The Brief RCOPE is a 14-item short form of the longer RCOPE measure of religious coping. It assesses two overarching forms of religious coping - positive religious coping and negative religious coping. Positive religious coping reflects a secure relationship with God and spiritual support, while negative religious coping reflects spiritual struggles and tensions. Studies have found the Brief RCOPE has good internal consistency and construct validity. In particular, the negative religious coping subscale has been shown to predict various health outcomes. The Brief RCOPE provides a concise way to measure religious coping in research and clinical settings.
This document provides an agenda and resources for a legal marketing masterclass on standing out on social media platforms like TikTok, Facebook, and Instagram. The agenda includes introducing the panelists, conducting polls of the audience, discussing trends in legal social media, sharing resources, and providing accessibility advice. The panelists are from Clio and other legal marketing firms. They discuss best practices for different platforms, templates for social media posts, personalizing law firm accounts, attorney practices, popular video trends, and ways to get referrals. The document also promotes Clio's legal software offerings and additional resources.
Social media marketing strategy for Restaurants in Middle Eastsebastiantwinkle
An attempt to put a framework on social media marketing for restaurants in Middle east. The frame work comprises of Social Media Objectives
Social Media Audit
Voice & tone confirmation
Identifying target
Competition analysis
Focused Channels
Channel Tactics
Content Strategy
Budgeting & Resourcing
Action Plan
Review, corrections & adjusting
Also insights are backed up with data and dashboards.
Kathleen M Andrews has over 15 years of experience in customer service roles. She has worked as a Direct Service Representative at American Girl for 3 seasons and previously as a Customer Care Representative at Doheny Enterprises. Prior to that, she was an Order Processor at American Girl for over 4 years. She is proficient in using computers and responding to customers via phone, email and live chat.
The document discusses the role of educational technology in 21st century education. It notes that educational technology can help analyze the teaching-learning process, improve teaching and learning, enhance educational goals, train teachers, develop curricula and teaching materials, identify strategies, develop audio-visual aids, and identify community needs. It emphasizes that educational technology supports more rigorous, relevant, and engaging learning opportunities for students to apply their knowledge.
Ensayo''formación de alumnos para el futuro''karinaabc
El documento trata sobre la importancia de que los docentes utilicen la tecnología en sus procesos pedagógicos para formar estudiantes preparados para el futuro. Vivemos en un mundo que cambia constantemente debido a la globalización y el uso cada vez más común de la tecnología. Por lo tanto, los docentes deben capacitarse continuamente en el uso de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación para poder enseñar efectivamente y preparar a los estudiantes para que sean miembros productivos de la sociedad.
This document provides an introduction to analyzing Neil Gaiman's graphic novel The Sandman using principles from Horace's Ars Poetica as a framework. It summarizes the key topics covered in the Ars Poetica that will be used for analysis. These include the use of language and technique, artistic handling of literary material, dramatic and visual presentation, and the role of the poet. The document argues that while comics were once seen as trivial, The Sandman demonstrates their ability for serious literary discourse, and the Ars Poetica continues to provide relevant aesthetic principles despite its age.
Nashville DevFest '17 - When To Go Native (Jonathan Wiley, LunarLincoln)Jonathan Wiley
Developers have many options when building mobile apps. Learn what sets native apps apart from cross platform and hybrid solutions. In this presentation we’ll explore the pros and cons of each to help you decide which approach is best for your next project, and when you need to go native.
The document discusses the role of educational technology in 21st century education. It notes that educational technology can help analyze the teaching-learning process, improve teaching and learning, enhance educational goals, train teachers, develop curricula and teaching materials, identify strategies, develop audio-visual aids, and identify community needs. It emphasizes that educational technology supports more rigorous, relevant, and engaging learning opportunities for students to apply their knowledge.
This document provides an agenda and resources for a legal marketing masterclass on standing out on social media platforms like TikTok, Facebook, and Instagram. The agenda includes introducing the panelists, conducting polls of the audience, discussing trends in legal social media, sharing resources, and providing accessibility advice. The panelists are from Clio and other legal marketing firms. They discuss best practices for different platforms, templates for social media posts, personalizing law firm accounts, attorney practices, popular video trends, and ways to get referrals. The document also promotes Clio's legal software offerings and additional resources.
Social media marketing strategy for Restaurants in Middle Eastsebastiantwinkle
An attempt to put a framework on social media marketing for restaurants in Middle east. The frame work comprises of Social Media Objectives
Social Media Audit
Voice & tone confirmation
Identifying target
Competition analysis
Focused Channels
Channel Tactics
Content Strategy
Budgeting & Resourcing
Action Plan
Review, corrections & adjusting
Also insights are backed up with data and dashboards.
Kathleen M Andrews has over 15 years of experience in customer service roles. She has worked as a Direct Service Representative at American Girl for 3 seasons and previously as a Customer Care Representative at Doheny Enterprises. Prior to that, she was an Order Processor at American Girl for over 4 years. She is proficient in using computers and responding to customers via phone, email and live chat.
The document discusses the role of educational technology in 21st century education. It notes that educational technology can help analyze the teaching-learning process, improve teaching and learning, enhance educational goals, train teachers, develop curricula and teaching materials, identify strategies, develop audio-visual aids, and identify community needs. It emphasizes that educational technology supports more rigorous, relevant, and engaging learning opportunities for students to apply their knowledge.
Ensayo''formación de alumnos para el futuro''karinaabc
El documento trata sobre la importancia de que los docentes utilicen la tecnología en sus procesos pedagógicos para formar estudiantes preparados para el futuro. Vivemos en un mundo que cambia constantemente debido a la globalización y el uso cada vez más común de la tecnología. Por lo tanto, los docentes deben capacitarse continuamente en el uso de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación para poder enseñar efectivamente y preparar a los estudiantes para que sean miembros productivos de la sociedad.
This document provides an introduction to analyzing Neil Gaiman's graphic novel The Sandman using principles from Horace's Ars Poetica as a framework. It summarizes the key topics covered in the Ars Poetica that will be used for analysis. These include the use of language and technique, artistic handling of literary material, dramatic and visual presentation, and the role of the poet. The document argues that while comics were once seen as trivial, The Sandman demonstrates their ability for serious literary discourse, and the Ars Poetica continues to provide relevant aesthetic principles despite its age.
Nashville DevFest '17 - When To Go Native (Jonathan Wiley, LunarLincoln)Jonathan Wiley
Developers have many options when building mobile apps. Learn what sets native apps apart from cross platform and hybrid solutions. In this presentation we’ll explore the pros and cons of each to help you decide which approach is best for your next project, and when you need to go native.
The document discusses the role of educational technology in 21st century education. It notes that educational technology can help analyze the teaching-learning process, improve teaching and learning, enhance educational goals, train teachers, develop curricula and teaching materials, identify strategies, develop audio-visual aids, and identify community needs. It emphasizes that educational technology supports more rigorous, relevant, and engaging learning opportunities for students to apply their knowledge.
The document provides information about the Indus Valley civilization, including its emergence around 2500 BCE in the Indus River valley region of South Asia. It describes the geography of the Indian subcontinent and key features like the Indus and Ganges rivers. Details are given about the sophisticated cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, their urban planning and infrastructure. The document also notes that little is known about Indus society due to the undeciphered writing system and discusses theories for the civilization's decline, including invasion by outsiders like the Aryans.
During Greece's Golden Age, advances were made in drama, mathematics, science, sculpture, history, and philosophy. In drama, Aeschylus wrote the first great tragedies including Oresteia, while Sophocles and Euripides also wrote tragedies. Aristophanes wrote the first great comedies. In history, Herodotus and Thucydides developed new standards for gathering evidence and rejecting mythology. In philosophy, Socrates used questioning to encourage examination of beliefs, while his students Plato and Aristotle founded schools and wrote works on political systems and logic. Contemporaries also made breakthroughs in medicine with Hippocrates, geometry with Euclid, mechanics with Archimedes,
Classical Indian civilization began in the Indus River Valley and spread throughout the subcontinent facilitated by geographic barriers that made invasion difficult. Indo-European Aryans migrated into the region, blending their beliefs with indigenous peoples and establishing the caste system and Hinduism as the dominant religion. Hinduism and the caste system shaped Indian society and culture and influenced neighboring regions through trade routes.
Ancient Egypt developed along the fertile banks of the Nile River from around 5000 BCE. The annual flooding of the Nile provided rich soil for agriculture and allowed Egyptians to develop irrigation canals to increase farmland. By 3000 BCE, towns and cities had emerged along the Nile, with Egypt becoming a core civilization in the Mediterranean region. The Old Kingdom period from 2660-2160 BCE saw the rise of a strong central government and construction of pyramids. The Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom periods saw further cultural and artistic advances as well as military expansion. Egyptian society was organized into a rigid class structure with some rights and roles for women. Egypt had a polytheistic religion and positive views of the afterlife
The document lists the major empires that ruled in Mesopotamia from 3500 B.C. to 330 B.C., including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians. It provides some key details about each empire, such as the Hittites being the first to use iron weapons, the Assyrians having a powerful military and conquering large areas, and the Persians adopting a tolerant ruling strategy allowing conquered peoples to keep their cultures. Frequent changes in ruling powers suggest this region was strategically important but also unstable, with empires rising and falling over millennia as new groups asserted control through military dominance
The Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties dominated early Chinese history. [1] The Zhou dynasty established feudalism and saw technological advances like iron and silk production. [2] It declined as regional kings fought for power. [3] The Qin dynasty then unified China under Qin Shihuangdi, establishing reforms like standardized currency and written language while connecting the Great Wall and building the Terra Cotta Army.
The Persian Empire was created by Cyrus the Great, who conquered a vast region from India to Anatolia. Under Darius I, the empire was divided into 20 provinces which allowed subject peoples to maintain their own laws, religion, and languages. This established a model of imperial rule based on tolerance of local customs. However, the Persians' failure to conquer Greece also marked the limits of their power.
The Shang Dynasty emerged in China between 1532-1027 BC. They were the first documented Chinese dynasty and established their main capital at Anyang. Cities were protected by earthen walls and consisted of mostly wooden structures and homes. Society was sharply divided into social classes ruled by a warrior king. The king's authority was believed to come from heaven through the Mandate of Heaven, and dynasties would rise and fall in a dynastic cycle. Writing first developed through oracle bones where priests would interpret cracks made by heat on bones or shells that kings used to consult with gods.
The document provides background information on ancient Rome and its rise as an empire. It discusses how Rome's geographic location along the Tiber River in the Italian peninsula, protected by the sea and Alps mountains, was important to its economic, social, and political development. This protected location allowed Rome to expand unopposed and engage in thriving sea trade. The legend of Romulus and Remus founding Rome on the Palatine Hill is also mentioned. Maps show Rome's location and trade routes throughout Europe, Asia, Africa and the Mediterranean world that contributed to Rome's growth as a major power.
Here are some key points that could be made about what makes humans and societies "civilized":
- Permanent settlements as opposed to nomadic lifestyles. Living in one place allows for more complex social organization and specialization of labor.
- Agriculture and food production. A reliable food source supports larger, more complex populations.
- Advanced tools and technology. The development of tools like plows, pottery, wheels, etc. improves standards of living.
- Formal social hierarchies and government. More complex social structures with defined roles like leaders, priests, artisans.
- Cultural achievements. Monuments, art, writing systems, advanced skills in areas like math, science that demonstrate intellectual/c
The document provides an overview of ancient Greece from the Minoans and Mycenaeans to the rise of Alexander the Great. It discusses key periods and events, including the development of Greek city-states and governments, the Persian Wars between Greece and Persia in the 5th century BC, and the influence of geography on Greek trade and colonization. Major city-states like Athens and Sparta are compared in terms of their governments, societies, and roles in conflicts like the Persian Wars. The document also introduces Greek mythology and its lasting impacts.
Recovery: Job Growth and Education Requirements Through 2020CEW Georgetown
Recovery: Job Growth and Education Requirements Through 2020: Projections of jobs and education requirements through 2020. This report shows where the jobs will be by education level, occupation and industry. Recovery 2020 is an update to our Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements Through 2018.
- The gig economy as currently defined will not last long term, as tasks like ridesharing and delivery are likely to be automated. However, skilled professionals using platforms like Thumbtack to find clients will persist and proliferate.
- Technology is empowering skilled tradespeople by allowing them to connect directly with customers and run their businesses more efficiently without traditional employers. Skilled professionals are less reliant on college degrees and are building middle-class lifestyles through online skills marketplaces.
- Policymakers should support independent workers through policies that provide safety nets and make it easier for skilled professionals to succeed without full-time employment.
