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![Defining Leadership: A Baseline
One way to explore the definition of leadership is to identify key words or terms that describe what
a leader does. For example, a leader creates a caring and trusting environment where team mem-
bers are influenced to identify with the task and purpose of a common goal to the point of being
inspired and personally motivated to use their skills to achieve it. Leaders, in this case, influence
people to act in a particular direction, and by doing so, the leader’s desired outcome is achieved.
For example, a leader may influence individuals to create a new, popular product, or personally
speaking, a leader can influence a group of friends to eat at a certain restaurant. Leadership doesn’t
always have to be in a business context! Consider how these key leadership principles or terms
develop a positive leadership climate in the following examples:
• Influence the cognitions and behaviors of others to illicit a motivating action that leads fol-
lowers to achieve a goal.
• Earn the trust of followers by demonstrating that a leader is acting not out of selfishness but
instead out of concern and care for the welfare of the organization and those whom it employs.
• Demonstrate care by, for instance, coaching and mentoring an employee for promotion. When
that employee moves on to the new position, the leader will begin the process again by coach-
ing and training a new hire.
• Inspire others by demonstrating a selfless attitude through personal sacrifice, setting an exam-
ple for others to aspire to.
Here is another way of defining leadership using the same principles: Leaders influence a
person or group of followers by using charismatic inspiration and earn their trust by setting an
example of selfless sacrifice and care that motivates the followers into achieving an individual or
group goal in pursuit of the organization’s vision. For example, Southwest Airlines has a servant
leadership attitude that motivates employees and satisfies customers. This has resulted in forty
consecutive years of profit for the company.[1]
See Video Clip 1.1 for a discussion on servant leader-
ship and how Southwest Airlines attributes this mission to continuous profitability.
Colleen Barrett discusses servant leadership at Southwest Airlines.
View in the online reader
Video Clip 1
12 The Art of Leadership and Supervision
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![pragmatism
A practical approach to
problems and affairs that
relates to matters of fact.
transformational
leadership
Appealing to the moral
values of followers in an
attempt to raise their
conscientiousness about
ethical issues and to
mobilize their energy and
resources to reform
institutions.
follower
An employee who
acknowledges the
specified leader or
manager who provides the
guidance, direction, and
purpose of an organization
or group to accomplish a
specified task or project.
subordinates
Someone whose primary
work activity is directed
and evaluated by a
specified leader or
manager.
or her to artfully synchronize several department functions to meet the organizational vision and
mission.
Are you an introvert? Watch the first ten minutes of this video to find out.
View in the online reader
Leadership Charisma
Understanding a pragmatic definition of charisma is important to becoming an effective leader.
Charismatic leaders vary widely in their pragmatism,[2]
flexibility, and opportunism and display dif-
ferent styles to achieve their end goal. Styles such as transactional leadership or transformational
leadership[3]
are examples of what charismatic leaders may use in leading followers or
subordinates to resolve a particular situation presented to them. An example of transactional lead-
ership is when a leader motivates followers by appealing to their self-interests and exchanging
benefits that satisfy the needs of the leader and the followers.
Video Clip 2
Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 17
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![inspirational
leadership
Another term that can be
used to describe
transformational leadership
where the component
behaviors associated with
the term include a few
relationship-oriented
behaviors, such as
supporting and
developing, and a few
change-oriented
behaviors, such as
articulating an appealing
vision and encouraging
innovative thinking.
The aim of transformational leadership[4]
is to appeal to the moral values of followers by raising
their conscientiousness about ethical issues. By accomplishing this, the leader impacts the moral
and ethical direction of an organization, and in addressing specific ethical issues, the leader influ-
ences follower motivation in conjunction with organizational resources to reform or transform the
direction of the institution to perform in a moral and ethical manner. Inspirational leadership is
another term that can be used to describe transformational leadership where leaders motivate by
focusing on relationship-oriented behaviors such as providing coaching or support and skill devel-
opment to the followers. In addition, inspirational leaders encourage employees to think
innovatively.[5]
Being a pragmatic leader involves increasing attention to the follower’s immediate or situa-
tional needs so the follower can continue to identify with the leader. Accomplishing this provides
an enduring dyadic follower-leader relationship that may be fueled by the leader’s charismatic
style. Charismatic leaders continuously espouse their vision and influence followers to move
toward attaining it rather than just adhering to the short-term, day-to-day routine task manager’s
focus.
Leaders are positioned throughout the organization to perform a myriad of management tasks
for the focal leader of the organization. In this case, leaders are also required to exhibit followership
traits throughout the organization’s leadership hierarchy. Though these leaders hold legitimate
roles, each differs in authority and responsibility. For example, leaders designated as program man-
agers report to operational directors; directors report to executive administrators; executives report
to the CEO; and even the CEO reports to a board of directors, oversight committee, and investors.
In each case, organizational success is dependent on each leader demonstrating good followership
traits.
The leader’s abilities need to be commensurate with the situation’s requirement. Important
leader skills and traits may include judgment and decision-making abilities; expert management
skills such as in operations, marketing, finance, information technology, sales, or logistics; commu-
nication skills; the ability to persuade others; and the ability to understand calculated risk taking.
This list is not exhaustive and of course depends on the profession or work environment require-
ments.
Charismatic leaders’ personality characteristics are important to understand in terms of their
having high self-esteem and taking ownership of their actions. Charismatics tend to be altruistic,
gregarious, generous, open, honest, and deeply concerned for others. Charismatic leaders are also
highly sensitive to the needs of followers, communicate effectively, are willing to take personal
risks, are considered change agents, and are idealistic in their vision of the future. Regardless of
the situation, they are consistent in displaying high levels of emotional intelligence, self-assurance,
self-determination, and freedom from internal or political conflict, and they are principally minded,
demonstrating strong moral and ethical conviction in their beliefs. Bernard M. Bass, in the Hand-
book of Leadership,[6]
identifies the personality characteristics of charismatics (see Table 1.2).
18 The Art of Leadership and Supervision
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![The GLOBE Project, conducted in 2005, provided many insights into cultural values and their
relationship to conceptions of leadership attributes. Using data collected from more than 17,000
managers in 170 countries, the project was able to receive a holistic answer to the question of
what are “Universally Desired Positive Leader Attributes”[7]
from an international perspective rather
than just an individual country perspective.
Universally Desired Positive Leader Attributes
Universally Desired Positive Leader Attributes [8]
• Trustworthy
• Just
• Honest
• Foresight
• Plans ahead
• Encouraging
• Positive
• Dynamic
• Motive arouser
• Confidence builder
• Motivational
• Dependable
• Intelligent
• Decisive
• Effective bargainer
• Win-win problem solver
• Communicative
• Informed
• Administratively skilled
• Coordinator
• Team builder
• Excellence oriented
Negative Leader Attributes
Negative Leader Attributes [9]
• Loner
• Asocial
• Noncooperative
• Irritable
• Nonexplicit
• Egocentric
• Ruthless
• Dictatorial
The research was based on the following nine cultural dimensions:[10]
1. Performance
Performance orientation.
orientation. The degree to which a collective encourages and rewards
group members for performance improvement and excellence.
2. Uncertainty
Uncertainty avoidance.
avoidance. The extent to which a society, organization, or group relies on
social norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events.
3. Humane
Humane orientation.
orientation. The degree to which a collective encourages and rewards individu-
als for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others.
4. Institutional
Institutional collectivism.
collectivism. The degree to which organizational and societal institutional
practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action.
5. In-group
In-group collectivism.
collectivism. The degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohe-
siveness in their organizations or families.
Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 21
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![managing
Managing roles describe
the types of required
activities that are common
to most managerial and
administrative positions.
leading
All leaders are managers,
but not all managers lead.
Leaders are competent
managers and are involved
in managing their
professional activities as
well as developing
long-range goals and the
organization’s vision.
1.4 Management
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the differences between leadership and management.
2. Learn what managers can influence.
3. Understand typical activity patterns for those in management positions.
This section focuses on providing distinctions between leadership and management roles and
functions.
FIGURE 1.3 Defining Management
Distinction between Leadership and
Management
A single individual can simultaneously possess leadership and management skills. The coexistence
of leadership and management skills in a single individual does not mean those skills have to occur
or be expressed at the same time for either to be an accurate description of leadership or manage-
ment behavior. Because of this, several distinctions between managing and leading can be made.
Managing[11]
can function in the absence of leading, but leading cannot function without man-
aging. If leading involves the art of influencing others to a desired long-term end state, then
management involves the direction of day-to-day activities with more of an operational short-term
focus.
Leading demands a greater awareness of the big picture than managing. That is, managing
tends to be more task or process focused, while leading tends to be broader in its focus. Leading
requires knowing how a task or process helps complete a larger objective so that those directly
responsible for the end result of a given task or set of tasks may more intelligently manage their
responsibilities. It seems helpful to once again use etymology; in this case, in regards to the word
“influence,” with the idea of it being necessary for a leader to see the big picture or high view in
order to effectively lead and influence.
Leading is more people oriented, whereas managing is more task and process oriented. Leading
implies going in a specific direction with others willingly following. Managing, on the other hand,
may include rewarding or coercive transactions to push people to attain a desired objective. Some
managers indeed oversee the movement of workers; for example, in a warehouse where supplies
are in constant flux, a manager is required to direct where products go, sometimes by actually tak-
24 The Art of Leadership and Supervision
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![diate circumstance they are faced with. Managers would report an issue that disrupted their
producing a product or service to the leader. The leader would ascertain if a systems change is
required, develop the plan, and authorize the implementation of the change by the manager
throughout the organization. In these cases, leaders are willing to take a calculated risk that
may result in a short-term loss in order to gain a long-term advantage.
3. Styles. Managers use transaction-based relationships in a top-down direct authority relation-
ship with employees to attain routine and repetitive short-term goals provided by specific
missions, objectives, and goals. Leadership involves using the leader-follower relationship to
influence and achieve the long-term strategic objectives. Leaders influence action by attaining
additional resources to assist in the accomplishment of tasks, clarifying objectives, and nurtur-
ing the values and beliefs of employees to help inspire and motivate them to action in attaining
the leader’s vision.
Managers tend to use a transactional approach to guiding employees.
Source: © Thinkstock
Key Takeaways
• Leadership and management can occur in the same person at the same time, but they don’t
necessarily have to coincide for either to be an accurate description of leadership or man-
agement behavior.
• Leading demands a greater awareness of the big picture than managing does. That is, man-
aging tends to be more task or process focused, while leading tends to be broader in its
focus.
• Leading is more people oriented, whereas managing is more task or process oriented. Lead-
ing implies going someplace with others in tow. Managing, on the other hand, may include
pushing people to the desired objective. Core components to the role of manager include
demands, constraints, and choices. Demands and constraints are situational influences on
leaders and affect the scope of the leader’s choices.[12]
26 The Art of Leadership and Supervision
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![associate
Connotes a valued
relationship between the
led and a specific leader
where the subordinate is
empowered to perform
specific organization
activities.
employee
A person employed by
another for wages or
salary and in a position
below the executive level.
A subordinate, or direct report, can be described as someone in a position of less power or
authority than someone else; his or her primary work activities are controlled, directed, and evalu-
ated by a leader or manager who is given authority over the subordinate. Organizations today often
use the term associate, as it connotes a relationship that is valued between the led and a designated
leader, where the subordinate is empowered to perform specific organization activities within the
constraints established by the leader or manager.[13]
A follower is someone who supports and is guided by another person. It can be an employee[14]
who acknowledges the focal leader or manager who holds a legitimate power position in a company.
