The document discusses the effect and management of change in organizations. It covers several key points: 1) Technological advances and globalization have transformed businesses, requiring organizations to be agile and adapt to changes in order to survive. However, managing change comes with many challenges. 2) Common challenges to effective change management include employee resistance, lack of preparedness, and failure to address both positive and negative implications of changes. Successful change requires leadership support, clear communication, and change readiness across the organization. 3) The literature review discusses how changes should address organizational problems, involve employees, and have a clear purpose. Effective change management also requires leadership, communication, coordination, and building change readiness among all stakeholders.

1. The Effect and Management of Change in Organizations
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Table of Contents

2. The Effect and Management of Change in Organizations
Background
Continued advances in technology and globalization have
transformed the way businesses are conducted across the world.
Rapid technological change ensures that new products and
services come up faster than demands for them are created.
Alongside, as nations develop and get richer, new markets
emerge, creating opportunities for businesses around the world.
Such changes have been the driving force for today’s business
organization to be agile so as to remain relevant in their
domains and thus remain in business (Okenda, Thuo, & Kithinji,
2017). External changes demand internal changes; thus, to
survive in any given environment, organizations must
accommodate change. Easy access of knowledge to spearhead
organization changes is foundational for such crucial endeavors.
However, other environmental factors, such as political and
sociological factors, influence what kind of change is
implemented. A review of organizational policies and
operations must be considered before carrying out any change
(Janssen, Wimmer, & Deljoo, 2015). Organizations must
prepare well and put considerable effort to succeed in carrying
out and managing change. Willing participation of all
stakeholders is paramount to efficient change management.
The change process in an organization is not devoid of
challenges. Change is always a difficult thing for any
organization to sell to its stakeholders, in particular employees.
The low success rate in change management is a discouraging
factor for any organization planning change. Also, the manner
in which change is implemented dictates its success or failure.
In some cases, organizations tend to rush in with change
initiatives without in-depth comprehension and end up losing
focus along the way. In some other cases, organizations are
overwhelmed by change concepts, which put them in very

3. volatile and risky situation. Equally, change implementers
overlook the implications of change and thus lack the structures
in place to manage such limitations (Okenda, Thuo, & Kithinji,
2017). To achieve success in a change endeavor, it is
imperative for the leadership to factor in focus, sufficient
knowledge, preparedness, and well-laid-out structures within
the system. Thus, an effective organizational leadership is
essential in achieving success in any change initiative.
As much as some organizations are opposed to change, global
business dynamics often make it inevitable. Failure to adapt to
the forces of globalization and technological innovation will
lead to extinction of businesses, unless they adapt to the new
realities. Organizational policies in this respect are no longer
relevant as businesses have to survive in their highly
competitive domains, let alone prosper (Janssen, Wimmer, &
Deljoo, 2015). Today’s businesses need to grapple with change,
in terms of ideas, policies, operations, and technology, on a
regular basis. Market dynamics, workforce demographics, and
social values demand changes in policies and operations of
businesses (Okenda, Thuo, & Kithinji, 2017). To avoid closure
and irrelevance in the business environment, organizations are
left without options. The inability to effect change has left the
business trailing their competitors in performance. Delay in
adoption of change will result in them being edged out by their
competitors. Organization competitiveness, therefore, is majorly
determined by its degree of response to changes in its
operational environment.
Besides, continued use of old methods and policies has proved
detrimental. Businesses are left in a weak position to cope with
emerging market challenges such as stagnant demand, product
and operational obsolescence, needs to adopt new technologies,
and marketing innovations, among others. Therefore, it is
evident that change is important for the continued success of
any business. For this, improved frameworks for change
initiative and development are needed, which will ensure
enhanced business survival and competitive capabilities. To

4. create a competitive advantage, leaders have to understand the
key issues and policies that require attention and effect change
in them (Janssen, Wimmer, & Deljoo, 2015). Similarly,
establishing a framework for readiness to change will determine
how effectively the organizations can exploit the emerging
economic opportunities.
Change implementation in any organization requires a
coordinated effort from all stakeholders. Furthermore, there
must be an organization-wide agreement on objectives and goals
for a successful change application. According to Okenda, Thuo
and Kithinji (2017), attentive planning and articulate
engagement of objectives by organizational leaders is a must to
ensure understanding and acceptance of the need for change in
consideration of business viability and competitiveness
advantage. Interestingly, to achieve success in change efforts,
often change of leadership is inevitable. Additionally, change
adoption requires caution as it has both negative and positive
implications. To avoid the negative ones, appropriate change
management is needed to counter any change resistance that can
surface. Employee resistance is a common roadblock to change
in organizations. The acknowledgement of a possible
confrontation with employees and steps to navigate it are
pivotal to the successful implementation of change in an
organization (Hayes, 2018). Therefore, an efficient change
management technique is called for to tackle turbulence and
unpredictability in the work environment, which might scupper
the entire change exercise.
Perpetuity and survival of organizations is dependent on their
response to change and adaptability. Letting go of the
traditional and familiar organization traditions and embracing
the unknown and untried aspects in business can be fearsome
but exciting too. When change has knocked, it is unstoppable
and, therefore, inescapable. Generally, change entails alteration
of the structures of an organization. Such modifications affect
processes of management, policies, operations, human
resources, marketing, and a myriad of activities. As much as

5. change promises growth, competitiveness, and business
survival, its implementation requires apt planning and execution
lest it causes adverse implications. According to Doppelt
(2017), development of new knowledge and training of
employees is essential to success of change implementation.
Moreover, the transition from the current mode and system of
operation to the new one requires time and a well thought-out
framework. Problems addressed by change ought to be clearly
identified to ensure that the right change is adopted.
Additionally, smooth transition and implementation of change
demand effective and continued communications to all
stakeholders involved in the realization of change. Initiators of
change should clearly communicate their vision and have in
place a change management structure to deal with any
unexpected development.
Problem Statement
Changes in policies and operations in an organization are meant
for progress and not chaos in the workplace. Changes are meant
to put the business in a better position than before to grow or
venture into new areas as well as to create a more enabling
environment for employees (Okenda, Thuo, & Kithinji, 2017).
In a globalized world, even the smallest organizations and
businesses are not immune to changes; the important thing is to
be able to embrace change. Lack of change results in poor
business performances and jeopardizes growth. Research has
found several systemic limitations that exist in most
organizations effecting change. Studies have also depicted a
myriad of emerging challenges that impedes successful change
implementation. Research has also enumerated the setbacks to
change, given a resistance to change adoption. While several
studies have tackled issues of change management in
government sectors, few studies have been done on the effect
and management of change in organizations.
Description of the Problem
Studies have shown that organizations routinely face challenges
in their change processes. Several firms still succeed while

6. many more failed in carrying out change that was profitable.
This points to a limitation in organizations to adopt change,
which is mainly a result of challenges in change management
(Okenda, Thuo, & Kithinji, 2017). Failure to successfully
implement change is an indication of lack of suitable
frameworks governing the change process. Organizational
change requires counterintuitive insights and in-depth
evaluations of managerial discretions and employee responses.
A key contributor to change implementation failure is resistance
of participants. Failure of coordination between change
initiators and other participants results in setbacks. Studies have
shown that the initial reaction of policy change is resistance.
Mostly, the resistance is from the employees. Therefore, until
all the change participants are convinced of the need for change
in an organization, the implementation process will not be
without challenges.
Change is always accompanied the modification of, often
disruption in, established structures within the organization,
which affects normal operations. Such alteration of the usual
flow of operations affects all who are involved but differently,
depending upon the roles they play in the old setup and new.
Therefore, the interruptions affect their performance. As such,
before they adapt to the new system, several challenges may
erupt. To begin with, the performances of the employees may
lag because they are unaccustomed to the new system. Also,
different expectations and behaviors may trigger resistance to
the new system. New practices, procedures, policies, equipment,
software and operation systems require an intrinsic and
comprehensive change management structure (Okenda, Thuo, &
Kithinji, 2017). Change management is important to help reduce
the negative consequences of the new modes of operation.
Addressing both the negative and positive effects of change
require fundamental process management to attain success.
Research Objective
The general objective of this study is to establish the
effects and management of change in an organization.

7. Literature Review
In essence, change involves reconceptualization of old
ways of working in an organization for new ones, often a new
way of thinking. Also, change entails incorporation of new
market ideas, methodologies, and practices. Studies have found
change to be often a fundamental organizational behavioral
shift, influenced by internal and external environmental forces.
According to Okenda, Thuo, and Kithinji (2017), any change
should seek to address a particular problem in an organization.
In other words, change must have specific purposes to
accomplish. Lack of direction and purpose will jeopardize the
viability of the organization and risks its survival in a
competitive environment, apart from creating several obstacles
in its implementation. To enhance full support of all
participants, especially employees, it is necessary for change to
be adaptive and a continuous process. Adaptability and
continuity ensure that employees embrace the new developments
and reinforce their efforts in support of the new organization
direction.
Provision of opportunities for employees to participate in
change initiatives is essential. This is because employees are
the key facilitators of change as also the key implementers. It is
the employees who are determinants of success or failure of any
change endeavor in an organization. As such, employees should
be directly in management, implementation, and facilitation of
change (Wang et al., 2017). Researchers have acknowledged
that the main obstacles to change implementation are the
employees and, therefore, structures that will foster employee
collaboration in change implementation are very significant. To
achieve success, organizations are required to exploit and
develop resources through robust leadership, vibrant
communication, and appropriate coordination. Some studies also
denote change as a process of capacity building projected
toward a review of certain issues of concern. Moreover, change

8. should seek to cover all stakeholders’ concerns in consideration
of their aspirations, values, fears, and behaviors.
Arguably, change is replacing the past with the future. It
entails a process of setting aside the old way of doing things
and embracing new modes and processes of working, even new
ways of thinking. That journey of moving from known traditions
to a largely unknown future is not an easy matter. The
uncertainty brought about by the adopted system affects the
output of employees. According to Okenda, Thuo, and Kithinji
(2017), employees require great deal of coping abilities and a
strong sense of worth to be in a position to blend into the new
system. Therefore, some resistance is to be expected, and
workers must be provided with persuasive reasons why the
change is necessary for the wellbeing of the entire organization
(Wang et al., 2017). Initiators of change must be very deliberate
in adopting several strategies to ensure full support of the
change process. The change process requires inclusive
participation from all stakeholders. The use of the
organization’s vision assists in developing a shape of the future
state of the organization in the minds of the participants,
thereby helping the mission to build a basis for change. Also,
organizational culture impacts change initiatives; sturdy
leadership and communication are pillars in tempestuous phases
of change implementation.
Most organizations, mainly in government and small
private sectors, operate in a state of no change. They are
engraved in a situation of predictability, relative security, and
stability. In such environments, many organizations have no
urge or inclination toward embracing any kind of change.
Researches have pointed out that organizations operating in
such a mindset were doomed to collapse sooner or later
(Okenda, Thuo, & Kithinji, 2017). Organizations in such
mindset are left in a weak position to cope with emerging
market challenges such as stagnant demand, new technologies,
new market innovations, and operational obsolescence. Many
studies also highlight that organizations functioning in such

9. setups are considered inefficient and ineffective in both
performance and operation. It is clear that for the success of
these organizations, the general perspective must change. For
these organizations to survive and improve their performances,
it is essential for them to have a change mentality in their
cultures, work values, and strategies, and for both employers
and employees to have a shared opinion of change. Proper
coordination between employer and employees and commitment
of all participants toward change implementation are crucial to
the success of change adoption. Studies show that the link of
cultures and systems enhanced efficiency and effectiveness of
commitment of participants involved in the change endeavor.
Furthermore, it is noted that the ultimate success is embedded in
and hinges upon individual effectiveness as well as group
effectiveness.
An organization’s success of implementing change is reliant on
the effectiveness of individuals at a personal level or at a group
level. At a personal level, employee effectiveness in change
implementation is faced several inhibitors. Knowledge,
attitudes, work stressors, and motivation affect how an
employee will respond to change, which again will determine
their effectiveness (Okenda, Thuo, & Kithinji, 2017).
Consequently, the combined effect of these factors on each
employee determines the effectiveness at group level.
Furthermore, the effectiveness of the group dictates the success
rate of the organizational change implementation. At a group
level, leadership, roles, status, and cohesiveness contribute to
its effectiveness, and the effectiveness at group level influences
the effectiveness of the entire organization. Significantly, when
the organization factors in issues such as environment, work
culture, strategies, and technology, it bolsters its chances of
succeeding in change implementation.
Change management entails frameworks that focus on
continual renewal of organizational capabilities and structures
to be in a position to meet changing demands. The change
process is a complex journey that is strongly associated with the

10. organizational strategy, which makes change management vital
(Hayes, 2018). Ideally, all changes are meant to improve the
efficiency of organizations and their competitive advantage.
However, as much as change is beneficial to the organization,
its implementation must happen while working with resistance
from some employees that are wary of their future. Therefore,
successful change implementation calls for readiness of change
from all stakeholders involved in the change process. According
to Okenda, Thuo, and Kithinji (2017), readiness is more
essential than other factors to attain an effective change
process. Change readiness is the cognitive precursor of either
support or resistance of the change process. It is embedded in
the participants’ attitudes and behaviors toward the change
effort.
Besides, change readiness is integral to and also
transformational in the change process. It entails several aspects
that are discussed here. To begin with, the topmost factor is the
vision for change that must be clearly communicated to all
stakeholders to ensure collective support. The second is mutual
trust and respect, where change initiators must adhere to all
stakeholders’ concerns in the process of change implementation
(Monteiro et al., 2017). Third, change initiatives must dictate
comprehensive consultation at every stage. All participants
must be consulted during the inception of a change process.
Fourth, management and leadership support is essential in the
provision of adequate resources to facilitate the change process
and to ensure stability during the turbulent phases of change
implementation. Finally, the perception toward the change
process is deemed the most important aspect of change
readiness. The reason for its importance is due to its ability to
discover the cause/s of resistance. As discussed earlier,
employees are pivotal to the success of change implementation.
As a result, their perception of the change effort is very
influential and has the potential to influence the success or
failure of the entire exercise. Thus, employees’ attitude and
knowledge of the change effort is key to change readiness and

11. effective implementation.
Studies have shown change management to be a response to
change in a systematic fashion. It is the organization control of
change in line with its destined direction. Other researches
depict that structures and organizational culture has a way of
controlling the organization, direction, and operation.
Interestingly, globalization has affected how organizations
manage their change in modern times (Okenda, Thuo, &
Kithinji, 2017). As a result, change management or control has
become a very laborious task. Furthermore, globalization has
subjected the aspects of change to numerous hazards. The way
to manage change process necessitates an amicable review.
According to Janssen, Wimmer, and Deljoo (2015), change
management requires an apt framework that will foster the
continued survival and thriving of a business in a dynamic
environment. Resultant forces of globalization, such as the
worldwide breakdown of socialism, advanced technological
innovation, and international economic integration, have to be
dealt with tactically. Therefore, these forces and the ever-
increasing pace of trade and commerce brought about by
globalization demands businesses engaging in change effort to
effectively instill change and manage the process appropriately.
Research Methodology
This study requires the qualitative methodology.
Qualitative research is appropriate for inquiries that seek to
capture the current realities of a particular situation. The
method allows scrutiny of human undertakings in gathering of
data through spoken or written words.
Research Design
The research design used is the case study method. This
method is appropriate when seeking to understand a particular
scenario in great depth. This method is useful when seeking
information from an organizational setting. The case study
design is useful in sourcing out the effect of change and how
change has been managed in a particular organization. The
method is suited to identify the change management

12. mechanisms in use.
Study of Population
The people used for the study were the employees of Royal
Dutch Shell plc, one of the top six global oil and gas
companies, which has experienced major change in recent times.
Data Collection
Data collection involved the survey method where interviews
are used as the main instrument of gathering information.
Limitations
To obtain in-depth of data, considerable time is needed as
well as finances, which are the key limiting factors of this
study. To have a strong foundation and findings that may be
applicable widely, the study ought to be diversified across
public and private organizations. Collecting a wide range of
information will provide a comprehensive scope with deeper
understanding of effects and management of change. Advanced
methodologies, such as qualitative longitudinal design, would
be more suited to gather in-depth data. Additionally, the
unwillingness of respondents to cooperate and the use of a small
number of respondents undermine the degree of accuracy.
Findings
Change in any setup attracts either positive or negative
effects depending on how it has been managed. The positive
effects of change include growth, competitive advantage,
dynamism, and employee self-assurance. Growth effect is
brought about by technological change and adoption of new
technologies, change of management, and inclusion of new
departments that calls for new job requirements (Doppelt,
2017). Moreover, the setup of new infrastructures, venturing
into new markets, and adoption of new market concepts
constitute growth brought about by change. Productivity and
efficient organizational performance are products of dynamism
due to successful change implementation. According to

13. Janssen, Wimmer, and Deljoo (2015), employees have
confidence in the management due to successful management of
changes in the organization. Also, according to Doppelt (2017),
the positive consequences brought about by change create a
motivation in the employees, which serves to increase their
output as well. The organization’s response to the need for
change is crucial for its effectiveness. As a result, a competitive
advantage is realized due to the application of change. The
ability to adopt new operational systems, new technology, and
new marketing concepts faster than competitors places such
organizations ahead in the market.
On the other hand, change can lead to negative effects. The
causes include lack of support and resistance internally, and
incompetence of the change initiators. Policy and other
operational changes in an organization are meant for improved
operations and creation of an improved working environment
for employees (Janssen, Wimmer, & Deljoo, 2015).
Nevertheless, employees tend to believe that change in the
organization will endanger their job in the long run. Thus, they
are opposed to change from the word go. Other factors that lead
to resistance is the fear of unknown, repudiation to be
improved, and love for status quo. However, the failure of the
change process may be also due to incompetence (Hornstein,
2015). It is required that change initiators be adequately
knowledgeable to manage and oversee change processes. Lack
of clear and comprehensive communication to all stakeholders
to convince them of the need for change will result in
challenges. Therefore, proper communication about the change
effort to all participants is essential to achieving success.
Notably, change process is difficult and apt management is
needful. Transition from the old operation systems to new
method effectively requires a well-thought-out framework. To
achieve success in change management, the issue addressed by
change should be well identified to ensure the right change is
implemented (Hayes, 2018). More so, change is always a
sensitive issue that is usually not well received. Change

14. management necessitates that change be conducted in an orderly
and systematic manner. The process should be well coordinated
beginning with front-runners to others following and should
ensure a smooth transition from the known traditions to the new
operations. Change management requires high level of stability
due to the resources needed and alignment of change to the
organization’s objectives and goals.
Significantly, change management has got several benefits to
the organizations. To begin with, change management helps
organizations in saving costs, time, and resources. Second, it
provides an opportunity to identify the problem addressed by
change and hence choosing the right change to be implemented
(Hornstein, 2015). Third, change management helps
organizations to anticipate challenges and address them
accordingly. Moreover, change management enhances
communication to all employees and convinces them on the
need for change to minimize chances of resistance. Also, it
provides the leadership of the organization with a platform for
valuation of the impacts to be brought about by change and
apply the necessary mechanism to address those impacts.
Further, change management improves organizational
performance by allowing change process to be implemented
with minimal interference in daily operations. Finally, change
management assists in relaying the benefits of change to the
organization if done in the right manner.
Recommendations
Communication is integral to change processes and change
management. Any organization embarking on a big change
effort should ensure that communication is at its best.
Communication gives adequate opportunity for addressing all
concerns raised by different stakeholders, thereby minimizing
resistance to change. Moreover, communication allows effective
change management to take place, thus increasing success rates.
Additionally, communication enhances preparedness of the
change and equips participants of change with a coping
mechanism.

15. The study recommends that trainings and workshops be
conducted prior to implementation of change. Such platforms
will enlighten all stakeholders especially the employees on the
need for change. With knowledge, the chances of resistance are
greatly reduced. Moreover, trainings and workshops provide a
foundation for proper change management. It is important that
change initiators be the leading examples in the change process.
They should strive to communicate clearly of the need and
reasons for change, and also encourage others to participate and
support the change effort. The change initiators should ensure
that change efforts are in line with the organization’s goals and
objectives.
Conclusion
In summary, change is inevitable and unavoidable in
today’s world. Change is fueled by different factors that
demand organizations to initiate change and adapt to new ways
of working. When organizations do not heed a call for change,
they risk collapse and loss of competitive advantage. Today, the
very survival of businesses, let alone growth, is dependent on
their response to change and adaptability. Change process is a
complex journey and is strongly associated with the
organization strategy, making efficient change management
crucial. Also, an effective transition from old operating systems
to new and exciting ones requires a well-thought-out framework
to deal with potent negative and positive effects. When change
management is conducted effectively, organizations can see
unprecedented success. Change should ensure that an
organization achieves the best possible structure to ensure that
its infrastructure matches its goals and mission, continues to
meet emerging challenges posed by the dynamics of business
realities and greatly enhances the potential of success for the
collective efforts of its employees.

16. References
Doppelt, B. (2017). Leading change toward sustainability: A
change-management guide for business, government and civil
society. Routledge.
Hayes, J. (2018). The theory and practice of change
management. Palgrave.
Hornstein, H. A. (2015). The integration of project management
and organizational change management is now a necessity.
International Journal of Project Management, 33(2), 291-298.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.08.005
Janssen, M., Wimmer, M. A., & Deljoo, A. (Eds.). (2015).
Policy practice and digital science: Integrating complex
systems, social simulation and public administration in policy
research (Vol. 10). Springer.
Monteiro, R., Pereira, M., Daniel, F., Silva, A. G. D., & Matos,
F. R. N. (2017). The influence of organizational reconciliation
policies and culture on workers stress perceptions. BAR-
Brazilian Administration Review, 14(3).
Okenda, R., Thuo, A., & Kithinji, M. (2017). Effects of change
on organizational performance: A case of the Ministry of
Environment, Water and Natural Resources. International
Academic Journal of Human Resource and Business
Administration, 2(3), 501-520. Retrieved from
http://www.iajournals.org/articles/iajhrba_v2_i3_501_520.pdf
Wang, W., Fu, Y., Qiu, H., Moore, J. H., & Wang, Z. (2017).
Corporate social responsibility and employee outcomes: A
moderated mediation model of organizational identification and
moral identity. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1906. doi:
10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01906
CHANGE MANAGEMENT
Running head: CHANGE MANAGEMENT 1

17. Meaning of Problem Statement in a Research
A problem statement refers to clear description of issues(s) such
as the vision, issues statement as well as approach that is
needed to solve a particular problem (Bryman, 2008).
A problem statement is used to help an individual or a team to
remain focus on research efforts so as to solve a given problem.
A problem statement should be designed to address the
following questions:
*
Cont’
What is the problem? - In this sense the focus is on boundaries
of the problem such as customers or work flow among others
Who has the problem? – Focuses on the person or group that is
affected by the problem. For instance, it can be customers or
particular groups among others.
Why- Relates to the reasons that indicate the importance of
solving a particular problem?
*

18. Cont’
When- Relates to particular time when the problem
occurs.Where- Relates to specific area that is affected with the
problem such as certain places or process among others.
*
Cont’
The purpose for writing problem statement is as follows:
Introduce the significance of studying particular topic or issues
to readers Put the problem is a given context to make it easy
for carry out study on it Gives information concerning the tools
that will be needed to display required information.
*
Description of a Background The main issue in the background
of the problem is the ability to reflect on facts related to
problem so that other readers can understand the problem well.
Background description enables researchers to have better
understanding on how to design the experiment (Schindler &
Cooper, 2014).In order to have a good description of
background information the researcher needs to consider
answering the5W’s.
*

19. General information in a Background Search
Wide view of the subject of study (root of the problem)
Definition of the topicMajor dates as well as events in the
studyThe key words and specific concepts concerning the study.
*
Problem Description and Research objective
Description of the problem includes particular important points
such as the hypothesis concerning the research, main
treatments, and explanation of the location and scope of the
study. Problem description should be done on specific terms
other than general terms. Research objectives are the
descriptions what researchers expect to achieve at the end of the
study (David, 2011). The objectives in this case are determined
through looking at the kind of research that needs be done as
well as information that should be obtained by the study. The
kind of questions and subjects of study are the important factors
for determining the research objective

20. *
Examples on How Samples can be usedSamples are used when
collecting data to represent the entire population. For instance,
collecting sample data through observing a particular group of
people so as to help in making inferences concerning the
general population.
Some of the information such as individual opinions can be
obtained through sampling (opinions of college students) to
give a bigger picture concerning the popularity of particular
political candidate among the youths among others.
*
Definition of Limitations of Research and ExampleResearch
limitations refers to shortcomings or influences that put
restriction to the methodology and conclusion of a research yet
the researcher has no control over such issues (David,
2011).Some of the areas that can be used to identity limitations
include the analysis, choice of date collection methods, nature
of self-reporting, nature of the samples (scope) used in the
experiment as well as the time limit. An example of a research
limitation is on a study that is done in a particular city
involving men is subjected to limitations such as gender,
sample size as well as the location.

21. *
Example of Diagram and Chart
The percentage of new students who joins different sports in
their school each year
Example of number of cars sold within particular period
*
Conclusion
Most of the research studies have gaps which need to be
foundation for conducting other studies in the future.When
mentioning limitations the researcher should state the choices
*
Recommendations
Every researcher should strive to reduce the scope of limitations
during the study. Every researcher should follow all the
necessary steps when doing a research in order to have a
comprehensive research study.

22. *
References Bryman, A. (2008). Social research methods, 4th
edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Schindler, P., & Cooper, D. (2014). Business research
Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill. David, S.(2011).
Qualitative research: Issues of Theory, method and
practice, 3rd edition. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
*
Research Methodologies 1
Research Methodologies
1. Observation: is the systematic research methodology
involving observing a given species, recording and analyzing
the behavior of individuals or the object under study. It is time
consuming since a researcher has to interact with the people
he/she observes.
2. Face-to-face interview: involves conducting an interview on
one-on-one basis with a respondent. The method is appropriate
in enabling a researcher get immediate feedback from a
respondent and even observe the facial expression of the
respondent as they answer questions.
3. Telephone interview: involves conducting an interview with a
respondent through the telephone. This method is less
expensive, less time consuming and a researcher accesses
anyone who has a telephone.
4. Computer assisted personal interview: this research method is

23. a form of personal interviewing with the only difference being
that a respondent has to bring a laptop or a computer so as to
enter their information in a database directly.
5. Focus groups: this type of research data collection method is
appropriate in exploring a topic further so as to provide a
broader understanding of why a given targeted group thinks or
behaves in certain way (Gill et al., 291).
6. Case studies: this method is applied when a researcher is
trying to ascertain the extreme conditions that can or cannot be
met under a given circumstance. Under this method, all cases
are given the same starting point and then a sample of cases is
used to help justify why a given phenomenon holds.
7. Self-Studies: this methodology involves the process of
studying an individual’s behavior as a representation of others.
A researcher may study their personal sleeping habits so as to
represent the habits of other people who have the same traits as
them. The method is, however, unreliable since a researcher
might produce a biased opinion about themselves.
8. Ethnography: is a research methodology that involves
scientific research studies of the daily lives of a given society.
9. Action research: involves in-depth investigation and analysis
that aims at diagnosing a problem affecting an organization.
10. Census: is the process of obtaining data from an entire
population under study. A census offers accurate and reliable
data since chances of errors are extremely low due to the
incorporation of the entire population understudy.
11. Sample survey: refers to the use of a given sample from an
entire population as a representation of a general population
under study. This method is appropriate in areas where the
population to be studied is so large such that a researcher and
the research has no time and resource to conduct a full study on
the entire population.
12. Experiments: this is a controlled study that attempts to help
a researcher understand the cause-effect relationship of a given
object under study.
13. Casual inferences: Involves the use of scientific

24. experimentation guidelines so as to understand the cause-effect
relationship of randomly assigned subjects from a given group
or population.
14. Documentation: involves providing substantial descriptions
that are essential in further exploring a given subject under
study by a researcher.
15. Creative strategy: involves the use of electronic data
sources such as video as alternative research methodologies.
16. Triangulation: this method involves the use of multiple
research methodologies so as to enhance the validity of the data
under study. The process can involve the use of observation,
focus groups, and even in-depth interviews as a way of
investigating the reliability of given data.
17. Paper-pencil questionnaire: involves the process of an
individual answering questions presented by a researcher. The
method is convenient since questionnaires can be sent to a large
number of people, thus, saving a researcher’s time and money.
18. Web-based questionnaire: this is a more modern method of
questionnaire in which the respondents receive and answer
questionnaires through the internet (Gosling et al. 93). The
method is quicker but can only be used by respondents who are
computer literate.
19. Secondary data methods: involves the use of already
existing sources of data such as archives, books, census data,
and other government sources. The use of secondary data
sources enables a researcher to access data with much ease
without necessarily going to the field (Hox and Hennie 593).
Works Cited
Gill, Paul, et al. "Methods of data collection in qualitative
research: interviews and focus groups." British dental
journal 204.6 (2008): 291-295.

25. Gosling, Samuel D., et al. "Should we trust web-based studies?
A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about internet
questionnaires." American Psychologist 59.2 (2004): 93.
Hox, Joop J., and Hennie R. Boeije. "Data collection, primary
vs. secondary." Encyclopedia of social measurement 1.1 (2005):
593-599.