RELIGION, RELIGIOSITY AND SPIRITUALITY IN THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF HEALTH...Masa Nakata
This document summarizes research on the relationship between religiosity, spirituality, and health outcomes in older adults. It finds that religiosity and religious coping increase with age, and are linked to better mental health outcomes like well-being and lower depression. Studies also associate religiosity with better physical health and lower mortality. However, the exact nature of the relationship is complex, with open questions around causality and possible psychological or social factors that may mediate the effects.
The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale (DSES) is a 16-item self-report measure designed to assess ordinary spiritual experiences in daily life, including constructs like awe, gratitude, compassion, and inner peace. It was developed using qualitative testing with diverse groups. Psychometric analyses show it has high reliability and validity. The scale captures a single factor of daily spiritual experience. It has been widely used in over 70 published studies and translated into many languages for use in diverse cultures.
Caregivers of persons with Alzheimer's disease and related disorders frequently use prayer and religious coping. They perceive prayer and trusting in God as effective coping mechanisms. The majority of caregivers in the study used internal religious activities like prayer to help them cope with the stresses of caregiving.
The document summarizes the development and testing of the Spiritual Health And Life-Orientation Measure (SHALOM), a 20-item questionnaire for assessing spiritual well-being. SHALOM is based on a Four Domains Model of spiritual health that includes personal, communal, environmental, and transcendental domains. It was developed through extensive statistical testing and has been used with diverse populations. Research has shown SHALOM to be a valid and reliable tool for measuring spiritual well-being in a short amount of time across different cultures and religions.
This document discusses five different spiritual assessment methods: spiritual histories, spiritual lifemaps, spiritual genograms, spiritual ecomaps, and spiritual ecograms. Spiritual histories involve verbally guiding clients through questions about their spiritual journey and beliefs. Spiritual lifemaps are pictorial representations of a client's spiritual life over time depicted as a path. Spiritual genograms show spiritual influences and relationships across generations. Spiritual ecomaps and ecograms diagram spiritual connections between a client and their community or environment. The article reviews the strengths and limitations of each approach to help social workers select the most appropriate assessment method for a given client.
This document provides an overview of an online course on spirituality from the Touro Institute. It discusses how spirituality is a multidimensional concept that is important to health and well-being. The course aims to define spirituality, discuss theories and stages of spiritual development, and explain the connection between spirituality and healing. It also outlines the learning objectives for participants to understand the physical, psychological and spiritual dimensions and how spirituality relates to theories, definitions, elements, development stages and health.
This study examined the relationship between centrality of religion and spiritual growth following trauma. 250 participants completed surveys measuring religiosity (Centrality of Religiosity Scale) and posttraumatic growth (Posttraumatic Growth Inventory). Eight new items were added to the PTGI to better assess spiritual growth. A composite score of the 10 spiritual growth items showed high internal consistency. Higher scores on private religious practice and religious experience dimensions of the CRS predicted greater spiritual growth following trauma, while higher scores on the ideology dimension predicted less spiritual growth. The results provide support for expanding the assessment of spiritual growth within the study of posttraumatic growth.
The document describes two self-report measures of spiritual well-being: the Spiritual Well-Being Scale and the Spirituality Index of Well-Being. The Spiritual Well-Being Scale is a 20-item measure with two subscales assessing religious and existential well-being. The Spirituality Index of Well-Being is a 12-item measure defining spirituality as meaning/purpose from a transcendent source, with subscales on self-efficacy and life scheme. Several studies validating these measures and examining their relationships to health and well-being are also summarized.
This study aimed to expand the assessment of spiritual growth in the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) by developing additional spirituality items. Researchers administered a survey including the PTGI, eight new spiritual growth items, and the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS) to 250 participants who had experienced a traumatic event. Correlational and regression analyses identified a five-item composite with good reliability and validity, including items related to private religious practice and spiritual experience in the CRS. The results support expanding the PTGI's measurement of spiritual growth with these new items.
The document provides information about the Indus Valley civilization, including its emergence around 2500 BCE in the Indus River valley region of South Asia. It describes the geography of the Indian subcontinent and key features like the Indus and Ganges rivers. Details are given about the sophisticated cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, their urban planning and infrastructure. The document also notes that little is known about Indus society due to the undeciphered writing system and discusses theories for the civilization's decline, including invasion by outsiders like the Aryans.
During Greece's Golden Age, advances were made in drama, mathematics, science, sculpture, history, and philosophy. In drama, Aeschylus wrote the first great tragedies including Oresteia, while Sophocles and Euripides also wrote tragedies. Aristophanes wrote the first great comedies. In history, Herodotus and Thucydides developed new standards for gathering evidence and rejecting mythology. In philosophy, Socrates used questioning to encourage examination of beliefs, while his students Plato and Aristotle founded schools and wrote works on political systems and logic. Contemporaries also made breakthroughs in medicine with Hippocrates, geometry with Euclid, mechanics with Archimedes,
Classical Indian civilization began in the Indus River Valley and spread throughout the subcontinent facilitated by geographic barriers that made invasion difficult. Indo-European Aryans migrated into the region, blending their beliefs with indigenous peoples and establishing the caste system and Hinduism as the dominant religion. Hinduism and the caste system shaped Indian society and culture and influenced neighboring regions through trade routes.
Ancient Egypt developed along the fertile banks of the Nile River from around 5000 BCE. The annual flooding of the Nile provided rich soil for agriculture and allowed Egyptians to develop irrigation canals to increase farmland. By 3000 BCE, towns and cities had emerged along the Nile, with Egypt becoming a core civilization in the Mediterranean region. The Old Kingdom period from 2660-2160 BCE saw the rise of a strong central government and construction of pyramids. The Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom periods saw further cultural and artistic advances as well as military expansion. Egyptian society was organized into a rigid class structure with some rights and roles for women. Egypt had a polytheistic religion and positive views of the afterlife
The document lists the major empires that ruled in Mesopotamia from 3500 B.C. to 330 B.C., including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians. It provides some key details about each empire, such as the Hittites being the first to use iron weapons, the Assyrians having a powerful military and conquering large areas, and the Persians adopting a tolerant ruling strategy allowing conquered peoples to keep their cultures. Frequent changes in ruling powers suggest this region was strategically important but also unstable, with empires rising and falling over millennia as new groups asserted control through military dominance
The Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties dominated early Chinese history. [1] The Zhou dynasty established feudalism and saw technological advances like iron and silk production. [2] It declined as regional kings fought for power. [3] The Qin dynasty then unified China under Qin Shihuangdi, establishing reforms like standardized currency and written language while connecting the Great Wall and building the Terra Cotta Army.
The Persian Empire was created by Cyrus the Great, who conquered a vast region from India to Anatolia. Under Darius I, the empire was divided into 20 provinces which allowed subject peoples to maintain their own laws, religion, and languages. This established a model of imperial rule based on tolerance of local customs. However, the Persians' failure to conquer Greece also marked the limits of their power.
The Shang Dynasty emerged in China between 1532-1027 BC. They were the first documented Chinese dynasty and established their main capital at Anyang. Cities were protected by earthen walls and consisted of mostly wooden structures and homes. Society was sharply divided into social classes ruled by a warrior king. The king's authority was believed to come from heaven through the Mandate of Heaven, and dynasties would rise and fall in a dynastic cycle. Writing first developed through oracle bones where priests would interpret cracks made by heat on bones or shells that kings used to consult with gods.
The document provides background information on ancient Rome and its rise as an empire. It discusses how Rome's geographic location along the Tiber River in the Italian peninsula, protected by the sea and Alps mountains, was important to its economic, social, and political development. This protected location allowed Rome to expand unopposed and engage in thriving sea trade. The legend of Romulus and Remus founding Rome on the Palatine Hill is also mentioned. Maps show Rome's location and trade routes throughout Europe, Asia, Africa and the Mediterranean world that contributed to Rome's growth as a major power.
Here are some key points that could be made about what makes humans and societies "civilized":
- Permanent settlements as opposed to nomadic lifestyles. Living in one place allows for more complex social organization and specialization of labor.
- Agriculture and food production. A reliable food source supports larger, more complex populations.
- Advanced tools and technology. The development of tools like plows, pottery, wheels, etc. improves standards of living.
- Formal social hierarchies and government. More complex social structures with defined roles like leaders, priests, artisans.
- Cultural achievements. Monuments, art, writing systems, advanced skills in areas like math, science that demonstrate intellectual/c
The document provides an overview of ancient Greece from the Minoans and Mycenaeans to the rise of Alexander the Great. It discusses key periods and events, including the development of Greek city-states and governments, the Persian Wars between Greece and Persia in the 5th century BC, and the influence of geography on Greek trade and colonization. Major city-states like Athens and Sparta are compared in terms of their governments, societies, and roles in conflicts like the Persian Wars. The document also introduces Greek mythology and its lasting impacts.
Recovery: Job Growth and Education Requirements Through 2020CEW Georgetown
Recovery: Job Growth and Education Requirements Through 2020: Projections of jobs and education requirements through 2020. This report shows where the jobs will be by education level, occupation and industry. Recovery 2020 is an update to our Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements Through 2018.
- The gig economy as currently defined will not last long term, as tasks like ridesharing and delivery are likely to be automated. However, skilled professionals using platforms like Thumbtack to find clients will persist and proliferate.
- Technology is empowering skilled tradespeople by allowing them to connect directly with customers and run their businesses more efficiently without traditional employers. Skilled professionals are less reliant on college degrees and are building middle-class lifestyles through online skills marketplaces.
- Policymakers should support independent workers through policies that provide safety nets and make it easier for skilled professionals to succeed without full-time employment.
RELIGION, RELIGIOSITY AND SPIRITUALITY IN THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF HEALTH...Masa Nakata
This document summarizes research on the relationship between religiosity, spirituality, and health outcomes in older adults. It finds that religiosity and religious coping increase with age, and are linked to better mental health outcomes like well-being and lower depression. Studies also associate religiosity with better physical health and lower mortality. However, the exact nature of the relationship is complex, with open questions around causality and possible psychological or social factors that may mediate the effects.
The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale (DSES) is a 16-item self-report measure designed to assess ordinary spiritual experiences in daily life, including constructs like awe, gratitude, compassion, and inner peace. It was developed using qualitative testing with diverse groups. Psychometric analyses show it has high reliability and validity. The scale captures a single factor of daily spiritual experience. It has been widely used in over 70 published studies and translated into many languages for use in diverse cultures.
Caregivers of persons with Alzheimer's disease and related disorders frequently use prayer and religious coping. They perceive prayer and trusting in God as effective coping mechanisms. The majority of caregivers in the study used internal religious activities like prayer to help them cope with the stresses of caregiving.
The document summarizes the development and testing of the Spiritual Health And Life-Orientation Measure (SHALOM), a 20-item questionnaire for assessing spiritual well-being. SHALOM is based on a Four Domains Model of spiritual health that includes personal, communal, environmental, and transcendental domains. It was developed through extensive statistical testing and has been used with diverse populations. Research has shown SHALOM to be a valid and reliable tool for measuring spiritual well-being in a short amount of time across different cultures and religions.
This document discusses five different spiritual assessment methods: spiritual histories, spiritual lifemaps, spiritual genograms, spiritual ecomaps, and spiritual ecograms. Spiritual histories involve verbally guiding clients through questions about their spiritual journey and beliefs. Spiritual lifemaps are pictorial representations of a client's spiritual life over time depicted as a path. Spiritual genograms show spiritual influences and relationships across generations. Spiritual ecomaps and ecograms diagram spiritual connections between a client and their community or environment. The article reviews the strengths and limitations of each approach to help social workers select the most appropriate assessment method for a given client.
This document provides an overview of an online course on spirituality from the Touro Institute. It discusses how spirituality is a multidimensional concept that is important to health and well-being. The course aims to define spirituality, discuss theories and stages of spiritual development, and explain the connection between spirituality and healing. It also outlines the learning objectives for participants to understand the physical, psychological and spiritual dimensions and how spirituality relates to theories, definitions, elements, development stages and health.
This study examined the relationship between centrality of religion and spiritual growth following trauma. 250 participants completed surveys measuring religiosity (Centrality of Religiosity Scale) and posttraumatic growth (Posttraumatic Growth Inventory). Eight new items were added to the PTGI to better assess spiritual growth. A composite score of the 10 spiritual growth items showed high internal consistency. Higher scores on private religious practice and religious experience dimensions of the CRS predicted greater spiritual growth following trauma, while higher scores on the ideology dimension predicted less spiritual growth. The results provide support for expanding the assessment of spiritual growth within the study of posttraumatic growth.
The document describes two self-report measures of spiritual well-being: the Spiritual Well-Being Scale and the Spirituality Index of Well-Being. The Spiritual Well-Being Scale is a 20-item measure with two subscales assessing religious and existential well-being. The Spirituality Index of Well-Being is a 12-item measure defining spirituality as meaning/purpose from a transcendent source, with subscales on self-efficacy and life scheme. Several studies validating these measures and examining their relationships to health and well-being are also summarized.
This study aimed to expand the assessment of spiritual growth in the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) by developing additional spirituality items. Researchers administered a survey including the PTGI, eight new spiritual growth items, and the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS) to 250 participants who had experienced a traumatic event. Correlational and regression analyses identified a five-item composite with good reliability and validity, including items related to private religious practice and spiritual experience in the CRS. The results support expanding the PTGI's measurement of spiritual growth with these new items.
Objective: Spirituality has been shown to be associated with various aspects of health. It has also been discussed as an aid in coping with adversities.
Methods: The present investigation examined four dimensions of spirituality – belief in God, mindfulness, quest for meaning and feeling of security – as possible mediators between childhood adversities and adult adaptation. Two samples of n ≈ 500 were examined via internet in a retrospective survey.
Results: Two pathways from childhood to adult adaptation via spirituality were detected, one via mindfulness and one via feeling of security. Both pathways began at maternal love, the opposite of emotional neglect. Childhood abuse or physical neglect was not associated with the development of spirituality. Associations were not only linear in nature, but also displayed interactions.
Objective: Spirituality has been shown to be associated with various aspects of health. It has also been discussed as an aid in coping with adversities.
Methods: The present investigation examined four dimensions of spirituality – belief in God, mindfulness, quest for meaning and feeling of security – as possible mediators between childhood adversities and adult adaptation. Two samples of n ≈ 500 were examined via internet in a retrospective survey.
Religion And Disability Clinical, Research And Training Considerations For ...Masa Nakata
This document reviews existing research on the relationships between spirituality, religion, and health for individuals with disabilities. It finds that religion and spirituality are important coping strategies for people with disabilities, but are rarely discussed in rehabilitation settings or research. The review provides practical suggestions for rehabilitation professionals on how to enhance religious coping strategies, train on religious issues, and conduct future research on rehabilitation and religion.
This document provides a summary of a critical review of a spirituality intervention developed by the author. It describes the development of the intervention which was grounded in research linking spirituality to improved health outcomes in patients with chronic illnesses. It then outlines a four-phase research model used to test the intervention with various clinical and non-clinical populations. The findings from these studies are reported to be mixed, with some preliminary studies showing benefits but subsequent clinical trials showing limited effects. The author discusses implications for further research on developing and testing spiritual interventions.
This document summarizes a proposed study on the impact of spirituality on counseling for families experiencing cancer in the Kentucky-Tennessee region. The study would use a mixed methods approach, beginning with a standardized spirituality assessment and then conducting semi-structured interviews to describe participants' perceptions of spirituality in their own words. Previous research has found that spirituality plays an important role in coping and quality of life for cancer patients and their families, but definitions and understandings of spirituality vary widely. The goal of this study is to better understand how spirituality impacts counseling needs for families dealing with cancer in this region. Participants would include cancer patients and their immediate family members from several treatment centers in Kentucky and Tennessee.
This document provides an overview of spiritual development in children and youth. It discusses definitions of spirituality, perspectives on spiritual development, and Fowler's stages of faith development. Spirituality deals with how people approach life's unknowns and relate to what is sacred. While difficult to define, it involves finding meaning and connecting to oneself, others, nature, or a higher power. Spiritual development is influenced by factors like relationships, critical thinking, and independence from authority.
Through a discussion of current research, the article highlights the psychological and physical benefits of spiritual/religious practices. Such practices are shown to positively influence lifestyle habits like diet and alcohol use from a young age. They also provide a strong support system through religious communities. Overall, spiritual/religious practices throughout life are found to positively impact health and well-being.
This document discusses the relationship between ethics and religion. It explores different perspectives on whether ethics requires religion or if they are separate concepts. Some key points made include:
- Ethics examines questions of how humans should behave and what is right/wrong, while religion provides meaning and belief in supernatural powers. Though related, they are not identical.
- Many religions see morality as derived from divine commands from God. However, ethics can also be explored through sacred texts and religious authorities without direct revelation.
- While religion may encourage ethical behavior through teachings and community, one does not need to be religious to live ethically. Secular philosophies also explore morality.
- Different views are presented with some arguing ethics depends
The ethical use of Supervision to facilitate the Integra.docxcherry686017
The ethical use of
Supervision to facilitate
the Integration of Spirituality
in Social Work Practice
Jerry Jo M. Gilham
Although the use of spirituality and religiosity in social work intervention has
been growing over the past few decades, little information is available regard-
ing the supervisor’s contribution to this process. This article outlines some of
the difficulties inherent in the process and recommends twelve tasks required
of supervisors in facilitating the effective integration of spirituality in social
work practice. It also explores how each of these tasks relates to social work
values, ethics, and principles. Finally, it identifies policy implications related
to this process.
S
ince the 1980s, the social work profession has experienced a
renewed interest in spirituality and religion (Canda & Furman, 1999).
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics
mandates that social workers obtain education about and seek to understand
the nature of diversity and oppression with respect to religion (NASW,
2008). Current Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) standards re-
quire schools of social work to demonstrate their commitment to diversity
throughout their curriculum. Furthermore, graduates must demonstrate
competence in engaging diversity and difference in practice (CSWE, 2008).
While numerous definitions are offered for spirituality, religion, and
faith, no universally accepted definitions exist, and the terms are often
used interchangeably. Holloway and Moss (2010), as well as Spencer
(1961), one of the earliest social workers to offer a definition of spiritual-
ity, explain that spirituality is a broad concept that can include religion,
but also has a secular appeal. Canda (1997) offers the following definition,
Social Work & Christianity, Vol. 39, No. 3 (2012), 255–272
Journal of the North American Association of Christians in Social Work
ARTICLeS
SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY256
which embraces these ideas. He defines spirituality as a search for purpose,
meaning, and connection between oneself, other people, the universe and
the ultimate reality, which can be experienced within either a religious or
a nonreligious framework. A religious person, according to Hugen (2001,
p. 13), is one who belongs to or identifies with a religious group; accepts
and is committed to the beliefs, values, and doctrines of the group; and
participates in the required practices, ceremonies, and rituals of the chosen
group. Various social work authors, including Derezotes (2006), Canda
and Furman (2010), and Holloway and Moss (2010) have discussed the
ritualistic as well as the social aspects of religion. Faith, according to Fowler
(1981), must be understood in order to comprehend a person’s relationship
with the transcendent. He identifies three components of faith, including
centers of value, images of power, and master stories. Spirituality serves
as a more encompassing term (Rose ...
Journal of Psychology and Christianity2007, Vol. 26, No. 2.docxpriestmanmable
Journal of Psychology and Christianity
2007, Vol. 26, No. 2, 101-111
Copyright 2007 Christian Association for Psychological Studies
ISSN 0733-4273
Use of Prayer and Scripture in
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Siang-Yang Tan
Graduate School of Psychology
Fuller Theological Seminary
This article covers the appropriate and ethical use of prayer including inner healing prayer, and Scripture
in a Christian approach to cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), Expanded CBT now includes Mindfulness-
Based Cognitive Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, and Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Implicit
and explicit integration in therapy are briefly described, A composite clinical case example is included to
illustrate how prayer and Scripture can be explicitly used in Christian CBT, Results of outcome studies on
the efficacy of religiously-oriented CBT are also briefly mentioned.
Cogntive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is one of
the most empirically supported treatments (ESTs)
available for a wide variety of psychological dis-
orders (Chambless & Ollendick, 2001; see also
Butler, Chapman, Forman, & Beck, 2006; Nathan
& Gorman, in press; Roth & Fonagy, 2005; Tan,
2001a), It should be noted however, that a more
recent randomized placebo-controlled trial of
behavioral activation, cognitive therapy and
antidepressant medication (paroxetine) with 241
aduit patients with major depressive disorder
(MDD) found that for severely depressed aduits,
behavioral activation is as efficacious as antide-
pressant medication and more efficacious than
cognitive therapy (Dimidjian, et al,, 2006),
Empirically supported therapy relationships
(ESRs) and empirically supported principles of
therapeutic change (ESPs) have also been more
recently emphasized in addition to ESTs, In fact,
evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP)
presently focuses not only on the best available
research, but also on therapist clinical expertise,
and client characteristics, culture, and prefer-
ences (see Tan, 2007),
Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda and Lillis (2006)
recently pointed out that a historical overview of
behavior therapy can be divided into three
major generations or waves: the first generation
or wave consisted of traditional behavior thera-
py; the second generation or wave consisted of
CBT (which is now more than 30 years old); the
third generation or wave presently consists of
relatively contextualistic approaches such as
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT;
Please address all correspondence to: Siang-Yang Tan,
Ph,D,, Professor of Psychology, Graduate School of
Psychology, Fuller Theological Seminary, 180 N, Oak-
land Avenue, Pasadena, CA 91101.
Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999), Mindfulness-
Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT; Segal,
Williams, & Teasdale, 2002), and Dialectical
Behavior Therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993), CBT
today has therefore been expanded to include
such mindfulness and acceptance-based thera-
pies as ACT, MBCT, and DBT (Hayes, FoUete, &
Linehan, 2004), Bishop et al, (2004 ...
"The rise of black power had a profound effect upon the appearance of black theology. When Carmichael and other radical black activists separated themselves from King's absolute commitment to nonviolence by proclaiming black power, white Christians especially members of the clergy, called upon their black brothers and sisters in the gospel to denounce black power as unChristian. To the surprise of white Christians, the National Committee of Negro Churchmen (NNC); later to become NCBC) refused to follow their advice and instead wrote a "Black Power Statement" that was published in the New York Time, July 31, 1966.
This document provides a guide to sacred spaces in Boston, including 13 specific sites. It begins with an introduction explaining the methodology for selecting sites and provides an overview of the types of sacred spaces that can be found in Boston. The document is then divided into individual sections for each sacred site, with details on location, transportation, history, architecture, and visitor information. Sites include churches, meeting houses, cemeteries and cultural centers representing various faiths.
This document provides a guide to sacred spaces in New York City, focusing on Manhattan and Brooklyn. It includes descriptions of 14 sacred sites, including the Islamic Cultural Center of New York, Bethesda Fountain in Central Park, Central Synagogue, and St. Peter's Church. The introduction discusses the process for selecting less traveled sites and those with interesting histories of social justice and interfaith outreach. Individual site descriptions provide addresses, transportation details, histories, architectural details, and notes for visitors. The goal is to highlight the diversity of sacred spaces in the city.
The Theology of Spirituality: It's Growing Importance Amid the Transformation...Jonathan Dunnemann
Abstract: This article raises issues surrounding the theology of spirituality as a relatively new theological focus. It argues that, faced with a changing world and numerous new (or perceived as new) phenomena, the theology of spirituality, as a scholarly area examining spiritual experience, is becoming a branch of
theological research of increasing importance. The first part of this article focuses on the ever-growing areas of interest found within the theology of spirituality, a growth stemming from the core of the field itself (agere sequitur esse). The second part emphasizes the newer areas of interest within the theology
of spirituality. These new horizons arise from the pluralism of theology itself and the criteria used in differentiating theological disciplines, such as ethno-geographic, doctrinal, and ascetic-practical concerns. In particular, amid a fast-changing world in which information and mutual contact have become incredibly accessible, the interpenetration of cultures and traditions can not only be of great value but also carry the dangers of a chaotic eclecticism. As this accessibility becomes ever easier and more pervasive, contemporary human beings can thus become confused, not only about their worldviews but also concerning their spiritual and religious beliefs. Thus, research into the theology of spirituality is becoming increasingly more important.
Using an interdisciplinary approach and a phenomenological, hermeneutic, mystagogical methodology, this paper explores how children describe the deep fruits of meditation in their lives. Seventy children, aged 7 to 11, from four Irish primary schools were interviewed; all had engaged in meditation as a whole-school practice for at least two-years beforehand. The study sought to elicit from children their experience, if any, of the transcendent in meditation. It concludes that children can and do enjoy deep states of consciousness and that meditation has the capacity to nourish the innate spirituality of the child. It highlights the importance of personal spiritual experience for children and supports the introduction of meditation in primary schools.
ASSESSMENT OF CHARACTER STRENGTHS AMONG YOUTH: THE VALUES IN ACTION INVENTORY...Jonathan Dunnemann
Raising virtuous children is an ultimate goal not only of all parents and educators but also of all societies. Across different eras and cultures, identifying character strengths (virtues) and cultivating them in children and youth have been among the chief interests of philosophers, theologians, and educators. With a few exceptions, these topics have been neglected by psychologists. However, the emerging field of positive psychology specifically emphasizes
building the good life by identifying individual strengths of character and fostering them (Seligman, 2002). Character strengths are now receiving attention by psychologists interested in positive youth development.
Jon Dunnemann presented on cultivating purpose in youth. Key points included that purpose provides direction and meaning, is shaped by factors like gender and family, and leads to benefits like happiness and resilience. Purpose involves deciding what matters, nurturing one's best qualities, and making a difference. Future directions may introduce youth to examples of purpose from history that advance noble causes today.
African American spirituality provides a rich lens into the heart and soul of the black church experience, often overlooked in the Christian spiritual formation literature. By addressing this lacuna, this essay focuses on three primary shaping qualities o f history: the effects of slavery, the Civil Rights Movement under Dr. Martin Luther King’s leadership, and the emergence of the Black Church. Lour spiritual practices that influence African American spirituality highlight the historical and cultural context of being “forged in the fiery furnace,” including worship, preaching and Scripture, the community of faith and prayer, and community outreach. The essay concludes by recognizing four areas o f the lived experiences of African Americans from which the global church can glean: (1) persevering in pain and suffering, (2) turning to God for strength, (3) experiencing a living and passionate faith, and (4) affirming God’s intention for freedom and justice to be afforded to every individual.
Strengths Building, Resilience, and the Bible: A Story-Based Curriculum for A...Jonathan Dunnemann
This document proposes a story-based curriculum called Global Resilience Oral Workshops (GROW) to build resilience in adolescents around the world. It draws from positive psychology principles like character strengths and teaches problem-solving skills through Bible stories, which are available in over 750 languages. The curriculum aims to lower depression and increase well-being in adolescents, most of whom live in developing countries and prefer oral learning. It incorporates both spiritual and secular resilience strategies and can be adapted across cultures. The proposed implementation is to first pilot it with Brazilian adolescents and train community leaders to disseminate it through an audio-recorded "train the trainer" model.
Historical criticism attempts to read texts in their original situations, informed by literary and cultural conventions reconstructed from comparable texts and artifacts. African American interpretation extends this approach to questions about race and social location for the ancient text, its reception
history, and its modern readers. It arose as a corrective and alternative to white supremacist use of the Bible in moral and political arguments regarding race, civil rights, and social justice. Accordingly, African American interpretation has combined the
insights of abolitionists and activists with academic tools to demonstrate how biblical interpretation can function as an instrument of oppression, obfuscation, or opportunity. Of course, most of these developments have occurred in the larger framework of American Christianity. Yet, its analyses reach
beyond that specific setting, touching on the connections between the Bible and race in public discourse generally, whether in government, academia, or popular culture.
Appropriating Universality: The Coltranes and 1960s SpiritualityJonathan Dunnemann
The role of the Black Protestant Church has figured prominently in scholarly discussions of African American music culture, and to some extent its importance has been explored with respect to jazz. However, with the exception of the Nation of Islam, the influence of Eastern religious practices among black Americans has not been significantly researched nor have adequate connections been made between these spiritual pursuits and the musical innovations they inspired. Nevertheless, since the mid-’60s, black American artists have explored Yoga, Hinduism, various sects of Buddhism, Ahmadiya Islam, and Bahá’í. The
aesthetic impact of these pursuits has been multi-dimensional and far-reaching. In their study of Asian philosophy and religion, jazz musicians have been exposed to the sounds and musical processes they have discovered in the cultures from which these traditions have emerged. One can hear this influence in musical borrowings, such as the use of traditional instrumentation, the reworking of melodic material from folk and classical genres, and the incorporation of indigenous
improvisational and compositional techniques. Though less audible, Eastern spiritual traditions have also exerted a more abstract philosophical influence that has shaped jazz aesthetics, inspiring jazz musicians to dissolve formal and stylistic boundaries and produce works of great originality. Contextualizing the spiritual explorations of John and Alice Coltrane within American religious culture and liberation movements of the 1960s, this essay explores the way that
their eclectic appropriation of Eastern spiritual concepts and their commitment to spiritual universality not only inspired musical innovation, but also provided a counter-hegemonic, political, and cultural critique.
Who Is Jesus Christ for Us Today?
To say that Jesus Christ is the truth of the Christian story calls for further examination. It is one thing to assert that the New Testament describes Jesus as the Oppressed One who came to liberate the poor and the weak (Chap. 4); but it is quite another to ask, Who is Jesus Christ for us today? If twentieth-century Christians are to speak the truth for their sociohistorical situation, they cannot merely repeat the story of what Jesus did and said in Palestine, as if it were selfinterpreting for us today. Truth is more than the retelling of the biblical story. Truth is the divine happening that invades our contemporary situation, revealing the meaning of the past for the present so that we
are made new creatures for the future. It is therefore our commitment to the divine truth, as witnessed to in the biblical story, that requires us to investigate the connection between Jesus' words and deeds in firstcentury Palestine and our existence today. This is the crux of the christological issue that no Christian theology can avoid.
The pivotal role of religion and spirituality in the lives of African Americans marks this ethnoracial group as a particularly important target for attention in research on the psychology and sociology of religion. In this chapter we endeavor to achieve three ends: First, we briefly review literature on meanings of religiosity and spirituality among African Americans. Second, we review the literature on the link between religiosity, spirituality, and health among African Americans. Finally, we examine findings regarding the pathways by which religion and spirituality may achieve its ends.
Transformative Pedagogy, Black Theology and Participative forms of PraxisJonathan Dunnemann
This document discusses transformative pedagogy, Black theology, and participative praxis. It outlines how the author seeks to combine transformative modes of pedagogy from Paulo Freire with the liberative themes of Black theology. It summarizes key contributions from Freire, Black religious educators like Grant Shockley and Olivia Pearl Stokes, and discusses the author's own participative approach to Black theological scholarship using experiential learning exercises. The overall goal is conscientization and formation of lay people and ministers through this interactive theological education approach.
Development of a Program for the Empowerment of Black Single Mother Families ...Jonathan Dunnemann
This project developed and implemented an 8-session coping skills seminar for single mothers in the Antelope Valley Seventh-day Adventist Church. A questionnaire was used to determine topics of interest. The seminar covered finance, education, parenting, communication, and physical, psychological, emotional and spiritual self-care. Evaluation found the seminar improved participants' skills in these areas and positively impacted their well-being and the local church.
Black Males, Social Imagery, and the Disruption of Pathological IdentitiesJonathan Dunnemann
Throughout the history of the U.S., racialized groups have often had their experiences profoundly shaped by social imagery in ways that have created tremendous hardships in the quest for
self-actualization and a healthy sense of self.
The purpose of this article is to shed light on the manner in which Black males have been one of the primary victims of negative social imagery and how the remnants of these constructions continue to have contemporary influences, ....
The document summarizes the 50th anniversary celebration of the Black Student Union at Holy Cross. It discusses the impact of the first 19 black students who enrolled in 1968, including Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas and Pulitzer Prize winner Edward P. Jones. It highlights the continued commitment of Holy Cross to admitting students who will lead and create positive change. The president expresses hope for the new year based on interactions with current students who are standing up against bias and building an inclusive community.
Why is this So? ~ Do Seek to KNOW (English & Chinese).pptxOH TEIK BIN
A PowerPoint Presentation based on the Dhamma teaching of Kamma-Vipaka (Intentional Actions-Ripening Effects).
A Presentation for developing morality, concentration and wisdom and to spur us to practice the Dhamma diligently.
The texts are in English and Chinese.
The Hope of Salvation - Jude 1:24-25 - MessageCole Hartman
Jude gives us hope at the end of a dark letter. In a dark world like today, we need the light of Christ to shine brighter and brighter. Jude shows us where to fix our focus so we can be filled with God's goodness and glory. Join us to explore this incredible passage.
The forces involved in this witchcraft spell will re-establish the loving bond between you and help to build a strong, loving relationship from which to start anew. Despite any previous hardships or problems, the spell work will re-establish the strong bonds of friendship and love upon which the marriage and relationship originated. Have faith, these stop divorce and stop separation spells are extremely powerful and will reconnect you and your partner in a strong and harmonious relationship.
My ritual will not only stop separation and divorce, but rebuild a strong bond between you and your partner that is based on truth, honesty, and unconditional love. For an even stronger effect, you may want to consider using the Eternal Love Bond spell to ensure your relationship and love will last through all tests of time. If you have not yet determined if your partner is considering separation or divorce, but are aware of rifts in the relationship, try the Love Spells to remove problems in a relationship or marriage. Keep in mind that all my love spells are 100% customized and that you'll only need 1 spell to address all problems/wishes.
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A375 Example Taste the taste of the Lord, the taste of the Lord The taste of...franktsao4
It seems that current missionary work requires spending a lot of money, preparing a lot of materials, and traveling to far away places, so that it feels like missionary work. But what was the result they brought back? It's just a lot of photos of activities, fun eating, drinking and some playing games. And then we have to do the same thing next year, never ending. The church once mentioned that a certain missionary would go to the field where she used to work before the end of his life. It seemed that if she had not gone, no one would be willing to go. The reason why these missionary work is so difficult is that no one obeys God’s words, and the Bible is not the main content during missionary work, because in the eyes of those who do not obey God’s words, the Bible is just words and cannot be connected with life, so Reading out God's words is boring because it doesn't have any life experience, so it cannot be connected with human life. I will give a few examples in the hope that this situation can be changed. A375
A Free eBook ~ Valuable LIFE Lessons to Learn ( 5 Sets of Presentations)...OH TEIK BIN
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The Enchantment and Shadows_ Unveiling the Mysteries of Magic and Black Magic...Phoenix O
This manual will guide you through basic skills and tasks to help you get started with various aspects of Magic. Each section is designed to be easy to follow, with step-by-step instructions.
Vertical Church Kyiv Report 2022-2023: Church at war
The Brief RCOPE
1. Religions 2011, 2, 51-76; doi:10.3390/rel2010051
religions
ISSN 2077-1444
www.mdpi.com/journal/religions
Article
The Brief RCOPE: Current Psychometric Status of a Short
Measure of Religious Coping
Kenneth Pargament *, Margaret Feuille and Donna Burdzy
Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, USA
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: kpargam@bgsu.edu.
Received: 20 December 2010; in revised form: 3 February 2011 / Accepted: 11 February 2011 /
Published: 22 February 2011
Abstract: The Brief RCOPE is a 14-item measure of religious coping with major life
stressors. As the most commonly used measure of religious coping in the literature, it has
helped contribute to the growth of knowledge about the roles religion serves in the process
of dealing with crisis, trauma, and transition. This paper reports on the development of the
Brief RCOPE and its psychometric status. The scale developed out of Pargament’s (1997)
program of theory and research on religious coping. The items themselves were generated
through interviews with people experiencing major life stressors. Two overarching forms
of religious coping, positive and negative, were articulated through factor analysis of the
full RCOPE. Positive religious coping methods reflect a secure relationship with a
transcendent force, a sense of spiritual connectedness with others, and a benevolent world
view. Negative religious coping methods reflect underlying spiritual tensions and struggles
within oneself, with others, and with the divine. Empirical studies document the internal
consistency of the positive and negative subscales of the Brief RCOPE. Moreover,
empirical studies provide support for the construct validity, predictive validity, and
incremental validity of the subscales. The Negative Religious Coping subscale, in
particular, has emerged as a robust predictor of health-related outcomes. Initial evidence
suggests that the Brief RCOPE may be useful as an evaluative tool that is sensitive to the
effects of psychological interventions. In short, the Brief RCOPE has demonstrated its
utility as an instrument for research and practice in the psychology of religion
and spirituality.
Keywords: religious coping; spiritual coping; religious struggle; RCOPE; brief RCOPE
OPEN ACCESS
2. Religions 2011, 2 52
Introduction
Over the past 15 years, there has been a sharp increase in the number of studies that focus on the
role of religion in coping with major life stressors. Empirical studies have demonstrated that many
people turn to religion as a resource in their efforts to understand and deal with the most difficult times
of their lives [1-3]. Moreover, research has consistently linked indices of religious coping to measures
of health and well-being among diverse groups facing diverse critical life events [4,5]. Most recently,
health care researchers and practitioners have begun to build on these findings to develop interventions
that help people facing crises access their religious resources and address religious problems [6,7].
Hill [8] concluded in his recent review that the domain of religious coping represents one of the most
valuable approaches to study in the field.
Because of its demonstrated value, it is important to consider how religious coping is assessed. The
Brief RCOPE is the most commonly used measure of religious coping, and has yielded a variety of
significant findings. However, relatively little has been written about the development, psychometric
qualities, and current status of the instrument. The present paper provides information on the Brief
RCOPE and points to further directions in research on the measurement of religious coping.
Theoretical Background
Traditionally, religion has been assessed in one of two ways [9]. The first method measures
religiousness using global indices, such as frequency of congregational attendance, frequency of
prayer, religious affiliation, and self-rated religiousness. While this efficient approach to measurement
may be necessary given limited space for religious items on general health and social surveys, it does
not specify what it is about religion that may be responsible for its links to psychological, social, or
physical functioning. The second method of assessment examines stable patterns of religious attitudes
and beliefs, as illustrated by measures of intrinsic, extrinsic, quest, and fundamentalist religious
orientation, attachment to God, and attitudes toward the church. This approach assumes that religion is
best understood as a dispositional or trait-like phenomenon. However, it does not capture how religion
expresses itself in relationship to critical life situations.
The Brief RCOPE represents a different approach to religious assessment, one that is grounded in
theory and research on coping and religion. Coping theory emphasizes the active role individuals play
in interpreting and responding to major life stressors [10]. Numerous empirical studies have
demonstrated that specific methods of appraisal and coping with negative life events constitute critical
determinants of event outcomes [11]. From the perspective of coping theory, behavior is best
understood as a dynamic process of transaction between the individual and life situations within a
larger socio-cultural context.
Noting that general coping theorists and researchers neglected the religious dimension for the most
part, Pargament [12] developed a theory of religious coping. He defined religious coping as efforts to
understand and deal with life stressors in ways related to the sacred. The term “sacred” refers not only
to traditional notions of God, divinity or higher powers, but also to other aspects of life that are
associated with the divine or are imbued with divine-like qualities [13]. Pargament’s theory stresses
several points: (1) religious coping serves multiple functions, including the search for meaning,
3. Religions 2011, 2 53
intimacy with others, identity, control, anxiety-reduction, transformation, as well as the search for the
sacred or spirituality itself; (2) religious coping is multi-modal: it involves behaviors, emotions,
relationships, and cognitions; (3) religious coping is a dynamic process that changes over time,
context, and circumstances; (4) religious coping is multi-valent: it is a process leading to helpful or
harmful outcomes, and thus, research on religious coping acknowledges both the “bitter and the sweet”
of religious life; (5) religious coping may add a distinctive dimension to the coping process by virtue
of its unique concern about sacred matters; and (6) because of its distinctive focus on the ways religion
expresses itself in particular life situations, religious coping may add vital information to our
understanding of religion and its links to health and well-being, especially among people facing critical
problems in life.
This theoretical perspective has important implications for the measurement of religious coping.
Clearly, global indices or stable dispositional measures of religiousness cannot capture the rich, multi-
dimensional, transactional, dynamic, and multi-valent character of religious coping. To that end, a
different method of assessment was created.
Initial Efforts to Measure Religious Coping
Several approaches have been taken to measuring religious coping. Each, however, is limited in
some important respects. One approach assesses religious coping using a few items that ask how often
the individual turns to prayer or to a religious congregation in times of stress. These items tap into the
“religious channels” people use in stressful situations, but they do not provide information about actual
methods of religious coping (i.e., the programs playing on the channels). For example, the knowledge
that an individual prays frequently in the midst of a crisis does not specify why the individual prays,
when the individual prays, where the individual prays, how the individual prays, or what the individual
prays for—questions all potentially vital to an understanding of the coping function of prayer. It is
important to add that researchers have begun to examine more specific aspects of prayer in critical life
situations [14,15].
A second approach has involved embedding a few religious coping items within more general
measures of coping, such as the Ways of Coping Scale by Lazarus and Folkman [10] and the COPE
scale by Carver and colleagues [16]. However, this method, at best, covers only a few types of religious
coping. This approach can obscure the distinctive contribution that religion makes to the coping
process. For example, the item that assesses religious transformational coping in the Ways of Coping
Scale (“I found new faith”) is subsumed under the larger category of “Positive Reappraisal” [17].
A third approach has focused on studying a few types of religious coping methods in more depth
[18]. For example, Pargament and his colleagues [19] conceptualized and measured three ways people
can involve religious coping in the search for control: control through oneself (Self-Directing); control
through God (Deferring); and control through a relationship with God (Collaborative). Empirical
research points to the distinctiveness of these three religious coping styles and supports their
discriminant validity in relationship to measures of health and well-being. Again, however, this
approach to measurement does not provide a comprehensive picture of religious coping. A related
approach has involved identifying various types of religious coping activities (e.g., pleading for a
miracle, doing “mitzvot” or good deeds) from the “ground up” through interviews and narrative
4. Religions 2011, 2 54
accounts of religious coping [20]. While this approach has greater ecological validity, it can yield
measures that are difficult to decipher theoretically or functionally. It is also important to note that
most of these methods of measurement have overlooked potentially harmful forms of religious coping.
The Development of the RCOPE and the Brief RCOPE
The RCOPE and the Brief RCOPE (which grew out of this larger measure) were designed
to address many of the limitations associated with these initial approaches to the assessment of
religious coping.
Development of the RCOPE
The RCOPE was intended to provide researchers with a tool they could use to measure the myriad
manifestations of religious coping and to help practitioners better integrate religious and spiritual
dimensions into treatment (see [21] for full description). The construction of the RCOPE was guided
by the elements of Pargament’s [12] theory of religious coping noted above as well as by interviews
and reviews of narrative reports of religious coping.
First, the instrument is multi-functional. The specific religious coping items included in the RCOPE
were selected and designed to reflect five religious functions—meaning, control, comfort, intimacy,
life transformation—and the search for the sacred or spirituality itself. However, it was also recognized
that any method of religious coping may be multifunctional. In particular, it was expected that items
reflecting the spiritual function of religion would serve other religious functions as well, particularly
those of comfort and intimacy. Hence, although the RCOPE scale items were organized conceptually
according to these various functions, we did not expect that the analyses would necessarily identify
corresponding factors of religious coping.
Second, the RCOPE is multi-modal. Scale items were selected that represent how people employ
religious coping methods cognitively through thoughts and attitudes (e.g. “Saw my situation as part of
God’s plan”; “Thought that the event might bring me closer to God”), behaviorally through actions
(e.g. “Prayed for a miracle”; “Confessed my sins”), emotionally through the specific feelings they
express (e.g. “Felt my church seemed to be rejecting or ignoring me”; “Sought God’s love and care.”) ,
and relationally through actions that involve others (e.g. “Offered spiritual support to family or
friends.”; “Sought a stronger spiritual connection with other people.”).
Third, the multi-valent nature of the RCOPE is built on the assumption that religious coping
strategies can be adaptive or maladaptive. Hence religious coping items were selected that reflect
positive religious coping methods—those that rest on a generally secure relationship with whatever the
individual may hold sacred—and negative religious coping methods—those that are reflective of
tension, conflict, and struggle with the sacred. However, we did not assume that the positive coping
methods would be invariably adaptive or that the negative religious coping methods would be
invariably maladaptive. Religious coping theory posits that the efficacy of particular coping methods is
determined by the interplay between personal, situational, and social-cultural factors, as well as by the
way in which health and well-being are conceptualized and measured [7,12]. Thus, a “positive”
religious coping method that might be helpful in one situation or context might very well be more
problematic in another, as illustrated by the recent work of Phelps et al. [22] who found that positive
5. Religions 2011, 2 55
religious coping by end-of-life patients was predictive of the pursuit of expensive and invasive
life-prolonging care. Conversely, a “negative” religious coping method might be linked not only to
immediate signs of psychological distress, but also to longer term growth and well-being. For this
reason, the term “religious struggle” has been used interchangeably with negative religious coping
because the notion of struggle embodies the possibility of growth and transformation through the
process of coping.
Items for the RCOPE were drawn from previous empirical studies and from existing religious
coping scales. Material for the specific items was also gathered from clinical experience and from
interviews with individuals who were accessing their religious and spiritual resources to cope with a
variety of major stressors. Using this inductive approach, approximately eight items were generated for
each of the 21 subscales. Table 1 provides a list of these subscales organized by religious function.
Individuals indicate the extent to which they use specific methods of religious coping in dealing with a
critical life event using a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (“not at all”) to 3 (“a great deal”).
Feedback on specific items was obtained from ten graduate psychology students. These raters were
asked to sort the scale items into the appropriate subscales. Items that were not clearly phrased or that
were not reliably classified by 80% of the raters were subsequently dropped. The items which were
retained for the final version of RCOPE displayed close to 100% agreement in classification among
the raters. The full RCOPE consisted of five items for each of the 21 subscales for a total of 105 items.
The psychometric properties of the RCOPE were analyzed using religious coping data obtained
from two samples of individuals experiencing major life stressors: 540 college students who had
experienced a serious negative life event; and 551 hospitalized middle- aged and older adults suffering
from medical illnesses [21]. Because previous research had found that older individuals as well as
people dealing with serious life events/crises displayed higher levels of religious coping, the scores of
hospitalized older adults and college students were compared as a test of discriminant validity. As
expected, older hospitalized adults generally scored higher on the subscales of the RCOPE than
college students. Factor analysis largely validated the conceptualization and the construction of the
subscales and provided evidence of high internal consistency and incremental validity. All but two of
the RCOPE scales had alpha values of 0.80 or greater confirming generally high reliability estimates.
In this study and in subsequent research studies, the RCOPE has performed well in predicting physical
and psychological adjustment to life crises when compared to other measures of global religiosity and
demographic variables [23,24].
While the full RCOPE is a valuable, theoretically-based comprehensive tool for measuring religious
coping, its extensive length limits its utility. It cannot be easily included in a standard battery of
assessments that might be used in clinical and counseling situations, nor can it be readily applied to
research situations where space for questions is at a premium. Consequently, the RCOPE has not been
widely used. The clear need for a condensed version of the RCOPE led to the development of the
Brief RCOPE.
6. Religions 2011, 2 56
Table 1. RCOPE Subscales and Definitions of Religious Coping Methods.
Religious Methods of Coping to Find Meaning
Benevolent Religious Reappraisal Redefining the stressor through religion as benevolent and
potentially beneficial
Punishing God Reappraisal Redefining the stressor as a punishment from God for the
individual’s sins
Demonic Reappraisal Redefining the stressor as an act of the Devil
Reappraisal of God’s Powers Redefining God’s power to influence the stressful situation
Religious Methods of Coping to Gain Control
Collaborative Religious Coping Seeking control through a problem solving partnership with God
Active Religious Surrender An active giving up of control to God in coping
Passive Religious Deferral Passive waiting for God to control the situation
Pleading for Direct Intercession Seeking control indirectly by pleading to God for a miracle or
divine intercession
Self-Directing Religious Coping Seeking control directly through individual initiative rather than
help from God
Religious Methods of Coping to Gain Comfort and Closeness to God
Seeking Spiritual Support Searching for comfort and reassurance through God’s love and
care
Religious Focus Engaging in religious activities to shift focus from the stressor
Religious Purification Searching for spiritual cleansing through religious actions
Spiritual Connection Experiencing a sense of connectedness with forces that
transcend the individual
Spiritual Discontent Expressing confusion and dissatisfaction with God’s relationship
to the individual in the stressful situation
Marking Religious Boundaries Clearly demarcating acceptable from unacceptable religious
behavior and remaining within religious boundaries
Religious Methods of Coping to Gain Intimacy with Others and Closeness to God
Seeking Support from Clergy or
Members
Searching for comfort and reassurance through the love and care
of congregation members and clergy
Religious Helping Attempting to provide spiritual support and comfort to others
Interpersonal Religious Discontent Expressing confusion and dissatisfaction with the relationship of
clergy or congregation members to the individual in the stressful
situation
Religious Methods of Coping to Achieve a Life Transformation
Seeking Religious Direction Looking to religion for assistance in finding a new direction for
living when the old one may no longer be viable
Religious Conversion Looking to religion for a radical change in life
Religious Forgiving Looking to religion for help in shifting to a state of peace from
the anger, hurt, and fear associated with an offense
Development of the Brief RCOPE
The Brief RCOPE was designed to provide researchers and practitioners with an efficient measure
of religious coping which retained the theoretical and functional foundation of the RCOPE. An
abbreviated 21-item version of the RCOPE was tested using a sample of people who lived near the
7. Religions 2011, 2 57
1995 Oklahoma City bombing site at the same time that the full 105-item scale was being developed.
Factor analysis of that abbreviated scale revealed a twofactor solution which accounted for
approximately 33% of the variance [25]. These two factors clearly identified positive and negative
coping items.
Encouraged by these findings, it was decided that an even shorter version of the RCOPE was
feasible. Working with a sample of college students facing major stressors, a factor analysis of the full
RCOPE, constrained to two factors, yielded factors corresponding to positive coping items and
negative coping items that accounted for 38% of the variance [25]. The finding that many of the items
in the full RCOPE could be clearly categorized as either positive or negative in nature constituted the
crucial first step toward creating the Brief RCOPE. A subset of items selected from both factors was
used to recreate positive and negative coping scales. Criteria for the selection of these items included
large factor-loading, representation of a variety of coping methods, and the need for economy in
measurement. This process yielded the final Brief RCOPE which is divided into two subscales, each
consisting of seven items, which identify clusters of positive and negative religious coping methods
(see Table 2 for the Brief RCOPE).
Table 2. The Brief RCOPE: Positive and Negative Coping Subscale Items.
Positive Religious Coping Subscale Items
1. Looked for a stronger connection with God.
2. Sought God’s love and care.
3. Sought help from God in letting go of my anger.
4. Tried to put my plans into action together with God.
5. Tried to see how God might be trying to strengthen me in this situation.
6. Asked forgiveness for my sins.
7. Focused on religion to stop worrying about my problems.
Negative Religious Coping Subscale Items
8. Wondered whether God had abandoned me.
9. Felt punished by God for my lack of devotion.
10. Wondered what I did for God to punish me.
11. Questioned God’s love for me.
12. Wondered whether my church had abandoned me.
13. Decided the devil made this happen.
14. Questioned the power of God.
Confirmatory factor analyses of the Brief RCOPE were conducted with a sample of hospitalized
elderly patients and a sample of college students [25]. In both cases, the analyses indicated that the
two-factor solution provided a reasonable fit for the data. Moreover, the positive and negative religious
coping subscales were differentially related to measures of physical health and mental health. The
findings indicated that the use of positive religious coping methods was linked to fewer psychosomatic
symptoms and greater spiritual growth after dealing with a stressor. In contrast, negative religious
coping was correlated with more signs of psychological distress and symptoms, poorer quality of life
and greater callousness toward other people. Individuals also reported considerably more frequent use
of positive than negative religious coping methods.
8. Religions 2011, 2 58
The positive religious coping subscale (PRC) of the Brief RCOPE taps into a sense of
connectedness with a transcendent force, a secure relationship with a caring God, and a belief that life
has a greater benevolent meaning. The negative religious coping subscale (NRC) of the Brief RCOPE
is characterized by signs of spiritual tension, conflict and struggle with God and others, as manifested
by negative reappraisals of God’s powers (e.g., feeling abandoned or punished by God), demonic
reappraisals (i.e., feeling the devil is involved in the stressor), spiritual questioning and doubting, and
interpersonal religious discontent.
Psychometric Properties of the Brief RCOPE: Current Status
For this paper, we searched PubMed and PsychINFO databases for articles published between
January 2005 and June 2010 containing the phrase “religious coping.” Articles reporting data on
positive and/or negative subscales of the 14-item Brief RCOPE were selected for review. We were
able to find 30 such studies.
The pooled sample consisted of a total of 5,835 participants (studies using the same sample were
only counted once). The participants had a mean age of 49 and 52% were female. These statistics were
derived by weighting studies according to their sample size. Thirty-two percent of the participants
were reported as having a medical disease. Sixty-eight percent of the total sample was reported as
white, 12% as black, 3% as Hispanic, and less than 1% were reported as either Asian or Native
American (Race was not reported or specified for the remaining 17% of the participants.). Thirty-three
percent of the sample was reported as Protestant, 22% as Catholic, 2% as Muslim, 1.5% as Jewish, and
2% as having no religious affiliation. No particular religious affiliation (or lack thereof) was specified
for the remaining 39.5% of the sample. All the studies were conducted in the United States with the
exception of a study of Pakistani university students [26] and one that used a sample of
U.K. adults [27].
Internal Consistency
The Brief RCOPE has demonstrated good internal consistency in a number of studies across widely
differing samples that included patients undergoing cardiac surgery [28], African American women
with a history of partner violence [29], cancer patients [30,31], caregivers for cancer patients [32], a
community sample of U.K. adults [27], older adults in residential care [33], outpatients with alcohol
use disorders [34], HIV patients [35], Catholic middle school students [36], and a sample of residents
in Massachusetts and New York City following 9/11 [37]. The median alpha for the PRC scale was
0.92. The lowest alpha values were found among a sample of Nazarene university students returning
from a 2-month mission trip (0.67) [38], for whom a sevenpoint rather than fourpoint Likert scale was
used, and a sample of Muslim Pakistani University students (0.75) [26], for whom the scale had been
translated into Urdu. The highest alpha for PRC was 0.94 (27) [37]. Alphas for the NRC scale were
generally lower than those for the PRC scale, ranging from 0.60 among Pakistani undergraduates [26]
to 0.90 in a sample of cancer patients [31]. The median alpha reported for the NRC scale was 0.81.
9. Religions 2011, 2 59
Relationship between PRC and NRC Scales
Data from most of the studies reviewed for this article suggested an orthogonal relationship
between PRC and NRC. Non-significant associations were found in a variety of populations: adults
undergoing cardiac surgery [28], African American women reporting a history of partner violence
[29], Jewish and Christian clergy [39], older adults in residential care [33], students attending private
Catholic middle schools [36], and undergraduates at a private Catholic university [40]. A significant
positive association between PRC and NRC was found in only a handful of studies using the following
populations: Christian undergraduates at an urban university (r = 0.25) [41], a community sample of
U.K. adults (r = 0.60) [27], caregivers of terminally ill cancer patients (r = 0.20) [32], and advanced
cancer patients (for high PRC predicting use of NRC: OR = 3.61) [22].
Concurrent Validity
The Brief RCOPE has demonstrated good concurrent validity. As would be expected, PRC is most
strongly and consistently related to measures of positive psychological constructs and spiritual
well-being. Studies have also demonstrated the validity of PRC relative to psychological, physical, and
social well-being constructs (see Table 3). PRC is only occasionally related to negative constructs such
as depression and ill health. When associations with negative constructs are significant, they tend to be
negative. More specifically, 35 tests of the association between PRC and positive constructs yielded 16
positive and significant and 19 non-significant relationships. The 29 instances in which a negative
construct was tested for association with PRC yielded one positive and significant, six negative and
significant, and 22 non-significant relationships. In sum, while higher PRC is associated with greater
well-being, it is not consistently inversely linked to poorer functioning. As an example, in a study of
327 church-going, self-identified trauma victims, PRC was positively related to post-traumatic growth
(r = 0.37), but unrelated to PTSD symptoms [45].
NRC generally behaves in the opposite manner. NRC is consistently tied to indicators of poor
functioning, such as anxiety, depression, PTSD symptoms, negative affect, and pain (see Table 3).
NRC is occasionally associated with constructs representing well-being. However, when such a
correlation is significant, it is usually negative. Again, our systematic review of findings illustrates
these patterns. The 28 instances in which a negative construct was tested for association with NRC
yielded 24 positive and significant, one negative and significant, and three non-significant significant
correlations. The 31 instances in which a construct representing well-being was tested for association
with NRC yielded two positive and significant, 10 negative and significant, and 19
non-significant correlations. To summarize, while higher NRC is generally associated with signs of
poorer mental health and physical health (i.e., depression and ill health), it is only occasionally linked
to indices of well-being. As an example, in a primarily Hispanic sample of 76 students at private
Catholic middle schools, Van Dyke, Glenwick, Cecero and Kim [36] found that NRC was strongly
associated with negative affect (r = 0.61), psychological distress (0.41), depression (0.42), anxiety
(0.32), and somatization (0.28), but was not associated with daily spiritual experiences, positive affect,
or satisfaction with life.
10. Religions 2011, 2 60
Table 3. Evidence of Concurrent and Incremental Validity (all correlations are significant at least 0.05 level).
Author
(date)
Sample Denominational
composition
Criteria Variables associated with PRC (r)* Variables associated with NRC (r)*
Positively
associated
Negatively
associated
Not
significant
Positively
associated
Negatively
associated
Not
significant
Ai,
Seymour,
Tice,
Kronfol &
Bolling
(2009) [28]
235 adults
undergoing
cardiac surgery;
Michigan; 89%
white
Not reported -optimism
-MCOPE:
behavior coping,
cognitive coping,
anger coping, and
avoidant coping
-plasma IL-6
-behavior
coping (0.24)
-cognitive
coping (0.31)
none -optimism
-anger coping
-avoidance
coping
-plasma IL-6
-anger coping
(0.30)
-avoidant
coping (0.26)
-plasma IL-6
(0.15)
-optimism (-
0.38)
-cognitive
coping
(-0.15)
-behavior
coping
Ai,
Pargament,
Kronfol,
Tice &
Appel
(2010) [42]
235 adults
undergoing
cardiac surgery;
Michigan; 89%
white (same
sample as above)
Not reported -Religiousness
scales: subjective,
public, and private
-anger coping
-pre-op. anxiety
-medical
comorbidity
-bodily pain
-subjective
religiousness
(0.80)
-public
religiousness
(0.64)
-private
religiousness
(0.77)
none -anger coping
-pre-op
anxiety
-medical
comorbidity
-bodily pain
-anger coping
(0.33)
-pre-op
anxiety (0.35)
-bodily pain
(0.19)
none -medical
comorbidity
-subjective
religiousness
-public
religiousness
-private
religiousness
Bjorck &
Kim (2009)
[38]
108 Nazarene
college students,
completed a 2-
month mission
trip; 96%
Caucasian
Nazarene -trait anger
-life satisfaction
-modified RSS:
received team
support, God
support, leader
support
-team support
(0.17)
-God support
(0.54)
-trait anger
(0.18)
-leader
support
-satisfaction
with life
-trait anger
(0.80)
-received God
support
(-0.26)
-received team
support
-received
leader support
-satisfaction
with life
Bradley,
Schwartz &
Kaslow
(2005) [29]
134 African
American women
with a history of
intimate partner
violence and
suicidal behaviors
Not reported -PTSD
-childhood trauma
-spouse abuse
-self-esteem
-social support
-self-esteem
(0.21)
none -PTSD score
-spouse abuse
-childhood
trauma
-social support
-PTSD score
(0.34)
-childhood
trauma (0.25)
-self-esteem
(0.37)
-social support
(-0.33)
-spouse
abuse
11. Religions 2011, 2 61
Table 3. Cont.
Cole (2005)
[30]
16 people
diagnosed with
cancer (100%
white)
56% Protestant,
44% Roman
Catholic
-depression
-anxiety
-physical well-
being
-pain frequency in
past week
-pain severity in
past week
-surrendering
control to God
-physical
well-being
(0.56)
-surrendering
control (0.86)
-depression (-
0.55)
-anxiety
(-0.49)
-pain severity
(-0.59)
-pain
frequency
-depression
(0.65)
-anxiety (0.69)
-pain
frequency
(0.62)
-pain severity
(0.66)
-physical
well-being (-
0.54)
-surrendering
control
Cotton,
Gross-
oehme,
Rosenthal,
McGrady,
Roberts et al
(2009) [43]
37 adolescents
with sickle cell
disease (97%
African
American)
24% Baptist, 19%
Other Christian,
11% Protestant,
11% None, 8%
Catholic, 8%
Adventist (for
more see
below)
HRQOL (Peds-
QL 4.0)
none none HRQOL none none HRQOL
Cotton,
Puchalski,
Sherman,
Mrus,
Peterman et
al (2006)
[44]
450 HIV
outpatients
(50% African
American, 45%
White)
22% Baptist; 14%
Roman Catholic;
11.3%; No
religious
preference; 9%
Non-
denominational
Christian (for
more see
below)
-overall
functioning
-depressive
symptoms
-life satisfaction
-self-esteem
-social support
-optimism
-life
satisfaction
-optimism
-overall
functioning
-depressive
symptoms
-self-esteem
-social support
none -self-esteem
-optimism
-life
satisfaction
-overall
functioning
-social support
-depressive
symptoms
Davis,
Hook, &
Worthing-
ton (2008)
[41]
180 Christian
college students
(60% White, 20%
Black)
Christian—
denomination not
specified
-forgiveness
-Attachment to
God Scale:
anxious and
avoidant
subscales
-sacred
desecration
none -avoidant
attachment to
God
(-0.64)
-forgiveness
-anxious
attachment to
God
-sacred
desecration
-anxious
attachment to
God (0.30)
-avoidant
attachment to
God (0.19)
-forgiveness
(0.30)
none
12. Religions 2011, 2 62
Table 3. Cont.
Freiheit,
Sonstegard,
Schmitt &
Vye (2006)
[40]
124 undergrad-
uates attending a
private Catholic
university; 89%
Caucasian
Not reported
(presumably
mostly Catholic)
-revised Spiritual
Experience Index
(SEI-R): total,
support, openness
-Religious
Background and
Behavior Scale
(RBB): total,
formal practices,
God
consciousness
-positive and
negative affect
-general
religiousness
-SEI-R total
(0.66)
-spiritual
support (0.80)
-formal
practices
(0.52)
-God
conscious-
ness (0.79)
-general
religiousness
(0.77)
none -spiritual
openness
-RBB total
-positive
affect
-negative
affect
-negative
affect (0.26)
none -SEI-R total
-spiritual
support
-spiritual
openness
-RBB total
-formal
practices
-God
conscious-
ness
-positive
affect
Harris,
Erbes,
Engdahl,
Olson,
Winskow-
ski,
McMahill
(2008) [45]
327 church-going,
self-identified
trauma victims;
87% White
29% Catholic;
17% generic
Protestant; 13%
Lutheran; 7%
Episcopal; 5%
Reformed church;
5% Baptist;
(several reported
multiple
affiliations;
continued below
)
-number of
traumatic
experiences
-PTSD symptoms
-Post-traumatic
growth
-RCSS: religious
comfort,
alienation from
God, fear and
guilt, religious
rifts
-Prayer Functions
Scale (PFS):
acceptance, calm
and focus,
deferring/avoiding,
assistance
-social support
-post-
traumatic
growth (0.37)
-religious fear
and guilt
(0.14)
-PFS
acceptance
(0.66)
-PFS
assistance
(0.66)
-PFS calm and
focus (0.54)
-PFS
defer/avoid
(0.48)
none -social support
-PTSD
symptoms
-total
traumatic
events
reported
-religious
alienation
-religious rifts
-PTSD
symptoms
(0.41)
-total
traumatic
events
reported
(0.32)
-religious
alienation
(0.40)
-religious fear
and guilt
(0.36)
-religious rifts
(0.19)
-PFS
defer/avoid
(0.22)
-social support
(0.26)
-post-
traumatic
growth
-PFS
acceptance
-PFS
assistance
-PFS calm and
focus
13. Religions 2011, 2 63
Table 3. Cont.
Ironson &
Kremer
(2009) [46]
147 people with
HIV; 48% African
American; 22%
White; 21%
Latino
(raised) 38%
Catholic; 38%
Protestant; 48%
Other
-spiritual
transformation
(ST;
presence/absence
of past experience
of dramatic
changes in
spiritual beliefs,
behaviors)
-ST
(correlation
not given;
effect size of
ST on PRC
score = 0.055)
none none none none ST
Jacobsen,
Zhang,
Block,
Maciejew-
ski, &
Prigerson
(2010) [47]
123 patients with
advanced cancer
(59% White)
Not reported -diagnosis of
Major Depressive
Disorder (MDD)
-Grief caseness
none none -diagnosis of
MDD
-Grief
caseness
-diagnosis of
MDD (OR =
1.36; 95% C.I.
1.06-21.41)
-Grief
caseness (OR
= 1.25; 95%
C.I., 1.05-
1.49)
none none
Kudel,
Farber,
Mrus,
Leonard,
Sherman, &
Tsevat
(2006) [48]
450 HIV
outpatients
(50% African
American, 45%
White; note )
22% Baptist; 14%
Roman Catholic;
11.3% No
religious
preference; 9%
Nondenomination
-al Christian (for
more see below
)
-level of
functioning:
categorization into
6 classes through
latent profile
analysis of quality
of life scores
none none -level of
functioning
none -level of
functioning
(accounted for
13% of the
variance in
NRC scores)
none
Lewis,
Maltby &
Day (2005)
[27]
138 UK adults
from workplaces
and community
groups
Not reported -subjective well-
being
-happiness
-I-E scale of
religiousness:
intrinsic,
extrinsic-personal,
extrinsic-social
-happiness
(0.32)
-intrinsic
(0.66)
-extrinsic
personal
(0.55)
-extrinsic
social (0.21)
none -subjective
well-being
-intrinsic
(0.33)
-extrinsic-
personal
(0.31)
-extrinsic-
social (0.19)
none -subjective
well-being
-happiness
14. Religions 2011, 2 64
Table 3. Cont.
McConnell,
Pargament,
Ellison, &
Flannelly
(2006) [49]
National sample
of 1629 partici-
pants; 90.4%
white
32% Catholic;
20% Protestant;
19% Baptist; 25%
Other; 5% None
-anxiety
-phobic anxiety
-depression
-paranoid ideation
-obsessive-
compulsiveness
(OC)
-somatization
NA NA NA -anxiety (R2
= 0.10)
-phobic
anxiety (0.06)
-depression
(0.10)
-paranoid
ideation (0.10)
-OC (0.08)
-somatization
(0.05)
none none
Pearce,
Singer, &
Prigerson
(2006) [32]
162 caregivers of
terminally ill
cancer patients;
74% Caucasian
45% Catholic;
27% Protestant;
17% Other; 7%
None
-caregiver burden
-depressive
disorder
-anxiety disorder
-subjective care-
giving
competence
-caregiver satis-
faction
-quality of life
-caregiver
burden (0.19)
-caregiver
satisfaction
(0.24)
none -depressive
disorder
-anxiety
disorder
-caregiving
competence
-quality of life
-caregiver
burden (0.18)
-depressive
disorder (0.16)
-anxiety
disorder (0.18)
-quality of life
(-0.17)
-caregiving
competence
-caregiver
satisfaction
Piderman,
Schnee-
kloth,
Pankratz,
Maloney &
Altchuler
(2007) [34]
74 adults in a 3-
week outpatient
addiction
treatment
program; 93%
Caucasian
Not reported -spiritual well-
being
-private religious
practices
-alcohol
abstinence self-
efficacy
-spiritual well-
being (0.63)**
-private
religious
practices
(0.49)
none -alcohol
abstinence
self-efficacy
NA NA NA
Proffitt,
Cann,
Calhoun, &
Tedeschi
(2007) [39]
30 Judeo-
Christian clergy;
85% Caucasian,
10% African
American
73% Protestant;
13% Catholic;
13% Jewish
-post-traumatic
growth
-well-being
-post-
traumatic
growth (0.49)
none -well-being -post-
traumatic
growth (0.50)
none -well-being
Scandrett &
Mitchell
(2009) [50]
140 nursing home
residents; 97%
white
49% Jewish; 42%
Catholic; 6%
Protestant
-psychological
well-being
none none -well-being none -well-being none
15. Religions 2011, 2 65
Table 3. Cont.
Schanowitz
& Nicassio
(2006) [33]
100 older adults
in residential care;
86% Caucasian
Not reported -PANAS: positive
and negative
affect
-PWB-short:
autonomy, self-
acceptance,
positive relations
with others,
positive
reappraisal
-physical
functioning
-PMI: active
coping, passive
coping
-positive
affect (0.44)
-self-
acceptance
(0.28)
-positive
reappraisal
(0.49)
-active coping
(0.35)
none -negative
affect
-positive
relations with
others
-autonomy
-physical
functioning
-passive
coping
-negative
affect (0.52)
-self-
acceptance
(0.25)
none -positive
affect
-autonomy
-positive
relations with
others
-physical
functioning
-active coping
-passive
coping
-positive
reappraisal
Sherman,
Simonton,
Latif,
Spohn, &
Tricot
(2005) [31]
213 multiple
myeloma patients
prior to stem cell
transplantation;
88.7% White,
7.5% African
American
(not for this
sample, but
historically at
study site) 87%
Protestants;
smaller
proportions of
Catholics, Jews,
Muslims,
nonreligious
individuals, other
affiliations
-total distress
-depression
-SF-12: mental
health, physical
functioning,
energy, pain
none -pain
(-0.14)**
-total distress
-depression
-mental health
-physical
functioning
-energy
-total distress
(0.38)
-depression
(0.20)
-mental health
(0.29)
-physical
functioning (-
0.18)
-energy
(-0.24)
-pain
(-0.20)
none
Tarakesh-
war,
Vander-
werker,
Paulk,
Pearce,
Kasl,
Prigerson
(2006) [51]
170 patients with
advanced cancer;
66% White
40% Catholic;
20% Protestant;
4% Jewish; 17%
other religion; 7%
no religion
-quality of life
(McGill QOL
Questionnaire)
NA NA NA none QOL ( =
-0.17)
none
16. Religions 2011, 2 66
Table 3. Cont.
Van Dyke,
Glenwick,
Cecero &
Kim (2009)
[36]
76 students at
three private
catholic middle
schools in NYC
area; 84%
Hispanic
71% Catholic;
21% other
Christian; 1%
agnostic
-daily spiritual
experiences
-PANAS-C:
positive and
negative affect
-satisfaction with
life
-BSI-18: total
distress,
depression,
anxiety,
somatization
-daily spiritual
experiences
(0.78)
-positive
affect (0.32;
males only)
-satisfaction
with life
(0.27; males
only)
none -negative
affect
-distress
-depression
-anxiety
-somatization
-negative
affect (0.61)
-distress
(0.41)
-depression
(0.42)
-anxiety (0.32)
-somatization
(0.28)
none -daily spiritual
experiences
-positive
affect
-satisfaction
with life
Yi, Mrus,
Wade, Ho,
Hornung et
al (2006)
[52]
450 HIV
outpatients
(50% African
American, 45%
White; see below)
22% Baptist; 14%
Roman Catholic;
11.3%; No
religious
preference; 9%
Nondenomination
-al Christian (for
more see
below)
-presence/absence
of significant
depressive
symptoms (10-
item Center for
Epidemiological
Studies
Depression Scale)
none none -significant
depressive
symptoms
-significant
depressive
symptoms (p
< 0.0001, no r
provided)
none none
Racial make-up given when available; Interaction with God support found: as God support increased, relationship with life satisfaction changed from negative to
positive; * All correlations are significant at least 0.05 level. All are Pearson correlations, unless otherwise specified; ** All r’s in this row are Spearman correlations.
continued: 3% Nondenominational, 3% Apostolic, 3% Pentecostal, 3% Presbyterian; continued: 9.1% Undesignated; 5% Assembly of God; 5% Methodist; 3%
Church of Christ; 3% Presbyterian; 3% Other Protestant; 4% Episcopal; 2% Lutheran; 2% Jewish; 1% Muslim; 1% Evangelical; 0.5% Orthodox Church; 0.5% Mormon;
3% Other specific.
continued: 5% Metropolitan; 4% Presbyterian; 4% United Church of Christ; 4% Methodist; 4% Nazarene; 3% other affiliations; 3% Christian Science; 1% Evangelical;
same sample as Cotton et al., 2006 [44].
BSI = Brief Symptom Inventory; MCOPE = Multidimensional Coping Scale; NRC = Negative Religious Coping; PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Scale; PANAS-
C = Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children; IL-6 = Interleukin 6 (an indicator of inflammation: chronic elevation indicates poorer functioning); PMI = Pain
Management Inventory; PRC = Positive Religious Coping; PTGI = Post-traumatic growth inventory; PWB-short = Scales of psychological well-being, short form;
RSS = Religious Support Scale; SF-12 = Short Form (12-item) Health Survey.
17. Religions 2011, 2 67
Predictive Validity
We were able to find only two studies examining the predictive validity of the Brief RCOPE (see
Table 4). These studies provide initial support for the capacity of PRC and NRC to predict greater
well-being and poorer adjustment, respectively, over time. Tsevat, Leonard, Szaflarski, Sherman,
Cotton and colleagues [35] examined associations between the Brief RCOPE and quality of life (as
measured by a single item, asking participants to compare their lives before an HIV diagnosis to the
present) among 347 outpatients with HIV. PRC at baseline was significantly associated with
improvement in quality of life from baseline to follow-up 12 to 18 months later and negatively
associated with deterioration in quality of life. NRC at baseline was unrelated to improvement or
deterioration in quality of life from baseline to follow-up. In the second study, Ai, Seymour, Tice,
Kronfol, and Bolling [28] measured PRC and NRC in a sample of 235 adults about to undergo cardiac
surgery. They found that PRC prior to surgery did not significantly predict hostility and IL-6 (a
biomedical indicator of poor post-surgical adjustment) 1 month post-surgery, but NRC prior to surgery
was significantly positively correlated with hostility (r = 0.33) and IL-6 (0.21) one month post-surgery.
These findings offer promising initial evidence for the predictive validity of the Brief RCOPE.
Incremental Validity
Some studies have examined the degree to which the Brief RCOPE predicts various criteria above
and beyond the effects of demographic, psychological, social and health-related variables. There is
evidence for the incremental validity of PRC in predicting well-being after controlling for age and
gender [27] as well as a number of other secular variables, including race, financial worries, having
children, and other psychosocial constructs [44]. As an example, Pearce, Singer and Prigerson [32]
found that PRC was associated with both greater subjective caregiver burden and caregiver satisfaction
after controlling for social support, self-efficacy, optimism, age, sex, education and race. However, not
all findings indicate PRC has a unique effect on well-being. For instance, Schanowitz and Nicassio
[33] found that the relationship between PRC and positive affect became non-significant after
controlling for positive reappraisals.
Several studies support the incremental validity of the NRC scale [28,31,32,44,49-51]. In one such
study, NRC remained a significant predictor of IL-6 levels among cardiac patients after controlling for
a number of other biomedical indicators and mood states. In another study, NRC significantly
predicted lower quality of life among advanced cancer patients after controlling for self-efficacy,
history of depression and demographic variables [51]. Other studies have demonstrated that NRC can
predict outcomes even after controlling for an index of general religiousness—in addition to other
relevant demographic, biomedical, and psychological variables [31,49,50]. Sherman, Simonton, Latif,
Spohn and Tricot [31] found that, among multiple myeloma patients undergoing stem cell
transplantation, NRC remained positively associated with total distress and depression after controlling
for demographic and medical variables as well as general religiousness. Similarly, using a national
sample, McConnell, Pargament, Ellison and Flannelly [49] found that NRC predicted a significant
amount of variance in anxiety (R2
= 0.10), phobic anxiety (0.06), depression (0.10), paranoid ideation
(0.10), obsessive-compulsiveness (0.08), and somatization (0.05) after controlling for age, gender,
18. Religions 2011, 2 68
education, ethnicity, income, marital status, social support, occurrence of illness or injury, as well as
frequency of prayer, frequency of church attendance. These studies suggest that negative religious
coping as measured by the Brief RCOPE uniquely predicts outcomes even after controlling for secular
variables and indicators of general religiousness.
Sensitivity to Change
We found two studies reporting data on changes in PRC and NRC prior to and following treatment
(see Table 5). Both reported significant increases in PRC from pre to post-treatment, and one reported
decreases in NRC after treatment. The first of these studies, by Piderman, Schneekloth, Pankratz,
Maloney and Altchuler [34] was an uncontrolled, single-group design examining changes in PRC and
NRC among individuals with alcohol use problems after participating in an outpatient treatment
program. This study found significant increases in PRC from baseline (at start of treatment) to
follow-up, but no significant changes in NRC. The other study was a randomized controlled trial [53]:
coronary artery bypass graft patients were randomly assigned to a control group or a treatment group
which received five chaplain visits before, during (with family), and just after surgery. Data on PRC
and NRC were collected just prior to surgery, one month after surgery, and six months after surgery.
While PRC increased in the treatment group relative to the baseline and the control groups, the effect,
which was not significant one month post-surgery, became significant at six months. PRC decreased
slightly in the control group from baseline to 6-month follow-up. NRC decreased in the treatment
group relative to baseline and to the control group, though, again, this effect was not significant until
the 6-month follow-up. These data provide initial evidence that scores on the Brief RCOPE may be
sensitive to changes engendered during treatment.
Validity among Other Religions and Cultures
Nearly all of the studies that used the Brief RCOPE have been conducted in the United States and
Western Europe with largely Christian samples. In one notable exception, Khan and Watson [26]
translated the Brief RCOPE into Urdu in their study of Muslim Pakistani university students. Alphas
for PRC and NRC were 0.75 and 0.60, respectively. Although PRC was significantly positively
correlated with an extrinsic-personal religious orientation (r = 0.34) and an intrinsic religious
orientation (0.26), it was not significantly associated with an extrinsic-social religious orientation, nor
with anxiety, depression or hostility. NRC was significantly positively correlated with anxiety
(r = 0.32), depression (0.43), and hostility (0.34), but not with intrinsic, extrinsic-social, or extrinsic-
personal religious orientations. Another study focused on the relationship between depression and a
ten-item version of the Brief RCOPE among native Dutch, Moroccans, Turks, and Surinamese
immigrants living in Amsterdam [54]. The results supported the validity of the PRC subscale, but not
the NRC because the alpha for the NRC was so low. These studies represent initial efforts toward
validating the Brief RCOPE among diverse cultural and religious groups.
19. Religions 2011, 2 69
Table 4. Predictive Validity.
Author
(date)
Sample/Time
frame
Denominational
composition
Criterion used Variables associated with PRC Variables associated with NRC
Positively
associated
Negatively
associated
No significant
association
Positively
associated
Negatively
associated
No significant
association
Ai,
Seymour,
Tice,
Kronfol,
& Bolling
(2009)
[28]
-235 adults
undergoing
cardiac surgery
(89% white)
-PRC/NRC
was measured
just prior to
surgery
Not reported Measured about a
month after
surgery:
-plasma IL-6
(chronic elevation
indicates poor
functioning)
-hostility (subscale
of SCL-90-R)
none none -hostility
-IL-6
-hostility
(r* = 0.33)
-IL-6
(r* = 0.21)
none none
Tsevat,
Leonard,
Szaflarski,
Sherman,
Cotton et
al. (2009)
[35]
-347
outpatients
with HIV (46%
African
American, 50%
White)
-PRC/NRC
assessed at
baseline (time
1)
79% identified
with a
particular
religion—
mostly Roman
Catholic,
Baptist, or
Southern
Baptist
Data collected 12
to 18 mo. after
baseline (time 2):
-global quality of
life: one item
asking participants
to compare their
life now to their life
before diagnosis of
HIV
-improve-
ment in
quality of life
from time 1
to time 2 (p =
0.008)
-deterioration
in quality of
life from
time 1 to
time 2 (p =
0.03)
none none none -improvement
in quality of
life from time
1 to time 2
-deterioration
in quality of
life from time
1 to time 2
*Pearson r.
20. Religions 2011, 2 70
Table 5. Sensitivity to Change.
Authors (year) Sample Denominational
Composition
Design Treatment(s) Effect on PRC Effect on NRC
Bay, Beckman,
Tripp,
Gunderman &
Terry (2008)
[53]
166 coronary
artery bypass
graft patients;
91% Caucasian
75% Protestant;
12% Catholic
Randomized
controlled trial;
follow-ups at 1
month and 6
months post-
surgery
Five chaplain
visits for
treatment group;
none for control
Increased in treatment
group relative to
baseline and to control
(significant only at 6-
mo. follow-up)
Decreased in
treatment group
relative to baseline
and to control
(significant only at 6-
mo. follow-up)
Piderman,
Schneekloth,
Pankratz,
Maloney &
Altchuler (2007)
[34]
74 adults with
alcoholism in a
three-week
outpatient
program
Not reported Uncontrolled,
single group;
measures
completed at
enrollment and
discharge
Three week
outpatient
program;
included 12-step
facilitation, CBT,
and motivational
enhancement
Increased significantly
from enrollment to
discharge
No significant change
from enrollment to
discharge
21. Religions 2011, 2 71
Normative Information
When a 1-to-4 four-point Likert scale is used, mean scores for PRC and NRC can range from a
minimum of 7 to a maximum of 28. Among studies reviewed here, actual mean scores ranged from 17
to 21 for PRC and 8 to 14 for NRC. (see Table 6 for details; means from studies using a 0-to-3 scale
were adjusted upwards to make them comparable to a 1-to-4 scale.) These means suggest that, on
average, respondents tend to endorse “somewhat” or “a great deal” for PRC items, and tend to endorse
“not at all” or “somewhat” in reference to NRC items. Standard deviations range between 4 and 6.5
and between 2.5 and 4.5 for the PRC and NRC, respectively.
Table 6. Norms.
Authors (year)* Sample Denominational Composition PRC mean (SD)** NRC mean (SD)
**
Bay, Beckman,
Tripp,
Gunderman &
Terry (2008)
[53]
170 coronary
artery bypass
graft patients
75% Protestant; 12% Catholic Pre-surgery: 20.4
(6.3)
1 mo. post-
surgery: 20.3 (5.7)
6 mo. post-
surgery: 20.1 (6.0)
Pre-surgery: 8.7
(2.6)
1 mo. post-
surgery: 8.7 (2.9)
6 mo. post-
surgery: 9.0 (3.0)
Cotton,
Grossoehme,
Rosenthal,
McGrady,
Roberts et al.
(2008) [43]
37
adolescents
with sickle
cell disease
24% Baptist, 19% Other
Christian, 11% Protestant, 11%
None, 8% Catholic, 8%
Seventh-Day Adventist, 3%
Nondenominational, 3%
Apostolic, 3% Pentecostal, 3%
Presbyterian
19.9 (5.1) 11.8 (4.4)
Cotton,
Puchalski,
Sherman, Mrus,
Peterman et al.
(2006) [44]
450
outpatients at
various
stages of
HIV/AIDS
24% Baptist, 19% Other
Christian, 11% Protestant, 11%
None, 8% Catholic, 8%
Adventist (for more see below
)
17.7 (6.4) 10.7 (4.3)
Phelps,
Maciejewski,
Nilsson,
Balboni,
Wright, et al.
(2009) [22]
345
advanced
cancer
patients
38% Catholic; 16% Protestant;
17% Baptist; 24% Other; 5%
None
18.1 (6.4) 9.0 (3.5)
Schanowitz &
Nicassio (2006)
[33]
100 older
adults in
residential
care
Not reported 20.40 (5.82) 25.38 (3.66)
Van Dyke,
Glenwick,
Cecero, & Kim
(2009) [36]
76 students at
3 private
Catholic
middle
schools
71% Catholic; 21% other
Christian; 1% agnostic
20.49 (4.29) 13.53 (4.45)
*If multiple studies drew from the same pool of participants, only one study from that pool was
included here; **All scores adjusted to (1-4) scale.
continued: 3% Nondenominational, 3% Apostolic, 3% Pentecostal, 3% Presbyterian
22. Religions 2011, 2 72
Results from the studies reviewed here suggest that PRC and NRC scores vary across demographic
groups. In their study of advanced cancer patients, Phelps, Maciejewski, Nilsson, Balboni, Wright,
et al. [22] found that those who scored high in PRC were more likely to be black or Hispanic, young,
less educated, lacking health insurance, single, and recruited from the Texas sites (the other sites were
in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire). Tarakeshwar, Paulk, Pearce, Kasl, and Prigerson
[51] found that lower NRC scores were associated with non-white status and less education.
Summary, Future Directions, and Limitations
To summarize, the Brief RCOPE has received a great deal of research attention. It is the most
commonly used measure of religious coping. Although it is possible that the conclusions of the
literature review are limited by the “file drawer” problem (i.e., unpublished studies with
non-significant findings), this body of research as a whole suggests that the Brief RCOPE is a reliable
and valid measure. Both PRC and NRC scales have demonstrated good internal consistency across a
range of samples, though these have been largely Christian and American. The majority of studies
have found that the PRC and NRC scales are not significantly associated with each other, though a few
studies report significant positive correlations between the scales. As for concurrent validity, cross-
sectional studies have generally found that PRC is significantly and positively correlated with well-
being constructs and is occasionally inversely related to indicators of poor functioning (e.g., anxiety,
depression, pain). In contrast, NRC is generally significantly and positively correlated with indicators
of poor functioning and is occasionally inversely related to constructs representing well-being.
Furthermore, the studies reviewed for this article provide some support for the incremental validity of
the Brief RCOPE; that is, PRC and NRC have been predictive of outcome variables after other
relevant demographic and psychosocial variables have been controlled. In addition, the Brief RCOPE
is predictive of outcomes after controlling for the effects of global religious variables, such as
frequency of church attendance and prayer. These findings suggest that the Brief RCOPE sheds light
on a distinctive aspect of the stress and coping process as well as a distinctive aspect of religiousness.
We also found initial support for the predictive validity of the Brief RCOPE and its sensitivity to
change among the few studies which have examined these properties. Normative data show that
respondents on average report relatively low levels of negative religious coping and relatively high
levels of positive religious coping. Studies also indicate that non-whites generally tend to have higher
PRC scores and lower NRC scores than whites.
In the future, more studies are needed to determine the extent to which the Brief RCOPE is useful in
cultures outside of the Western, largely Christian context. Significant alterations of the Brief RCOPE
will certainly be needed before it can be applied to nontheistic contexts. Longitudinal studies are also
needed to provide more information regarding the predictive validity of the Brief RCOPE and to
differentiate stress mobilization effects (i.e., distress that triggers PRC) from the long-term effects of
religious coping on health-related outcomes. Furthermore, it is important to examine the degree to
which religious coping is stable or variable over time and situations.
The brevity of the Brief RCOPE is its greatest strength—it is also its greatest weakness. The Brief
RCOPE does not offer an extensive or intensive look into the many methods of religious coping. For
example, although Pargament, Murray-Swank, Magyar, and Ano [56] and Exline and Rose [57]
23. Religions 2011, 2 73
articulated three types of religious struggle (divine, intrapsychic, interpersonal), the NRC focuses
mostly on divine types of struggle. Of course, researchers could use the complete RCOPE or select
subscales of the full RCOPE to assess those specific religious coping methods that are most relevant to
a particular sample, stressor, and question of interest. They could also select other instruments that
assess specific types of religious coping in greater detail, such as Bjorck’s [38] religious support
measure or the religious problem solving scales [19]. However, in spite of its brevity, Brief RCOPE
appears to be a good instrument that does what it was intended to do: assess religious methods of
coping in an efficient, psychometrically sound, and theoretically meaningful manner.
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