The leader or manager then provides the guidance, direction, and purpose of an organization to a
follower or a group of followers to accomplish a specified task or project. Followers in this instance
are not considered subordinates or direct reports and may be volunteers who function in the
absence of a formal dyadic authoritative leader-led relationship.[15]
Key characteristics leaders and managers have to keep in mind about followers are listed in
Table 1.3. Note that executive leaders consider these characteristics in the managers they hire, and
managers consider the same characteristics for subordinates and followers.
TABLE 1.3 Personality Characteristics of Followers
1 Effective communicator
2 Proactive/Takes initiative
3 Good social skills
4 Cooperates/Team player
5 Responsible
6 Flexibile
7 Honest/Credible
8 Committed
9 Competent/Knowledgable
Source: Based on Baldwin, J.N. (2017). 9 Personality Traits of Ideal Followers. Retrieved February 2, 2018 from https://www.success.
com/article/9-personality-traits-of-ideal-followers.
Leaders are not content with things remaining the same and are constantly looking to inno-
vate and improve things as organizational environments, followers, and subordinates change.
Where managers rely on control and processes, leaders inspire trust and empower their team mem-
bers. Leaders prefer to empower employees, including managers, with the knowledge and resources
to execute actions on their own. Leaders encourage growth in individuals as well as in teams, often
coaching or mentoring employees to look beyond their current positions to see how they hope to
grow in their careers as well as within the organization. Ultimately, leaders encourage employees to
set specific goals and help set the direction for goal attainment and identify what steps are neces-
sary for them to attain them.
Key Takeaways
• Leaders encourage employees to set specific goals and help set the direction for goal attain-
ment and identify what steps are necessary to get there.
• A follower is an employee who acknowledges the specified leader or manager who provides
the guidance, direction, and purpose of an organization or group to accomplish a specified
task or project, regardless of how much formal position power or authority the leader or man-
ager possesses.
28 The Art of Leadership and Supervision
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![traits
Personal characteristics
that are dependable,
consistent, representative
of “default” patterns of
behavior and values, and
difficult to alter or refine
without openness to
inquiry and self-reflection.
Individuals are believed to
possess a combination or
set of traits that are very
functional in numerous
situations yet dysfunctional
in others or when
overused.
skills
Any set of behaviors that
can be learned to perform
a specific function. These
behaviors or skills can
generally be divided into
technical (specific to an
occupational or scientific
area), conceptual
(generalizable skills for
assessing risk, uncovering
and exploiting patterns
and connections, and
application of theories or
research), and
interpersonal, which
compromises emotional
intelligence, persuasion,
and what is commonly
referred to as “soft skills.”
Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI)
A personality assessment
generally based on Carl
Jung’s theories of
worldview and personal
preference characteristics.
These characteristics
represent variances in
interests, preferences, and
values believed to be a
combination of inherited
and socialized tendencies.
Big 5
A summary of the top five
traits and values exhibited
by successful leaders.
Let’s look at some theories, concepts, and assessments to put into perspective Carol’s internal
struggles and the impact of her interpersonal skills development, or lack thereof, on Bill. To this
end, the chapter explores the personal factors, personality traits, and skills for individuals to con-
sider in assessing their skills and motivations as leaders, role models, and in this case, enforcing a
fair and equitable workplace.
Gary Yukl[1]
describes four levels of conceptualization for exploring leadership theories and lev-
els of leader influence. Ultimately, these four levels represent four different relationship types, or
processes, where we see leadership implemented and developed. Therefore, leadership relationship
levels can be viewed as (1) intraindividual or internal, as evidenced by Carol’s internal struggles; (2)
one-on-one or dyadic relationships, as experienced between Bill and Carol; (3) a group or team set
of interactional dynamics; and (4) an organizational relationship–focused process.
These relationship levels require the leader to focus and sometimes balance varying levels of
follower concerns. Additionally, these levels necessitate different interpersonal skills and have sig-
nificant implications on leader effectiveness in these four areas. Lastly, the intraindividual, or
internal area, is viewed as the key level for the leader to consistently investigate, using openness to
inquiry, throughout his or her professional career.
Leaders are commonly judged and evaluated based on their respective behavioral abilities and
perceived sources of motivation. Generally, the two main factors that interact to drive our motiva-
tion and behavior are viewed as traits and skills.
Traits are primarily viewed as human characteristics that are “hardwired,” or innate in nature.
Innate factors are usually described as a combination of inherited propensities and enculturated
tendencies that form our worldviews, also known as governing variables.[2]
Traits, as motivating fac-
tors, are very hard to change and are viewed as both subconscious and sometimes unconscious. Yet
these important factors hold major power over our ability to benefit from constructive feedback,
assess uncomfortable situations, engage in critical personal insight, and learn new skills or refine
current skills.[3]
Understanding that traits and skills are strongly interrelated, we explore two useful trait con-
cepts in this chapter: the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big 5. We start by taking a
quick look at skills, and the importance of interpersonal skills in particular, and how certain per-
sonal traits increase the likelihood of easy or even natural skill acquisition, while other traits may
add to our struggle at acquiring or even seeing the value in certain interpersonal skills.
Therefore, our next frame of reference involves the skills related to success in three main areas.
These skills can be roughly divided into technical, conceptual, and interpersonal categories.[4]
Tech-
nical skills encompass those competencies specific to our field or occupational grouping (e.g.,
medical, accounting, information technology, teaching, business administration). Conceptual skills
encompass making sense of interrelationships, effective judgment, intuition, foresight, reasoning,
and analytical ability. Interpersonal skills involve assessing human interactions and motives, com-
prehension of the emotions and feelings of our self and others, application of empathy and
situational social sensitivity, and the ability to persuasively communicate and listen effectively.
A study by Morgan McCall and Michael Lombardo[5]
found technical skills help us enter our
chosen professional field, as well as early management positions, but decrease in importance as we
are promoted into higher-level leadership positions. Conceptual skills become an increasingly
weighed factor in the evaluation of our successes as we move up the leadership ladder, and inter-
personal skills, or lack thereof, account for most of how we will be judged by our coworkers and
followers and promoted or terminated in positions of leadership.
Chapter 2 Developing Interpersonal Skills for Success 35
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![There are many characteristics associated with good leadership; assessing your characteristics can be a first step
in further leadership development.
Source: © Thinkstock
This chapter primarily focuses on the first level of “relationship with ourselves,” or the “intra,”
and our important abilities to bring our interpersonal skills to leadership situations—requiring the
internal processes of self-evaluation, formal self-assessment, and continued self-reflection through
seeking, valuing, and accepting personal feedback. This chapter also introduces a frame of refer-
ence to help leaders understand how we may resist change through refusing or denying the need
to alter the worldview or governing variables that ultimately keep us stuck in self-defeating behav-
iors and other ineffective interaction patterns. Through the process of looking at ourselves and the
impacts of our tendencies, worldviews, emotional reactions, natural strengths, and weaknesses, this
chapter discusses a variety of methods to help you toward the end goal of becoming an effective
leader.
According to Long Yun Siang, of Career Success for Newbies,[6]
there are definable character-
istics that can help individuals become successful in their jobs, and the same goes for those in a
leadership role.
The Big 5
It can be difficult to know where we stand if we do not perform some self-assessment of our
weaknesses and strengths. A meta-analysis summary of research on effective leadership trait char-
acteristics identifies leadership traits, which are beneficial to attain while working in, or toward, a
leadership position in an organization. One of the first self-assessments/perspectives to consider
is the “Big 5” set of personality traits. The assessment, developed by Paul Costa and Robert (Jeff)
McCrae, looks at these five main personality traits:[7]
36 The Art of Leadership and Supervision
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![persuasion
A communication style
primarily used to present
thoughts, data, research,
and other evidence to
justify a position, opinion,
or decision in a
“respectful” process. The
style uses a two-sided
balancing strategy
(presenting both sides of
an issue) found effective in
reducing resistance,
demonstrating
comprehension of the
issue, increasing speaker’s
credibility, and increasing
the likelihood of the
listener safely reviewing
worldview/governing
variables.
1. (O) Openness. Those who score high have overt levels of creative energy, curiosity, and insight
into new ideas. They value critical feedback and are more prone to explore and act on entre-
preneurial opportunities. Effective leaders tend to be somewhat moderate to high on openness
traits.[8]
Leaders who have low levels of openness usually struggle with change, find the impact
of new information on recently made decisions very uncomfortable, and tend to shy away
from innovations, improved procedures they see no use for, or critical personal feedback. In
our scenario, Carol did not display openness to Bill’s feedback and perspectives.
2. (C) Conscientiousness. A high score on this trait implies a high level of thoughtfulness, meet-
ing timelines and commitments, high impulse control, and good organization and orientation
to detail. Those who score high on conscientiousness are predicted to have increased rates of
effective leadership experiences. This is the second highest trait (next to extraversion) related
to effective leadership.[9]
Leaders with low levels of conscientiousness tend to view timelines
and commitments as flexible and more negotiable than is appropriate for the situation. Fur-
thermore, low conscientiousness leads to low trust and perceived procedural injustice by
followers. In our scenario, Carol’s initial decision to make a deal with one person, while ignor-
ing the domino impact on the other program coordinators, could be viewed as an example of
both poor conscientiousness and poor impulse control.
3. (E) Extraversion. This trait includes the amount of excitability, sociability, talkativeness, and
ability to assert one’s self. Extraversion also allows leaders to naturally navigate business and
social situations with ease and comfort, especially with new people in new situations. High
scores on extraversion are linked strongly to successful leadership abilities, more so than the
other traits listed.[10]
As the scenario described, Carol possessed high levels of extraversion.
Those with low levels of extraversion are often viewed as sullen, uninterested in communi-
cation, insecure, and unsuitable to lead groups in problem solving and exploring unresolved
issues (pay special attention to Video Clip 2.1).
4. (A) Agreeableness/tact. This dimension includes kindness, excellent timing when asked to
critique ideas and activities, good emotional intelligence, a giving nature, and high levels of
affection and ability to trust others. Agreeableness/tact is seen in leaders who can quickly
assess a situation and ascertain what behavior or style is indicated and then act accordingly.
They will avoid interrupting or being dismissive. Therefore, they will postpone critical com-
ments until the time is right and use a persuasion style when critiquing an idea, position, plan,
or worldview presented by others. “Shooting from the hip” is a style rarely, if ever, displayed by
effective leaders. This trait is mildly linked to effective leadership skills.[11]
In our scenario, Carol
should have calmly listened to Bill’s concerns and promised to consider his thoughts and get
back to him with her conclusions (also an example of openness and conscientiousness). Fur-
thermore, Carol would have been wise to view Bill’s feedback as an example of loyalty to her,
given both the risk he took to bring it up to her and how his concerns served to protect her
from the repercussions of her decision to promote/recategorize only one of the program coor-
dinators.
5. (N) Low neuroticism / stability under stress. Successful leaders have the ability to keep cool
under pressure and not emotionally escalate situations that involve receiving critical feedback
and/or unexpected information. This coolness and grace is especially evident while receiving
opinions and advice that imply leader mistakes, oversights, or poor judgment. Successful lead-
ers will also know when a situation demands their complete attention, when doing nothing is
not an option, and when the needs of others outweigh their own needs or comfort.
Conversely, people high in neuroticism tend to be unstable emotionally, especially during
stressful situations. They may view critical/constructive feedback as a personal attack and as
unsupportive and can be overfocused on image or impression management. They are likely to
become defensive, may confuse loyalty with ubiquitous agreement, are more often depressed,
and report more anxiety than those that score low on this trait.[12]
In our scenario, Carol showed
very high levels of neuroticism in her reaction to Bill’s feedback and concerns. She was defen-
sive and seemed worried about giving the impression that she knew everything there was to
Chapter 2 Developing Interpersonal Skills for Success 37
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![know and that she didn’t need anyone to help her assess a situation, especially a peer with a
doctorate degree.
A helpful mnemonic device for remembering the Big 5 is “OCEAN.”
This TED Talk by Susan Cain, the author of Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World that Can’t
Stop Talking, discusses leadership and the introvert personality.
View in the online reader
Follow this link to take a Big 5 personality assessment:
http://similarminds.com/big5.html
Since we know effective leaders are perceived to have excellent social skills and high extraver-
sion,[13]
asking yourself how you might become more extraverted in social situations is important.
Attending organizational social events and networking are important opportunities to develop this
skill area and should not be avoided by a leader. Many people are concerned about what to talk
about at these types of events.[14]
Finding topics to discuss (avoiding politics and religion) before you
go can help alleviate anxiety associated with attending such an event. To develop skills in the area
of conscientiousness (since it is the second highest Big 5 predictor of leadership ability), learning
how to better organize your life and time is important. For example, keeping a schedule or to-do list
can help ensure you don’t forget important things.
Video Clip 1
38 The Art of Leadership and Supervision
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![emotional
intelligence
A set of skills and values
preparing the individual to
engage in communication
styles appropriate for the
situation. These skills
encompass empathy,
self-regulation,
self-awareness, and
comprehending when to
prioritize the needs of
others.
Emotional Intelligence
Related to the Big 5 traits of extraversion, agreeableness/tact, and stability under stress is the con-
cept of emotional intelligence. Understanding your own levels of emotional intelligence and
improving on them can be a valuable way to analyze your strengths and weaknesses. Emotional
intelligence is the ability to not only assess and control your emotions but also understand the
emotions of those around you. As noted by Daniel Goleman,[15]
self-awareness, self-regulation, social
skills, and empathy are all aspects of emotional intelligence. Self-awareness refers to your ability to
know your strengths, weaknesses, drives, and motivations. Self-regulation involves being able to
control your emotions, based on outside stimuli. Social skill is the ability to manage relationships.
Empathy refers to the ability to consider others’ feelings and thoughts and be able to put yourself
in their position. Throughout his research, Goleman found effective leaders in organizations tend
to score high on emotional intelligence. He calls skills and technical abilities important as the gate-
way to get into management positions, but once people move up the ranks into executive positions,
emotional intelligence skills are crucial.
As we saw in the opening scenario, Carol showed very poor emotional intelligence, as evi-
denced by a lack of humility, an inability to control her emotions, and a refusal to see how her
behavior would impact on Bill. Conversely, Bill showed good emotional intelligence by using a per-
suasion style in presenting his advice and concerns to Carol, in the hopes of reducing her potential
for resistance to his perspective.[16]
He asked for permission to give his feedback and even acknowl-
edged the reasonableness of Carol’s idea to promote within the organization. He also showed
foresight in understanding the long-term unintended consequences of Carol’s decision. And even
in the face of Carol’s overreaction to the emotional stress of his feedback to her, Bill kept his cool
and did not escalate the situation.
Given that emotional intelligence skills are so important, how can you improve them? Here are
a few ways:[17]
• Practice personal observation and reflection. Look at how you work with others. For example,
do you judge quickly? Being able to honestly assess how you interact with others can improve
your self-awareness and your self-regulation skills.
• Manage stress. Be aware of how you react to stress, as managing stress is part of self-regula-
tion. When you are stressed, do you lash out at your significant other or colleagues? Under-
standing how you manage stress—and managing it—can result in better self-regulation and
social skills.
• Consider how your actions will affect others (foresight). This can be both a social skill and a
self-regulation skill. If we consider how our actions will affect others, we can be more ethical
in our decision making.
• Practice humility and an appreciation of team contributions. Humility can go a long way in
relationship management and social skills. When we are humble, we give credit where credit is
due, which creates better connections with our employees.
• Learn good listening and persuasion skills. Good listening skills result in a better ability to
develop our social skills. Furthermore, presenting advice and feedback in a manner that
reduces the likelihood of resistance helps us to be viewed as thorough, informed, and balanced;
it will also help others to see the reasonableness of our ways.
• Practice empathy and connect with people. This goes without saying, but developing our con-
nections with others and showing true caring for others is both an empathic and a social skill.
• Be aware of body language and the impact of nonverbal communication on building rapport.
Understanding your body language and the body language of others can improve self-aware-
ness, develop our social skills, and result in greater empathy for others.
• Be energetic. Energy tends to create charisma, which can result in better social skills.
Chapter 2 Developing Interpersonal Skills for Success 39
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The Art Of Leadership And Supervision Version 11 Laura Portolese
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- 5. The Art ofLeadership and Supervision Version 1.1 Laura Portolese, Phil Upperman, and Bob Trumpy 978-1-4533-9155-6 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 6. The Art ofLeadership and Supervision Version 1.1 Laura Portolese, Phil Upperman, and Bob Trumpy Published by: FlatWorld 292 Newbury Street Suite #282 Boston, MA 02115-2832 © 2018 by Boston Academic Publishing, Inc. d.b.a. FlatWorld All rights reserved. Your use of this work is subject to the License Agreement available at https://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/legal. No part of this work may be used, modified, or reproduced in any form or by any means except as expressly permitted under the License Agreement. Gen: 202201242204 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 7. Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Brief Contents Author Bios Acknowledgments Dedications Preface Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership Developing Interpersonal Skills for Success Leadership Theories and Styles Building Teams, Adaptive and Situational Leadership, and Leadership Power The Leader’s Responsibility for Setting Organizational Direction Developing Employees as Followers Motivation as a Responsibility of Leadership Effective Decision Making The Ethical Leader Operational Leadership Considerations Intervening and Aiding Employees with Performance Issues Leading Change The Leadership Development Process Index © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 8. © 2018 BostonAcademic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 9. 1 3 5 7 9 Chapter 1 9 10 11 12 13 17 24 24 27 27 29 31 33 Chapter 2 33 34 36 39 40 42 43 46 46 49 Chapter3 49 49 51 62 62 63 Contents Author Bios Acknowledgments Dedications Preface Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 1.1 Defining Moments 1.2 Introduction to Leadership 1.3 Leadership Defining Leadership: A Baseline Leadership Art and Managerial Science Leadership Charisma 1.4 Management Distinction between Leadership and Management 1.5 Followers Defining the Employee and Subordinate 1.6 Chapter Summary and Case 1.7 Endnotes Developing Interpersonal Skills for Success 2.1 Getting Defensive to Prove Your Superiority or to Expose Your Insecurity? 2.2 Personality Types and Leadership Traits The Big 5 Emotional Intelligence The MBTI 2.3 Single- and Double-Loop Learning Single- versus Double-Loop Learning 2.4 Chapter Summary and Case 2.5 Endnotes Leadership Theories and Styles 3.1 Power and Leadership 3.2 Leadership Theories Approaches to Leadership Theory 3.3 Leadership Styles Autocratic Leadership Charismatic Leadership © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 10. 67 68 68 69 70 71 75 76 76 78 79 80 82 83 Chapter 4 84 84 85 88 90 92 97 103 104 105 109 109 109 110 111 113 116 117 Chapter 5 117 118 121 122 123 130 130 132 133 134 Democratic/ParticipativeLeadership Inspirational Leadership Laissez-Faire Leadership Servant Leadership Transactional Leadership Transformational Leadership 3.4 Chapter Summary and Case 3.5 Chapter 3 Appendix Summing Character Behavioral and Cognitive Leadership Performance: Values, Attributes, and Skills Assessment Organizational Values Skills Traits 3.6 Endnotes Building Teams, Adaptive and Situational Leadership, and Leadership Power 4.1 Building Teams Creating a Leadership Climate for Team Building The Team Structure the Leader Inherits The Formation Stage The Enrichment Stage The Sustainment Stage 4.2 Adaptive and Situational Leadership 4.3 Power in Leadership Elements of Personal Power Elements of Position Power Leader Power: A Privilege or Right? The Leader-to-Follower Power Gap Preventing the Abuse of Power Leader and Management Power: Two Views The Politics of Power 4.4 Chapter Summary and Case 4.5 Endnotes The Leader’s Responsibility for Setting Organizational Direction 5.1 Communicating a Direction 5.2 Introduction to Vision, Mission, and Overarching-Goal (Intent) Statements 5.3 Vision Statement The Nature and Role of a Vision Statement The Vision Statement Development Process 5.4 Mission Statements The Nature and Role of Mission Statements Describe the Mission Analysis Process Components of the Mission Statement Writing and Evaluating Mission Statements © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 11. 138 139 140 142 143 145 Chapter 6 145 145 146 147 149 153 155 156 157 159 159 160 161 162 162 164 165 168 169 Chapter 7 169 170 171 174 177 178 178 178 179 179 180 180 181 181 182 182 183 184 5.5Intent Statement Leader’s Intent Defined and Purpose Leader’s Intent Development Process 5.6 Chapter Summary and Case 5.7 Endnotes Developing Employees as Followers 6.1 The Interview 6.2 Hiring Criteria Development Application and Résumé Review Interviewing Test Administration Making the Offer Attaining a Leadership Position Hiring and Union Considerations 6.3 Training Employee Orientation In-House Training Mentoring External Training Training Program Framework Development Career Development Programs and Succession Planning 6.4 Chapter Summary and Case 6.5 Endnotes Motivation as a Responsibility of Leadership 7.1 Human Motivation at Work Theories on Job Dissatisfaction Theories on Human Motivation Sources of Employee Satisfaction and Motivation Data 7.2 Strategies Used to Increase Motivation Salaries and Benefits Training and Development Performance Appraisals Succession Planning Flextime, Telecommuting, and Sabbaticals Leader-Member Exchange Management Training Conflict Management, Morale, and Fairness Job Design, Job Enlargement, and Empowerment Create a Compelling Company Culture Pay-for-Performance Strategies Effective Delegation Other Ways to Motivate © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 12. 186 187 189 Chapter 8 189 190 190 191 191 193 195 195 197 197 200 201 201 202 202 203 204 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 Chapter 9 211 212 212 212 214 216 221 222 224 225 227 229 233 234 7.3Chapter Summary and Case 7.4 Endnotes Effective Decision Making 8.1 Social Media Blues 8.2 Decision-Making Models Ethical Priorities in Decision Making Procedural Justice and Distributive Justice Rational Decision-Making Model Edward de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats Intuitive Decision Making Vroom-Jago Decision Model Assessment Model A Closer Look at the Seven Factors 8.3 Faulty Decision Making Overconfidence Effect Framing Bias Illusion of Control Sunk Cost Bias / Escalation of Commitment Status Quo Bias 8.4 Team Decision Making and Change Team Decision-Making Challenges Kotter’s Eight Stages of Change Groupthink Avoiding Groupthink Communicating the Decision 8.5 Chapter Summary and Case 8.6 Endnotes The Ethical Leader 9.1 Unethical or the “Way We Do Business”? 9.2 An Ethics Framework What Are Ethics? Levels of Ethics: An Organizational Framework Sources of Personal Ethics Sources of Company Ethics 9.3 Making Ethical Decisions The Twelve Questions Model Josephson Institute of Ethics Model Steps to Ethical Decision Making Philosopher’s Approach 9.4 Social Responsibility 9.5 Chapter Summary and Case 9.6 Endnotes © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 13. 237 Chapter 10 237 237 239 239 242 242 243 248 248 249 251 252 258 261 263 265 Chapter 11 265 265 267 267 268 269 270 273 274 276 276 281 283 285 286 287 Chapter12 287 287 288 291 291 294 294 295 297 299 Operational Leadership Considerations 10.1 Hiring Multiculturally 10.2 Company Culture 10.3 Diversity and Multiculturalism Power and Privilege 10.4 Employee Law Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) EEOC Federal Legislation 10.5 Understanding Employee Rights Job Protection Rights Privacy Rights Labor Unions 10.6 Stress 10.7 Power Positioning and Power Sources 10.8 Chapter Summary and Case 10.9 Endnotes Intervening and Aiding Employees with Performance Issues 11.1 Handling Performance Types of Performance Issues What Influences Performance? Defining Discipline Performance Issue Model Investigation of Performance Issues Options for Handling Performance Issues Employee Separation Rightsizing and Layoffs 11.2 Performance Evaluations Performance Appraisal Process Best Practices in Performance Appraisals Improvement Plans 11.3 Chapter Summary and Case 11.4 Endnotes Leading Change 12.1 Change at the Fruit Warehouse 12.2 What Is Change? What Is Change? Outcomes of Poor Change Management Change Management 12.3 Change Process Kotter’s Change Model Lewin’s Model Beer and Nohria’s Model 12.4 Guidelines for Change Implementation © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 14. 304 305 307 Chapter 13 307 307 308 309 309 315 316 316 317 319 319 320 321 322 332 334 335 12.5 ChapterSummary and Case 12.6 Endnotes The Leadership Development Process 13.1 A Shining Star 13.2 Personal Leadership Plans Applying the Self-Assessment Phase Application of Self-Assessment Goal-Setting Phase Reflection Phase 13.3 Career Growth: Impression Management Introductions Dining Out Clothing Technology Reputation Management General Etiquette for Career Success 13.4 Continual Learning and Feedback 13.5 Chapter Summary and Case 13.6 Endnotes Index © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 15. Author Bios Laura Portolese Dr.Laura Portolese holds a master’s of business administration from City University and a doctor- ate of business administration from Argosy University. This is Laura’s third book with FlatWorld. Previous books included Human Resource Management, Human Relations, Consumer Behavior Today. She has previously published two books with McGraw-Hill. Laura has been published in the Journal of Online Educators and the Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management and has presented “Baby Boomers: A Study in Their Buying Behaviors” to the Marketing Management Asso- ciation. Laura has also written case studies for DECA (Distributive Education Clubs of America) competitions and written numerous supplemental materials for management and customer ser- vice textbooks. Laura is an associate professor at Central Washington University in the Department of Infor- mation Technology and Administrative Management. Before becoming a professor, Laura worked for several small and large organizations in management and operations. She is also an entrepre- neur who has performed management and consulting work for companies such as Microsoft. Dr. Phil Upperman Dr. Phil Upperman has more than thirty-five years of experience as a leader and staff officer as well as a lecturer, trainer, and instructor at midmanagement and leadership development schools and universities. Phil is currently serving as a lecturer and adviser at Central Washington University. He has held a department chair position as the professor of military science at Seattle University. In this position, he was the program director responsible for developing undergraduate students in the areas of leadership character, individual and team development, and organizational and opera- tions management. As an instructor at the US Army Infantry School, he taught leadership, tactical and operational art and science, organizational management, and physical fitness development. At the US Military Academy (West Point), he served as a university-level psychology counselor responsible for the per- sonal leadership development of cadets as individuals and in groups. Phil has twenty-eight years of service, commanding at the company and field-grade levels as a platoon leader, twice in company command positions, and as a battalion commander. Phil has served on general officer staffs as an aide-de-camp of a Corps Logistics Command, chief of operations at the division and battalion lev- els in the 101st Airborne Division, and as a deputy chief of operations on the I Corps staff. At West Point, he held the position of deputy garrison commander (deputy city manager). He has also held several executive officer staff positions at the brigade and company levels. In the private indus- try sector, he held positions as a program, region, and national director for a technology education company serving government and private education programs. Phil has a proven experiential track record of long-term success and achievement in the areas of fiscal management, human resources, © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 16. operations, marketing, organizationaltraining, and operational and leadership program develop- ment. Phil holds a doctorate from the School of Education at Seattle University, a master’s degree in education and counseling psychology from Washington State University, and a master’s degree in business management science from Troy University. As an Army officer, he graduated from the Army’s Command and General Staff College, Officer Advanced (midcareer) and Officer Basic (entry- level) leadership courses, with a professional education focus on tactical and operational art and science as well as organizational leadership and management. Dr. Bob Trumpy Dr. Bob Trumpy is currently an associate professor of administrative management in the Depart- ment of Information Technology and Administrative Management (ITAM) at Central Washington University. From 1998 to 2009, Bob had been an administrator in the Division of Student Affairs and Enrollment Management (Senior Director of Health and Counseling Services), having also served in the role as lecturer in the College of Education and Professional Studies for the Department of Teacher Education and the Department of Information Technology and Administrative Manage- ment. Bob holds a doctorate of education (educational leadership–higher education administration) from Seattle University. His experience includes more than twenty-three years in leadership and supervisory positions in the fields of health care, consultation and training, and higher education. Bob is certified to administer and interpret the Strong Interest Inventory as well as the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator and is a State of Washington licensed mental health counselor and a State of Wisconsin licensed clinical social worker. 2 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 17. Acknowledgments We would liketo thank the following colleagues whose comprehensive feedback and suggestions for improving the material helped us make a better text: • Jim Fullerton, College of Coastal Georgia • Cheryl Harrison, Manhattan College • Robert Hirsch, North Park University • Kozhi Makai, Lone Star College • Thomas Mengel, University of New Brunswick, Renaissance College • Carrie Messal, College of Charleston • Cheryl Stenmark, Angelo State University • V. Lynn Tankersley, Mercer University © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 18. 4 The Artof Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 19. Dedications Laura Portolese This bookis dedicated to the students of the information technology and administrative man- agement (ITAM) department of Central Washington University. May you continue your quest for leadership knowledge long after leaving the department! Phil Upperman This book is dedicated to students, instructors, soldiers, and leaders who taught, coached, and men- tored me in life and work. Bob Trumpy I’d like to thank our coauthor and friend, Dr. Laura Portolese, for her dedicated focus on the details and vision needed to compose an applied skills textbook on leadership. Thanks again, Laura. © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 20. 6 The Artof Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 21. Preface There are manyexcellent leadership books on the market. Likewise, there are many excellent supervision books on the market. However, most of the books on this topic only cover one or the other (leadership or supervision) and do little to combine both topics—which is the most benefi- cial to our students in their future management careers. For example, most leadership books only discuss leadership from an academic perspective and don’t do enough to show how to apply those leadership characteristics and theories to the actual management and supervision of people. In addition, the authors believe that in order to be good leaders, people must understand themselves; therefore, the book focuses on self-assessments, allowing students to better understand their own strengths and weaknesses as a leader. This book will combine the topics and show students how to be a leader and a supervisor. To this point, the authors believe leadership, management, and supervision are interrelated and should be discussed as such in order to develop the most effective leaders. The three com- ponents of an umbrella come to mind in describing leadership in visual terms: leadership would be the overarching cloth held up by the arms, or stanchions; management would be the pole, and supervision would be the handle. Each component supports the other and is necessary for lead- ing a successful organization. If any part is missing or damaged, the umbrella becomes useless in solving the many problems that rain down upon us over the course of a day. That is the philosophy behind this book. Based on the interrelatedness of leadership, management, and supervision, the book will include the following topics: • Real-life perspectives • Self-assessments • Situational examples • Conversational tone and experiential practices © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 22. This book couldbe used in any of the following courses: • Foundations of Leadership • Introduction to Supervision • Introduction to Management • Administrative Supervision • Introduction to Supervisory Management • Professional Development • Character Development • Introduction to Leadership • Educational Leadership • Business Leadership • Industrial Psychology • Student Development Services Features Each chapter opens with a realistic example that introduces a concept to be explained in detail. Each chapter contains relevant examples, YouTube videos, figures, learning objectives, key take- aways, and exercises. An “Additional Perspectives” section is included in in each chapter, which addresses diversity in leadership. Many of the end-of-section exercises offer self-assessment quizzes so the student may engage in self-understanding and development. Additionally, FlatWorld’s publishing model helps keep examples relevant and timely without publishing a completely new edition—saving students money and saving professors time! The customizable model FlatWorld has pioneered will allow instructors discretion to dictate the content they choose to use in their course. No more wasted chapters: if a professor chooses not to use a chapter, he or she simply customizes the book to leave that chapter out. Additionally, the book will provide a comprehensive set of instructor materials, including an instructor manual, test bank, and PowerPoint presentations. What’s New in Version 1.1 • New and updated examples added throughout the text • Updated leadership and supervision research implemented and discussed within the text • New and updated video content added throughout the text • Content revised throughout to aid in student comprehension 8 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 23. CHAPTER 1 Introduction toLeadership, Management, and Followership If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you are a leader. — John Quincy Adams A leader takes people where they want to go. A great leader takes people where they don’t neces- sarily want to go, but ought to be. — Rosalynn Carter 1.1 Defining Moments The weekly meeting ended and the leadership team disbanded to their work areas and depart- ments to disseminate the information and tasks needed to accomplish the organization’s vision and mission. Claire, the chief executive officer (CEO), found the habit of reviewing the company vision and mission statements was useful in reminding the managers of what, why, and how they were going to stay the long-term course by achieving the organization’s short-term goals. Now it was time for the division managers to reinforce this message to their section and program managers. She knew that reinforcing the goals would influence the action necessary to motivate employees to accomplish the tasks set before them. As she walked back to her office, she trusted that the managers were focused on directing and supervising their sections and divisions. Claire knew her focus was to synchronize the parts of the organization and synergize the organizational employees’ effort in accomplishing the vision, mis- sion, and goals. Grant, the operations manager, left Claire’s weekly meeting with a lot on his mind. He was sure his counterparts felt the same way. He was glad she took the time to look at the long-term plan, as he had his hands full with keeping day-to-day activities on track. He knew she trusted him because he had a solid reporting system in place that assured quality in their product and he consistently met the stringent timelines set for his team. He also knew that he was in charge of supervising the people who were at the forefront of the company mission. Grant informed Caroline, an employee on the floor, that Claire was going to visit their depart- ment today. She heard Claire often made the rounds to speak to employees in different depart- ments and, during this time, seemed to take a personal interest in their relationship to the company while asking about their families and personal and professional interests. Even though the discus- sion focused on what they thought about their part in fulfilling the company mission, Claire also took the time to have a cursory discussion about their progression. Caroline thought it was nice to have the head of the company speak to them one-on-one, as it showed she cared not only about the company but also about them. © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 24. Claire thought itessential to take the time to provide a leadership presence in all parts of the company not only to acknowledge the individual managers’ accomplishments but also to inspire the employees. Circulating around the organization and talking to small groups or individual employees about what was on their minds and how the company can best support them in the long run was crucial to accomplishing the mission because the employees are central to achieving success. She knew this action alone provided credibility to what the managers stated on her behalf, and she never wanted employees to think it was something they just made up to get the job done. 1.2 Introduction to Leadership Learning Objectives 1. Understand personal leadership and management experience in the context of academic and scholarly work. 2. Define your leadership and managerial leadership principles. FIGURE 1.1 Transcending Roles and Responsibilities What is leadership, and how does it differentiate from the concept of management? Can a manager be a leader? Does leadership require understanding or having management skills? What leadership abilities or management skills are necessary to be competent in performing your duties? These are some questions this chapter explores. In this chapter, we investigate a process of how you can define what your personal leadership and management styles are. Understanding this is the beginning of a very personal journey to explore your continued leadership development requirements. For example, how you define your personality in terms of the leadership connection to behavioral sciences, as well as the professional skills necessary to be an effective manager—which are then added to your understanding and development as a leader—are all part of the leadership development journey discussed in this and other chapters. Understanding the concepts of leadership and management requires readers to first under- stand their leadership and management experience and place it into the context of academic or scholarly theories and concepts. Doing this provides the developing leader with a baseline of identified experience to work from. The next step of leadership development is to understand the professional cognate or language used in academia or scholarly work on leadership. Having this understanding allows the developing leader to better grasp the theories and concepts that frame the hard-earned experiences into lessons learned. The last part of leadership development involves the study of historical and even contemporary leaders. Using leadership or management 10 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 25. experience, and framingthis with academic or scholarly work, provides the reader with the tools necessary to evaluate and assess the effectiveness of historical or contemporary leaders. The beginning of your leadership development journey is to first understand your leadership and management experience. To accomplish this undertaking is to define your experience in the context of academic and scholarly work, and this is where we begin the study of leadership. Key Takeaways • Understanding the concepts of leadership and management requires understanding your personal leadership and management experience and placing it into the context of academic or scholarly theories and concepts. • Leadership development involves the study of historical and even contemporary leaders. Using leadership or management experience and framing this with academic or scholarly work provides the tools necessary to evaluate and assess the effectiveness of historical or contemporary leaders. Exercises 1. Define your personal leadership and management experience to develop a baseline of infor- mation to place into the context of academic or scholarly work. 2. Create your own list of ten guiding leadership principles. A simple definition of a leadership principle is a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for your leader- ship character and that guides the way you interact, support, and engage with followers. 1.3 Leadership Learning Objectives 1. Describe the nature and role of leadership. 2. Understand the role of charisma in leadership. 3. Identify and define the art of leadership and managerial science. FIGURE 1.2 Defining Leadership Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 11 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 26. Defining Leadership: ABaseline One way to explore the definition of leadership is to identify key words or terms that describe what a leader does. For example, a leader creates a caring and trusting environment where team mem- bers are influenced to identify with the task and purpose of a common goal to the point of being inspired and personally motivated to use their skills to achieve it. Leaders, in this case, influence people to act in a particular direction, and by doing so, the leader’s desired outcome is achieved. For example, a leader may influence individuals to create a new, popular product, or personally speaking, a leader can influence a group of friends to eat at a certain restaurant. Leadership doesn’t always have to be in a business context! Consider how these key leadership principles or terms develop a positive leadership climate in the following examples: • Influence the cognitions and behaviors of others to illicit a motivating action that leads fol- lowers to achieve a goal. • Earn the trust of followers by demonstrating that a leader is acting not out of selfishness but instead out of concern and care for the welfare of the organization and those whom it employs. • Demonstrate care by, for instance, coaching and mentoring an employee for promotion. When that employee moves on to the new position, the leader will begin the process again by coach- ing and training a new hire. • Inspire others by demonstrating a selfless attitude through personal sacrifice, setting an exam- ple for others to aspire to. Here is another way of defining leadership using the same principles: Leaders influence a person or group of followers by using charismatic inspiration and earn their trust by setting an example of selfless sacrifice and care that motivates the followers into achieving an individual or group goal in pursuit of the organization’s vision. For example, Southwest Airlines has a servant leadership attitude that motivates employees and satisfies customers. This has resulted in forty consecutive years of profit for the company.[1] See Video Clip 1.1 for a discussion on servant leader- ship and how Southwest Airlines attributes this mission to continuous profitability. Colleen Barrett discusses servant leadership at Southwest Airlines. View in the online reader Video Clip 1 12 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 27. leadership art The applicationof effects and understanding of behavioral and leadership sciences to one or more employees and other organizational stakeholders in order to influence the attainment of an organizational goal or objective. The application involves the effective use of people skills to influence stakeholder behavior. Also involves a conceptual understanding of strategic and operational art that results in a leader’s ability to articulate a grand vision or end state for an organization. Developing your own definition of leadership and setting goals to figure out how to strengthen your leadership skills can help make you “hit the bull’s-eye” in your career. Source: © Thinkstock Leadership definitions require a very personal definition that identifies with your personality style based on an understanding of the behavioral sciences. Each leader is responsible for devel- oping his or her unique definition and then applying it in word and deed on a consistent and predictable basis to earn enough trust to influence the follower to willingly achieve a task or goal. Leadership Art and Managerial Science Leadership art involves a thorough understanding of behavioral sciences. This means leaders need to understand their personality and possess effective people skills before they can understand those they want to influence. Leadership art also involves an understanding of strategic and oper- ational art. Having this understanding provides leaders with the ability to conceptualize and articulate a grand vision or end state for an organization. Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 13 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 28. leader Also referred toas leadership, can be defined in many ways as it applies to the particular organization mission and structure. The role of a leader is focused on following a group process. It involves behavioral sciences as it includes personality, induces follower or subordinate compliance, exercises personal influence to achieve motivation and interaction in others, possesses particular personal behaviors, involves persuasion and power relationships, and is goal oriented. Leaders are experts in understanding all facets of the organizational relationships between operations, research and development, training management, marketing, information technology, human resources, logistics, and sales. This does not mean they are experts in each area, but it does mean they possess the ability to become generalists of each and can synchronize the separate activ- ities into a unified effort. For example, a chief executive officer of an organization—in order to effectively coordinate activities—should know a bit about accounting, sales, and operations. These organizational functions or departments represent examples of a few areas of leadership and man- agement expertise. The key is that leaders may not be “the expert” in a specific skill set to the extent that, say, a marketing or information technology manager is, but they understand how to synchro- nize the manager’s efforts by communicating clear tasks and purposes to the entire organization to achieve the organization’s vision. Managers understand their specific responsibility and role within a segment of the organiza- tion. Managers do possess leadership traits and skills but are limited in that they are expected to perform in a routine and narrower segment of an organization. Their responsibility is focused on their team performance as it relates to the organization and not on the performance of all teams functioning in a synergetic manner for the good of the organization. Managers leave this to the organization’s leader to accomplish. If a manager’s area is performing to standard and meets the expected outcome, he or she is content. A leader should develop the conceptual ability to create a long-term plan of action (leaders develop strategic visions). In turn, a manager is focused on a short-term plan of action (a manager’s operational view). The manager also has to be concerned with day-to-day activities, whereas the leader’s focus may be on monthly, quarterly, and annual results (not that the manager is not concerned, as he or she does provide the results). We call this conceptual gift or ability the art of leadership. Conceptual art is the ability to develop a long-term strategy by understanding management science and synchronizing many management activities (marketing, sales, product development, human resources, information technology, logistics, etc.) to attain results at the deci- sive time and place of the leader’s choosing (creating a synergistic effect for the organization). Leaders and managers are required to understand behavioral and management sciences to be effective in the dyadic relationship between them and the followers. Though each party needs to understand behavioral and management science, the leaders and managers require unique types of expert knowledge of an occupational or professional skill area. An example is that a leader may have unique expert knowledge in personal management, business management, and leadership at the strategic and operational levels of a company, whereas a manager may be an expert in human resources, operations, or marketing or sales skills at the operational or program-management level of the same company. In this example, leadership requires a broader understanding of behavioral and management science than the manager would be expected to have in performing his or her organizational role. In this scenario, leaders directly or indirectly influence management activities and possess unique management or administrative science skills to synchronize the entire organi- zation’s efforts, while managers are delegated the authority to administer a specific organizational team within the larger organization. Examples of administrative management areas that require unique occupational managerial skills include the following: • Human resources • Accounting/finance • Sales/customer service • Operations • Logistics • Marketing • Information technology • Research and development Another difference between leadership and management is that leaders are more attuned to behavioral sciences—that is, both cognitive (thoughts) and behavioral (actions)—as they relate 14 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 29. managerial science Skill setsleaders attain over the course of their professional development, such as accounting, finance, operations, human resources, information technology, marketing, and so on, that are learned in administrative management or business management studies. externally and internally to all managerial roles and work to synchronize their management efforts. Because of this, leaders may be more attuned to individuals’ emotional intelligence and influencing individual role personalities across a broad range of skills. This can occur, for example, when leaders indirectly use personal power, specifically referent power, to influence the entire orga- nization with the use of written, video, or other technology-based communication, such as blogs. The leader uses referent and expert power in a very direct manner to influence the management team member, who then influences his or her workers. Managers, in turn, understand how to direct individual behaviors and may focus more on leveraging position power (legitimate, reward, coer- cive, informational, and ecological powers) to influence subordinates to commit to the management team goal. Managers are more inclined to direct bureaucratic actions in executing their supervisory role to accomplish the short-term, day-to-day wins necessary to achieve the long-term organiza- tional vision and operational intent. Each department can be organized differently. Small organizations may have a few people, with only one or two people to perform the day-to-day operations, whereas a larger organization may have several suborganizations with two to five sections in each that are responsible for different services or products. These departments may require many employees organized into subteams, or sections, with project or program managers within each section responsible for the day-to-day execution of the operational plan. Are leadership and management roles similar in any way? We believe so, and this can be demonstrated by understanding the managerial sciences. What is managerial science? Managerial science skills are learned in administrative management and business management studies. Lead- ers and managers learn about specific skill sets related to their occupation in courses such as strategic management and policy development, finance, project management, information technol- ogy, and business management. The number of unique skills a leader is required to possess varies depending on the leadership or management level. An example of management distribution is when a manager occupies various levels of management activities with different skills, such as simultaneously directing and monitoring the daily activities of a technology department, a finance department, and a marketing team. Some of these management functions can be grouped together under one manager. For example, finance and human resources each have a manager who reports to an executive team leader or director. Other examples are operations, sales, and marketing func- tions, which each have a manager and an executive leader who not only synchronize their activities but also develop the policy they act on. Table 1.1 provides an example of management activities requiring executive leadership. The point is that each management skill set or activity requires leadership if you are going to have an organization that produces a service or product. Leaders, however, can take their skill set and move to a different organization and still lead effectively. Mean- while, a manager may be purely focused on a particular occupational or professional skill set in an organization, which confines him or her to exercising his or her unique expertise. An example is a manager who uniquely understands a specific management area such as marketing, finance, oper- ational, logistics, information technology, or human resources. The manager may be skilled only within one particular area and can expertly manage only this area effectively and efficiently. Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 15 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 30. TABLE 1.1 ExampleManagement and Executive Leadership Activities Requiring Leadership Oversight Chief Operations Officer Chief Financial Officer Vice President(s) Chief executive officer or president Chief executive officer or president 1. Operations 2. Marketing 3. Logistics 4. Sales 5. Customer service 6. Information technology 1. Accounting/ finance 2. Human resources 1. Business development 2. Research and development (human resources or other management areas could also be placed under a specific executive leadership directorate) Executive leaders who serve as chief executive officer (CEO), chief financial officer (CFO), chief operational officer (COO), or in research and development and sales departments are the people who set or contribute to developing organizational policy and are responsible for helping to shape the organization’s strategic vision, mission, and operational intent. Table 1.1 provides an example of the chain of responsibility or authority where the CFO, COO, and various executive vice presidents report to the CEO. Though not a rule, a COO can be responsible for the organization’s operational departments such as marketing, logistics, sales, customer relations, and training. The executive leaders accomplish their roles by leading the managers who supervise their areas of responsibility. An example is when the CFO is responsible for leading the finance and the human resource func- tions of the organization—in this case, the CFO is leading the managers who supervise the two departments they are the focal leader for, while the CFO is the focal leader for the two managers. What this example demonstrates is there can be several levels of leadership and management func- tions that require widely different leadership and management skills. In this case, you have an executive team led by the CEO and comprising the COO, CFO, and executive vice presidents (sales, marketing, etc.), who in turn lead the effort in developing strategy and form policy, as well as cre- ate the vision, mission, and operational intent for the organization. At the next level, you find the department management teams with specific management and professional skills in areas of oper- ations, marketing, information technology, and so on. These managers report to a focal executive leader who has executive leadership and management training, as well as a functional knowledge of the professional skills required at the various management levels he or she supervises. Managers are independent in operating their department but are dependent on each other to synchronize their specific department operational role with other department managers in terms of accomplishing the overall organization vision and mission. For example, the executive leader’s long-term strategy is operationalized by the management teams to meet day-to-day, short-term goals. In this case, the management teams are each supporting efforts to the larger organization’s main effort to accomplish the vision and mission within the operational constraints identified in a strategic management plan. Leadership team members possess managerial skills, but they are focused on leading the man- agement staff at the strategic operational level. The focus at this level is on organizational strategy or strategic management (including the development of a vision, mission, and operational intent). A manager, in turn, has to understand how to take the organization’s strategy and operationalize it. They then meet daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, and annual goals or objectives in accordance with the leadership team’s influence. To meet these demands, the managers implement managerial sci- ences within their expertise. This is why some employees are elevated within specific departments, as they truly under- stand their jobs within the context of a specific organization. A leader, however, may have a specific managerial skill but also possess a broader and more general leadership skill set that allows him 16 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 31. pragmatism A practical approachto problems and affairs that relates to matters of fact. transformational leadership Appealing to the moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their conscientiousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform institutions. follower An employee who acknowledges the specified leader or manager who provides the guidance, direction, and purpose of an organization or group to accomplish a specified task or project. subordinates Someone whose primary work activity is directed and evaluated by a specified leader or manager. or her to artfully synchronize several department functions to meet the organizational vision and mission. Are you an introvert? Watch the first ten minutes of this video to find out. View in the online reader Leadership Charisma Understanding a pragmatic definition of charisma is important to becoming an effective leader. Charismatic leaders vary widely in their pragmatism,[2] flexibility, and opportunism and display dif- ferent styles to achieve their end goal. Styles such as transactional leadership or transformational leadership[3] are examples of what charismatic leaders may use in leading followers or subordinates to resolve a particular situation presented to them. An example of transactional lead- ership is when a leader motivates followers by appealing to their self-interests and exchanging benefits that satisfy the needs of the leader and the followers. Video Clip 2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 17 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 32. inspirational leadership Another term thatcan be used to describe transformational leadership where the component behaviors associated with the term include a few relationship-oriented behaviors, such as supporting and developing, and a few change-oriented behaviors, such as articulating an appealing vision and encouraging innovative thinking. The aim of transformational leadership[4] is to appeal to the moral values of followers by raising their conscientiousness about ethical issues. By accomplishing this, the leader impacts the moral and ethical direction of an organization, and in addressing specific ethical issues, the leader influ- ences follower motivation in conjunction with organizational resources to reform or transform the direction of the institution to perform in a moral and ethical manner. Inspirational leadership is another term that can be used to describe transformational leadership where leaders motivate by focusing on relationship-oriented behaviors such as providing coaching or support and skill devel- opment to the followers. In addition, inspirational leaders encourage employees to think innovatively.[5] Being a pragmatic leader involves increasing attention to the follower’s immediate or situa- tional needs so the follower can continue to identify with the leader. Accomplishing this provides an enduring dyadic follower-leader relationship that may be fueled by the leader’s charismatic style. Charismatic leaders continuously espouse their vision and influence followers to move toward attaining it rather than just adhering to the short-term, day-to-day routine task manager’s focus. Leaders are positioned throughout the organization to perform a myriad of management tasks for the focal leader of the organization. In this case, leaders are also required to exhibit followership traits throughout the organization’s leadership hierarchy. Though these leaders hold legitimate roles, each differs in authority and responsibility. For example, leaders designated as program man- agers report to operational directors; directors report to executive administrators; executives report to the CEO; and even the CEO reports to a board of directors, oversight committee, and investors. In each case, organizational success is dependent on each leader demonstrating good followership traits. The leader’s abilities need to be commensurate with the situation’s requirement. Important leader skills and traits may include judgment and decision-making abilities; expert management skills such as in operations, marketing, finance, information technology, sales, or logistics; commu- nication skills; the ability to persuade others; and the ability to understand calculated risk taking. This list is not exhaustive and of course depends on the profession or work environment require- ments. Charismatic leaders’ personality characteristics are important to understand in terms of their having high self-esteem and taking ownership of their actions. Charismatics tend to be altruistic, gregarious, generous, open, honest, and deeply concerned for others. Charismatic leaders are also highly sensitive to the needs of followers, communicate effectively, are willing to take personal risks, are considered change agents, and are idealistic in their vision of the future. Regardless of the situation, they are consistent in displaying high levels of emotional intelligence, self-assurance, self-determination, and freedom from internal or political conflict, and they are principally minded, demonstrating strong moral and ethical conviction in their beliefs. Bernard M. Bass, in the Hand- book of Leadership,[6] identifies the personality characteristics of charismatics (see Table 1.2). 18 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 33. TABLE 1.2 PersonalityCharacteristics of Charismatics Characteristic Definition Example Traits Expressive behavior Charismatic leadership manifests itself in nonverbal emotional expressiveness or cues to move, inspire, or captivate others. Related to the dramatic flair and experience in acting and politics. • Have a need for exhibition and dominance • Use a tone of voice that is engaging and captivating • Use relaxed but animated facial expressions • Maintain direct eye contact, which has a magnetic attraction • Use expressive cues such as rate and fluency of speech, outward-directed gestural fluency and smiles, and cues of body emphasis, contact with the body, and inward-directed gestures Self-confidence Charismatic leaders display complete confidence in the correctness of their positions and in their capabilities and make this confidence a clear aspect of their public image. • Have elevated self-esteem, which helps to avoid defensiveness in conflicting interpersonal situations and to maintain the confidence that their subordinates have in them • Tend to project onto like-minded loyal followers their continuing confident opinions of themselves so that they become larger than life • Present themselves as miracle workers who are likely to succeed when others would fail Self-determination Charismatic leaders have the personal attributes of purpose, power, and extraordinary determination that set them apart from ordinary people. • Strong personal inner direction • Originality in thought • Self-determination • Sense of duty to others and the organization • Responsible and accountable for the unique self • Concerned with the future and create a unique vision that includes new values and goals Insight The charismatic leader can arouse through articulation feelings of need among followers and find radical solutions to their problems. • Provide insight into the needs, values, and hopes of followers with an ability to build on them through dramatic and persuasive words and actions • Have the ability to conceptually develop and articulate goals that focus people out of their preoccupation • Can unite and motivate people to achieve goals and objectives • State things publically that followers feel privately but are unable to express Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 19 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 34. Characteristic Definition ExampleTraits Freedom from internal conflict Charismatic leaders maintain their confidence and determination, despite serious setbacks and defeats, through a self-assurance that is consistent with their self-image. • Confidence and determination stem from their greater freedom from the internal conflict that others are more likely to experience between their emotions, impressions, and feelings • Are convinced of the goodness, rightness, and importance of their own points of view • Likely to be more forthright and candid in reprimanding subordinates and can maintain a clear conscience if they feel they must replace them Eloquence Charismatic leaders have an emotional flair for expressive language, and even though they may not write the work, they are effective in expressing it. • Use high-action verbs, short pauses between phrases and sentences, and reiteration in their speeches • Create messages that are simple and focus on the collective identity of the speaker and the audience • Evoke a response from the audience. Activity and energy level Charismatic leaders have a high energy level, are caring and optimistic, and have a capacity to inspire loyalty. • Take a more active role and significantly stronger actions than noncharismatic leaders. Dark side of charismatics’ self-determination Charismatics can be highly self-oriented narcissists who are concerned with themselves rather than involved with others and are oriented in ideas for their own sake rather than for material gain. • Obstinate • Closed minded • Dogmatic • Rigid • Do not think they need to develop • Regard differences of opinion as counterproductive Leadership requires the ability to conceptualize a vision and synchronize a staff activity to develop a long-range plan of action. This can be referred to as the art of leadership and can be extended into the science of management and supervision. Another distinguishing characteristic is that leadership and management require different professional or vocational skills. Leaders set themselves apart by having a broader or deeper understanding of behavioral sciences and how their actions or communications affect followers, in addition to management science, whereas managers have to understand the various sciences of management involving a narrower focus on their roles to develop processes to accomplish the specific tasks of their division or department. Additional Perspectives GLOBE Project (2005) GLOBE Project (2005) 20 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 35. The GLOBE Project,conducted in 2005, provided many insights into cultural values and their relationship to conceptions of leadership attributes. Using data collected from more than 17,000 managers in 170 countries, the project was able to receive a holistic answer to the question of what are “Universally Desired Positive Leader Attributes”[7] from an international perspective rather than just an individual country perspective. Universally Desired Positive Leader Attributes Universally Desired Positive Leader Attributes [8] • Trustworthy • Just • Honest • Foresight • Plans ahead • Encouraging • Positive • Dynamic • Motive arouser • Confidence builder • Motivational • Dependable • Intelligent • Decisive • Effective bargainer • Win-win problem solver • Communicative • Informed • Administratively skilled • Coordinator • Team builder • Excellence oriented Negative Leader Attributes Negative Leader Attributes [9] • Loner • Asocial • Noncooperative • Irritable • Nonexplicit • Egocentric • Ruthless • Dictatorial The research was based on the following nine cultural dimensions:[10] 1. Performance Performance orientation. orientation. The degree to which a collective encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence. 2. Uncertainty Uncertainty avoidance. avoidance. The extent to which a society, organization, or group relies on social norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events. 3. Humane Humane orientation. orientation. The degree to which a collective encourages and rewards individu- als for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others. 4. Institutional Institutional collectivism. collectivism. The degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action. 5. In-group In-group collectivism. collectivism. The degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohe- siveness in their organizations or families. Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 21 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 36. 6. Assertiveness. Assertiveness. Thedegree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationships with others. 7. Gender egalitarianism. Gender egalitarianism. The degree to which a collective minimizes gender inequality. 8. Future Future orientation. orientation. The extent to which individuals engage in future-orientated behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning, and investing in the future. 9. Power Power distance. distance. The degree to which members of a collective expect power to be dis- tributed equally. As leaders, we may be faced with situations that require us to be sensitive to follower reaction, even if our communication, decision, or direction is the correct choice based on topics discussed in this book. Understanding some of the components, such as culture, that impact follower reac- tion can help us better predict, understand, and plan for reactions that we may not expect. Throughout the book, we refer to applicable cultural dimensions and discuss how these specific dimensions relate to the understanding of diversity and possible follower reaction. We refer to each of these dimensions and point out how the specific dimension relates to a leadership situation where understanding of diversity—and these cultural dimensions—are necessary for leadership effectiveness. Our first Additional Perspectives sidebar describes assertiveness. Assertiveness refers to the degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggres- sive in their relationships with others. People and societies with higher levels of assertiveness tend to value competition, success, and progress while focusing on direct communication. They expect subordinates to take the initiative. People and societies with lower levels of assertiveness tend to expect subordinates to be loyal and value cooperation. In addition, they prefer indirect communication. As the manager of the information technology department, you have a daily list of tasks catego- rized by priority for your employees. Employees take turns going down the list to solve issues, and after one is solved, they review the list for the next available issue. After one of your employ- ees completes a task, she always updates you on the task and asks, “What’s next?” You feel she should make more of an effort to review the list instead of coming to you with the issue. Assume you have high assertiveness and your employee has low assertiveness. Knowing we can’t change people’s individual personality or cultural traits, how can we improve this situation? Source: Based on House, R., Javidan, M., & Dorfman, P. (2001). Project GLOBE: An introduc- tion. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50(4), pp. 489–505. The distinction and relationship between the leading and managing concepts proves chal- lenging for both scholars and the business community. The perspective is that management is a component of leadership, with each having very distinct concepts in application. When the leadership team of an organization gathers, who is in charge? Are they all? Or is one person selected as the spokesperson for the group—or as the speaker, president, department chair, dean, or any other title you would like to bestow on the position that holds the focal responsibility and authority for the organization’s vision, mission, and goals? The notion of one person in charge at all times may not sit well with some followers desiring to have a flatter, or nonhierarchical, orga- nization. This is why leaders delegate and spread authority and responsibility, tied to constraints or limits, to carry out actions across the organization. The result could be more efficiency and effec- tiveness in products or services for certain types of organizations with highly skilled people. But the overall responsibility always lies in the one leader in charge. Using the concept of unity of leadership, the leaders can never subordinate their personal responsibility for leading and managing a successful organization. If the subordinate leader or manager they authorize to take actions on their behalf fails, they fail as well because they may have displayed poor judgment in selecting the individual and possibly did not coach and supervise the subordinate properly. Managers, in contrast to charismatic leaders, tend to feel victimized by self-doubts and per- sonal traumas in circumstances where they have to reprimand or remove nonperforming sub- 22 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 37. ordinates. Regardless ofthe length of service or career successes, managers in nearly every case have to report to the organization’s focal leader. Because of being between the leader and the led, some managers may feel responsible for subordinates’ failures, and removing or reprimanding them causes self-doubt as to how effective they are in their role. To reduce self-doubt, managers should realize the level, or constraints, of authority they have in using coercive or reward powers to influence the behavior of subordinates. Communicating with supervisors to define the level of authority and responsibility they have can help remove self-doubt in taking remedial actions to improve subordinate performance. If they have taken a remedial approach before removing a sub- ordinate, they can reduce their personal anxiety or trauma and the ensuing guilt when taking the final step. The level of authority and responsibility from leader to manager represents a significant distinction between the two roles. Leaders influence followers to motivate them into achievement for the group and for themselves using a behavioral science approach involving emotional charis- matic and inspirational appeals. Managers instead are more concerned with the transactional processes between the employee and themselves, using extrinsic motivators aimed at changing short-term behaviors to support the leader’s long-term vision. A major distinction between leaders and managers is that leaders tend to listen to followers’ recommendations. Based on followers’ input, leaders are more apt to adjust their short-term oper- ational plans of action or direct managers to do so. Receipt of new bottom-up information from followers allows leaders to quickly identify opportunities or threats that affect the long-term attainment of their organization’s vision. Where managers are reluctant to leave the day-to-day processes, leaders should be very adaptive and flexible when the situation dictates an operational adjustment to attain the end-state vision of the organization. Key Takeaways • Leadership is about more than simply having followers; it is not a title, and it is not achieved by just following a few principles. Leadership is complex, though at its core, it is having the courage to make the right choices—not just the popular ones—engaging others in a vision, and empowering followers to pursue a shared purpose of achieving a positive, lasting impact. • The distinction and relationship between the leading and managing concepts proves chal- lenging for both scholars and the business community. Management is a component of leadership, each having very distinct concepts in application. • Leadership requires the ability to conceptualize a vision and synchronize a staff activity to develop a long-range plan of action. This can be referred to as the art of leadership and can be extended into the science of management and supervision. Exercises 1. Define what leadership means. This assignment allows you to understand the distinction between the roles and position of leadership and management. 2. Introduce yourself to your instructor by writing a brief biography of your leadership/manage- rial experiences. Use specific examples where applicable. 3. Summarize your definition of leadership based on the chapter and your beliefs, experiences, and leadership principles. 4. In your own words, describe at least four distinctions between managing and leading. Then explain what leaders can influence in their role. Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 23 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 38. managing Managing roles describe thetypes of required activities that are common to most managerial and administrative positions. leading All leaders are managers, but not all managers lead. Leaders are competent managers and are involved in managing their professional activities as well as developing long-range goals and the organization’s vision. 1.4 Management Learning Objectives 1. Understand the differences between leadership and management. 2. Learn what managers can influence. 3. Understand typical activity patterns for those in management positions. This section focuses on providing distinctions between leadership and management roles and functions. FIGURE 1.3 Defining Management Distinction between Leadership and Management A single individual can simultaneously possess leadership and management skills. The coexistence of leadership and management skills in a single individual does not mean those skills have to occur or be expressed at the same time for either to be an accurate description of leadership or manage- ment behavior. Because of this, several distinctions between managing and leading can be made. Managing[11] can function in the absence of leading, but leading cannot function without man- aging. If leading involves the art of influencing others to a desired long-term end state, then management involves the direction of day-to-day activities with more of an operational short-term focus. Leading demands a greater awareness of the big picture than managing. That is, managing tends to be more task or process focused, while leading tends to be broader in its focus. Leading requires knowing how a task or process helps complete a larger objective so that those directly responsible for the end result of a given task or set of tasks may more intelligently manage their responsibilities. It seems helpful to once again use etymology; in this case, in regards to the word “influence,” with the idea of it being necessary for a leader to see the big picture or high view in order to effectively lead and influence. Leading is more people oriented, whereas managing is more task and process oriented. Leading implies going in a specific direction with others willingly following. Managing, on the other hand, may include rewarding or coercive transactions to push people to attain a desired objective. Some managers indeed oversee the movement of workers; for example, in a warehouse where supplies are in constant flux, a manager is required to direct where products go, sometimes by actually tak- 24 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 39. ing a workerto see where the product is to be placed. A leader, however, evaluates ways a worker follows the leader. A successful leader considers how workers personally fit within the organization and knows the skills and qualities of the workers so that they are best placed. Brian Moffitt and his guests discuss the difference between leadership and management. View in the online reader Other areas of distinction between the role of a leader and a manager involve a focus on activ- ities or behaviors such as planning, performance, and styles: 1. Planning. Management is focused on the day-to-day actions of the organization and on short- term planning results. Leadership focuses on the long-term vision and mission adhering to a well-defined strategic and operational concept developed by the leader’s executive team. As an example, managers spend a significant amount of time prioritizing and delegating tasks or the workloads of employees whom they supervise. They are concerned about the daily short-term goals necessary to move the organization forward. A logistic warehouse manager or shift manager of a restaurant are good examples of two people who hold managerial duties. These managerial roles focus on receiving a mission. Once they receive it, they plan the day by organizing their employees to attain the daily shipping plan and receive logistics or orders to accomplish the organization’s mission. In a fast food restaurant, the tasks are repetitive and use a well-defined process or method to accomplish tasks of selling the item to be purchased, preparing it, and distributing it to a customer. These managers ensure processes are in place by providing specific training and ensuring management activities are adhered to such as finance, scheduling, logistics, and employee training. Accountability of performance is supervised on a daily and routine basis. In this way, the manager brings predictability to the employees directly working for him or her. In turn, leaders focus their attention on identifying and implementing changes to the processes the manager is responsible for supervising. Leaders concern themselves with broad concepts that affect the entire organization. They develop and articulate concepts that may streamline one or more functions of the organization to improve the product and ensure cus- tomer satisfaction and loyalty. 2. Performance. Managers focus on maximizing individual and team performance in their par- ticular section to ensure that their part of the organization is effective and efficient in perform- ing their mission for the organization. Leaders focus on building cohesive teams. Leaders are change agents for systems and articulate the concept and vision to employees. Managers capitalize on implementing the incremental changes to meet short-term goals. Lead- ers in this case may take the risk of introducing a sweeping change in technology, a product, or a logistic process. Managers are limited to incorporating the scope of change to the imme- Video Clip 3 Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 25 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 40. diate circumstance theyare faced with. Managers would report an issue that disrupted their producing a product or service to the leader. The leader would ascertain if a systems change is required, develop the plan, and authorize the implementation of the change by the manager throughout the organization. In these cases, leaders are willing to take a calculated risk that may result in a short-term loss in order to gain a long-term advantage. 3. Styles. Managers use transaction-based relationships in a top-down direct authority relation- ship with employees to attain routine and repetitive short-term goals provided by specific missions, objectives, and goals. Leadership involves using the leader-follower relationship to influence and achieve the long-term strategic objectives. Leaders influence action by attaining additional resources to assist in the accomplishment of tasks, clarifying objectives, and nurtur- ing the values and beliefs of employees to help inspire and motivate them to action in attaining the leader’s vision. Managers tend to use a transactional approach to guiding employees. Source: © Thinkstock Key Takeaways • Leadership and management can occur in the same person at the same time, but they don’t necessarily have to coincide for either to be an accurate description of leadership or man- agement behavior. • Leading demands a greater awareness of the big picture than managing does. That is, man- aging tends to be more task or process focused, while leading tends to be broader in its focus. • Leading is more people oriented, whereas managing is more task or process oriented. Lead- ing implies going someplace with others in tow. Managing, on the other hand, may include pushing people to the desired objective. Core components to the role of manager include demands, constraints, and choices. Demands and constraints are situational influences on leaders and affect the scope of the leader’s choices.[12] 26 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 41. Exercises 1. List tendifferences between leadership and management roles, styles, and activities, and discuss your findings with the class. 2. Define how managers influence followers or subordinates differently than leaders. 3. List five activity patterns that managers use. 1.5 Followers Learning Objective 1. Understand the differences between an employee, follower, and subordinate. This section of the chapter focuses on providing a perspective on the influence employees or sub- ordinates have on leadership and management activities. FIGURE 1.4 Defining the Followership Defining the Employee and Subordinate We have described several differences between leading and managing, including the personal level on which leaders and managers connect with their followers or subordinates. We identified that a manager can be all business and is looking for results. Leaders, however, work with followers to reach a deeper personal level as a project progresses because they need to learn about the team members in terms of their personal strengths, weaknesses, and so on before they can influence the group’s direction. This key difference between leading and managing is crucial to understand because it demonstrates how effective a leader can be. Followers respond when the leader is person- able and invests time in how the team is doing. Some followers may not be able to work well under the pressure of a manager who is strictly looking for results without regard to how the employee is handling the workload. Based on this, we need to briefly describe how followers or subordinates react to leaders and managers. But first let’s define the difference between a follower and a subordinate. Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 27 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 42. associate Connotes a valued relationshipbetween the led and a specific leader where the subordinate is empowered to perform specific organization activities. employee A person employed by another for wages or salary and in a position below the executive level. A subordinate, or direct report, can be described as someone in a position of less power or authority than someone else; his or her primary work activities are controlled, directed, and evalu- ated by a leader or manager who is given authority over the subordinate. Organizations today often use the term associate, as it connotes a relationship that is valued between the led and a designated leader, where the subordinate is empowered to perform specific organization activities within the constraints established by the leader or manager.[13] A follower is someone who supports and is guided by another person. It can be an employee[14] who acknowledges the focal leader or manager who holds a legitimate power position in a company. The leader or manager then provides the guidance, direction, and purpose of an organization to a follower or a group of followers to accomplish a specified task or project. Followers in this instance are not considered subordinates or direct reports and may be volunteers who function in the absence of a formal dyadic authoritative leader-led relationship.[15] Key characteristics leaders and managers have to keep in mind about followers are listed in Table 1.3. Note that executive leaders consider these characteristics in the managers they hire, and managers consider the same characteristics for subordinates and followers. TABLE 1.3 Personality Characteristics of Followers 1 Effective communicator 2 Proactive/Takes initiative 3 Good social skills 4 Cooperates/Team player 5 Responsible 6 Flexibile 7 Honest/Credible 8 Committed 9 Competent/Knowledgable Source: Based on Baldwin, J.N. (2017). 9 Personality Traits of Ideal Followers. Retrieved February 2, 2018 from https://www.success. com/article/9-personality-traits-of-ideal-followers. Leaders are not content with things remaining the same and are constantly looking to inno- vate and improve things as organizational environments, followers, and subordinates change. Where managers rely on control and processes, leaders inspire trust and empower their team mem- bers. Leaders prefer to empower employees, including managers, with the knowledge and resources to execute actions on their own. Leaders encourage growth in individuals as well as in teams, often coaching or mentoring employees to look beyond their current positions to see how they hope to grow in their careers as well as within the organization. Ultimately, leaders encourage employees to set specific goals and help set the direction for goal attainment and identify what steps are neces- sary for them to attain them. Key Takeaways • Leaders encourage employees to set specific goals and help set the direction for goal attain- ment and identify what steps are necessary to get there. • A follower is an employee who acknowledges the specified leader or manager who provides the guidance, direction, and purpose of an organization or group to accomplish a specified task or project, regardless of how much formal position power or authority the leader or man- ager possesses. 28 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 43. Exercises 1. Define howa subordinate differs from a follower. 2. Using Table 1.3, list the nine follower characteristics and provide a short description of how a follower could effectively relate to a leader or manager. 1.6 Chapter Summary and Case Chapter Summary • The distinction between managing and leading presents a variety of behavioral and man- agerial concepts to study, as they pertain to how individuals lead to influence employees or manage projects within an organization. Sometimes the same terminology is used to refer to the same human behavior, yet in practice leadership and management focus on different practices and results. It is by understanding the distinction between managerial and leadership practices that we are able to better understand the roles and responsibili- ties each has. • The number of subordinate units in the direct leadership’s span of control influences the effectiveness and efficiency of both the leader and the organization. Because of this, a leader may want to limit their span of control to no more than five departments, divisions, or sections of an organization. A leader managing more than what they can directly influ- ence might result in an ineffective management team and organization. • Managers are very capable experts within their professional field of study or skills and are involved in the day-to-day management science of supervision. In the end, the major con- trast between a leader and a manager involves leadership art and management science. A leader’s ability includes being able to conceptually develop a strategic and operational direction and to fully understand behavioral science as it relates to their personality and leadership style and the exercise of people skills. The contrast is very important to under- stand with the limited scope managers have in mastering management science and their ability to properly supervise the employees under their charge. • Leaders identify with the entire purpose of the organization and the employees within it. • Leaders possess a conceptual ability to understand relationships among each managerial department and then articulate a strategic or operational plan that synchronizes all their actions to attain a long-term outcome. Leaders possess the ability to create this concept and then communicate a compelling vision for followers that excites and motivates them to action. • Leadership and management seem to interchange to a degree—that is, a leader becomes a manager when answering to his or her superiors. Likewise, a manager assumes leader- ship when directing a task or objective to his or her followers. • Leadership is about more than simply having followers; it is not a title, and it is not achieved by just following a few principles. Leadership is complex, though at its core, it is having the courage to make the right choices—not just the popular ones—engaging others in a vision, and empowering followers to pursue a shared purpose of achieving a positive, lasting impact. Chapter Exercises Assignment 1: Managing versus Leading Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 29 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 44. This assignment allowsyou to define what leadership means. It also helps you distinguish between the various roles and positions in leadership, particularly leadership versus management roles. Using the material covered in the text, respond to the following discussion questions: 1. Introduce yourself by writing up a brief biography of your leadership/managerial experi- ences. Use examples, when applicable. 2. Summarize your definition of leadership based on your readings and your beliefs/experi- ences/leadership principles. 3. After reviewing the text, in your words describe at least four distinctions between manag- ing and leading. Then explain what leaders can influence in their role. Assignment 2 (Journal): Define Managerial Leadership Skills 1. Create a list of your personal managerial skills. 2. Explain why each skill is important in guiding you as a leader. Assignment 3: Defining Leadership To get us thinking about leadership and its definition, this activity helps you put an “image” to leadership. Images carry strong emotion, influence, and power. Leadership is much the same. Select and attach an image that describes what leadership means to you. Answer the following questions: 1. What is your definition of leadership? How does your picture relate to this definition? 2. What is the primary goal of leadership? 3. What/who do leaders influence? What/who does leadership influence? Why are these important? Once you have completed the assignment, have a class activity where you share your image and discuss your responses with your classmates. In your response, be sure to do the following: 1. Note how your leadership definition is the same or different. 2. Comment on the primary goals (i.e., what do you agree or disagree with?). 3. Comment on similarities or differences on importance of leadership influence. Chapter Case In 1984, Bev joined a military unit during the Cold War in what was then the Federal Republic of Germany. She joined as an entry-level officer responsible for close to forty-five individuals orga- nized into five sections. After four months, her leadership potential, determined based on external organization inspections and audits, was recognized by leaders at the regional headquarters, and she quickly advanced to an executive officer position in a lateral department within the region. She only stayed in this position for six months before she was offered the department manage- ment position after her supervisor was moved due to a scheduled rotation. What was unique in this situation is that she was a junior officer at the time and was advanced into a qualifying job for continued advancement ahead of five senior people. She attributes her success at the job to being extremely familiar and experienced with this particular organization and its standard operating management procedures. She would have likely succeeded in this position if given an opportunity to do so elsewhere. This particular position enhanced her ability to succeed, as she understood every facet of the organization. Her leadership potential was evident because she ascended to this particular position before attending the midlevel-management leadership course all managers in her position are scheduled to attend before leading a department of the size and complexity she was given. After completing her tour of leadership throughout the department, she attended the midlevel-management course. While in the course, she realized she did not know about organizational leadership and management as well as she thought. Upon reflection, she learned new leadership concepts and managerial skills that would serve her when leading other organizations. She was eventually selected to instruct the midlevel-management course herself and learned a lot more about how to coach and teach leadership and organizational management in the process. As circumstances and organizational timing would have it, she was selected to 30 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 45. lead the largestline company in the army (at the time). In this new leadership role, she exercised the lessons learned in a professional development school aimed at developing leaders along with her leadership experience in previous command roles. This story makes the point that a person’s leadership and management experience can be limited to similarly organized companies we serve in. We should be cautious that we do not become blinded by our previous experience and must adjust to each new environment presented to us, especially as the scope of authority and responsibility increases. This illustrates the point that we continually need to learn more about leadership and management if we want to develop the potential for further leadership or management positions. Each of us may be steeped with a specific level of experience relevant to our current position, yet we have not mastered the leader- ship or management requirements necessary to lead at an executive level, which requires unique skills. Formal and informal leaders exist throughout an organization. If the formal leader does not per- form, informal leaders will rise to fill the gap in leadership. Government organizations reflect this concept because they are often hierarchical and bureaucratic structures with lower-level lead- ers constantly striving for upward leadership mobility. Today we have to be cognizant that many organizations decide to become structurally flat, and if not careful, this can have a detrimental effect in creating too many leaders and not enough followers, which puts the company’s long- term existence at risk. Members of flat organization structures can function in a very collaborative environment as the leader-to-led relationship is not necessarily as authoritative as in a line-and- staff or hierarchically structured organization. An example of a flat organization could be an entrepreneurial group coming together to deliver a service or product. One group performs the management functions, another group the service, and yet another delivers a product, and so on. One group acts as the management team that takes the lead and is responsible for synchronizing the various activities. Each subordinate orga- nization fulfills a contractual obligation, receives a portion of the revenue, and determines what its personal profit share is for the venture. We may have participated in this type of venture in private industry, where executive leaders from each organization come together while their managerial staff works out the details. No single leader is higher in authority than the others, yet a leadership team is put together to create the vision, mission, and strategy of the venture. The other executive leaders are responsible for their operational conduct. Each level of leadership and management function relies on the others’ experience and unique capability to meet the vision and mission or scope of the contract. Often these entrepreneurial ventures are short term but can sometimes last longer. 1. Discuss the notion of leadership and management experience as it relates to the case. 2. Discuss the notion of leadership and management roles in an entrepreneurial business environment. Endnotes 1. Southwest Airlines. (2013, January 24). Southwest Airlines reports increase in annual profits, 40th consecutive year of profitability. Retrieved August 6, 2013, from http://southwest.investorroom.com/2013-01-24- Southwest-Airlines-Reports-Increase-in-Annual-Profits-40th-Consecutive -Year-Of-Profitability 2. The following citation refers to the key-term definition. Pragmatism. (1983). In Webster’s ninth new collegiate dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam- Webster. 3. Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. I. (1999). Re-examining the compo- nents of transformational and transactional leadership using the Multifactor Leadership. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72(4), pp. 441–462. 4. Leithwood, K., Jantzi, D., & Steinbach, R. (1999). Changing leadership for changing times. Changing Education Series. Florence, KY: Taylor & Fran- cis. 5. Joshi, A., Lazarova, M. B., & Liao, H. (2009). Getting everyone on board: The role of inspirational leadership in geographically dispersed teams. Organization Science, 20(1), pp. 240–252. 6. Based on Bass, B. M. (1990). Handbook of leadership. New York: Free Press, pp. 190–192. 7. Grove, C. N. (2005). Universally desirable and undesirable leadership attributes. Retrieved April 14, 2014, from http://www.tlu.ee/~sirvir/ Leadership/Leadership Dimensions/universally_desirable_and_ undesirable_leadership_attributes.html; House, R. J., et al. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thou- sand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. 8. Northouse, P. G. (2007). Leadership: Theory and practice (4th ed.). Thou- sand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, pp. 322–323. 9. Northouse, P. G. (2007). Leadership: Theory and practice (4th ed.). Thou- sand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, pp. 322–323. 10. "Project GLOBE: An Introduction," Robert House, Mansour Javidan, Peter Dorfman © 2001 Applied Psychology. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons Inc. 11. The following citation refers to the key-term definition. Mintzberg, H. (1973). The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper & Row. 12. Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson, p. 32. 13. Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson, pp. 8–9. 14. The following citation refers to the key-term definition. Employee. (1983). In Webster’s ninth new collegiate dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Web- ster. 15. Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson, pp. 8–9. Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership, Management, and Followership 31 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 46. 32 The Artof Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 47. CHAPTER 2 Developing InterpersonalSkills for Success The sign of intelligent people is their ability to control emotions by the application of reason. — Marya Mannes We are dangerous when we are not conscious of our responsibility for how we behave, think, and feel. — Marshall Rosenberg Never react emotionally to criticism. Analyze yourself to determine whether it is justified. If it is, correct yourself. Otherwise, go on about your business. — Norman Vincent Peale If your emotional abilities aren’t in hand, if you don’t have self-awareness, if you are not able to manage your distressing emotions, if you can’t have empathy and have effective relationships, then no matter how smart you are, you are not going to get very far. — Daniel Goleman 2.1 Getting Defensive to Prove Your Superiority or to Expose Your Insecurity? Carol is a vice president for student affairs at a public university. She’s very charismatic, has been a vice president at another college, and likes to grant favors, even if it creates an inequitable envi- ronment. Carol has decided to promote a program coordinator to a director level, with no change in duties or “direct reports.” This promotion and title change has increased both the program coordi- nator’s salary by more than $10,000 annually and his or her access to directors’ meetings and status. There are four other program coordinators in the student affairs division, each with similar levels of duties. One of these program coordinators has more direct reports, higher levels of risk, and a more advanced degree than the promoted “director.” Carol did not discuss this change with the other program coordinators and their respective supervisors and has no intention of promot- ing the other program coordinators. