of 538.56 and 142.59 (Tables 5 & 6) were very significant at the p <.05 level of
confidence. This means that the team cohesion was improved greatly
By examining the mean score of the reserve team, it was found that the passage of time had an inverse
effect on cohesiveness among reserve players and between the reserve players and the coach (Tables 3 & 4).
The reserve team shows less cohesion from measure to measure. This would be expected because this team
was not involved in the PSTP. The study has value for the practitioner because it demonstrates that a PSTP
such as was presented in this study, does enhance cohesiveness. Team cohesion is a psycho-social
characteristic and the coach must be aware of the psychological well-being of his/her players as well as the
physical well-being.
It would be fair to say that despite the high level of interest in measurement and theoretical debate,
with few exceptions (for example Spink, 1990; Widmeyer & William , 1991) primary sport-related
research in relatively sparse. In terms of the relationship between sporting success and cohesiveness
(Carron, Brays & Eys, 2002; Matheson, Mathes & Murray, 1997), the conclusions that have been
reached from this research have been equivocal to say the least (for example Grieve, Whelan &
Meyers, 2000). On the one hand, studies of team sports, including basketball, American football,
soccer, volleyball and baseball, at various times have shown that the success of teams can depend
more on cohesion than the skill level of individual members.
Looking to the future, Widmeyer, Brawley & Carron (1992) have argued that more sport-based
research is needed, which must be rooted in theory, adopt a longitudinal perspective, use multivariate
analysis and look at a wider range of groups in different competitive and recreational sports. Whether
such a research strategy will eventually reveal the intricacies of teams’ cohesion remains to be seen,
but it is a useful guide towards the right direction.
In an important study, reported by Widmeyer & William (1991), factors that determine team cohesion
among female golfers were investigated and the strongest predictor of team cohesion, however, was
personal satisfaction. For inter-collegiate golfers, the best way to develop team cohesion is by
cultivating a personal feeling of satisfaction towards the team and the team members.
Specifically, females on an individual sport were lower on cohesion scores than males and females on
a team sport. Perhaps cohesion has different emphases for females and males because of the female
emphasis on relationships. In addition, research has found that females place more emphasis on the
coach/athlete relationship than males ( Papanikolaou, et al, 2005, Tuffey, 1995). In addition, the
consideration of coaches and the more affective aspects of the coach-athlete relationship have been
examined in a series of studies by Jowett and colleagues (e.g., Jowett & Chaundy, 2004; Jowett &
Ntoumanis, 2004). As Jowett (2007) stated “ A coach is viewed as central in turning a collection of
individuals into a group (i.e., team unit) by building and managing the various dyadic coach-athlete
relationships” (pp. 63-64). Interestingly, Jowett and Chaundy (2004) found a positive relationship
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between perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship and cohesion in university age athletes.
Cohesion, of the tendency for a group to stick together, can be important to sport teams for two
reasons (Carron, 1982). First, coaches strive for an effective, cohesive team (Carron & Dennis, 1998).
Second, cohesion has been found to be related to satisfaction of group members and team success and
performance (Mullen & Copper, 1994; Widmeyer & William, 1991).
6. Conclusions
A limitation of the present study is that the small sample size restricts the generalization of findings.
We suggest that future research should test the effectiveness of applied interventions designed to
improve cohesion of a professional soccer teams. These findings will help researchers continue to
examine cohesion and its correlates in soccer teams, and may help coaches and professionals working
with teams maintain positive team dynamics.
The researchers concluded that group cohesion strategies should focus on the primary goals of group
members, in this study, improving task and social cohesion. The intervention was effective because it
targeted meeting this need. Thus, the SCQ can be used in soccer to assess current level of, and changes
in group cohesion.
It is especially important for soccer as an interactive sport, to work hard to develop task cohesion
among the players of the team. Coaches should also encourage the development of social cohesion on
soccer teams and both task and social cohesion are critical to team success. The coach must develop
high team cohesion among all the players of a team and not just the starters. Successful teams are
characterized of homogeneity (agreement in team cohesion between starters and non-starters).
It is useful to understand that winning or losing can influence perceived team cohesion, but the coach
must not allow this information to reduce his effort to develop team cohesion among members of a
soccer team.
7. Recommendations and Implications
This study should be replicated in other interactive sports. Additional recommendations for future
research include continuing the work on cohesion, collecting qualitative data from coaches concerning
their experiences with cohesion in soccer, and interviewing players of all levels of development about
their experiences with cohesion could also provide insight. It would be useful to collect similar data
with professional, semi-professional, college, high school, and young players and to interview
parents of youth sport participants. It would be valuable to consider the effects on cohesiveness of
personnel changes, team success, coaching strategy changes, role changes, injuries and many other
factors.
Some practical implications arise from this study. First, the positive relationship between the PSTP
and cohesion should be of concern to coaches, sport psychology consultants and other professionals
working closely with soccer teams. Second, soccer coaches should use team cohesion measuring
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instrument of choice to monitor task and social cohesion of interactive soccer team players. Third, the
current study provides a useful indication for further application of the PSTP in professional soccer
teams, and national teams, with systematic and organized methods developing the cohesion.
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Notes
Note 1. A complete copy of the intervention program can be obtained by contacting the lead author.
Table 1. Cohesion Descriptive Data Among First Team Players.
Test Subject’s S.D. 95%
Mean
Number Conf. Intervals
Pre – 15 64.13 2.03 62.964 to 65.303
Mid – 15 83.46 4.12 81.094 to 85.839
Post – 15 102.13 2.82 100.507 to 103.760
Table 2. Cohesion Descriptive Data Between First Team Players and Coach.
Test Subject’s Mean S.D. 95%
Number Conf. Intervals
Pre – 15 6.93 1.10 6.300 to 7.567
Mid – 15 12.06 1.48 11.211 to 12.923
Post – 15 15.46 1.24 14.749 to 16.184
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Table 3. Cohesion Descriptive Data Among Reserve Team Players
Test Subject’s Mean S.D. 95%
Number Conf. Intervals
Pre – 15 68.33 1.79 67.227 to 69.369
Mid – 15 65.86 2.06 64.677 to 67.056
Post – 15 66.46 1.88 65.381 to 67.552
Table 4. Cohesion Descriptive Data Between Reserve Team Players and Coach
Test Subject’s Mean S.D. 95%
Number Conf. Intervals
Pre – 15 7.80 .75 7.354 to 8.246
Mid – 15 6.60 1.35 5.821 to 7.379
Post – 15 5.66 1.17 4.990 to 6.343
Table 5. Repeated Measures ANOVA on Cohesion Among First Players.
Sum of df Mean F
Squares square
Between groups 10831.111 2 5.415.556 538.56
Within subjects 125.644 14 8.975
Interaction 281.555 28 10.056
Total 11238.310 44
Table 6. Repeated Measures ANOVA on Cohesion Between First team and coach
Sum of df Mean F
squares square
Between groups 553.644 2 276.822 142.59
Within subjects 15.244 14 1.089
Interaction 45.356 28 1.941
Total 623.244 44
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Table 7. Repeated Measures ANOVA on Cohesion Among Reserve Players.
Sum of df Mean F
squares square
Between groups 49.645 2 24.822 7.41
Within subjects 61.111 14 4.365
Interaction 93.689 28 3.346
Total 204.444 44
Table 8. Repeated Measures ANOVA on Cohesion Between Reserve Team and Coach.
Sum of df Mean F
squares square
Between groups 34.311 2 17.156 14.84
Within subjects 20.978 14 1.498
Interaction 32.356 28 1.156
Total 87.644 44
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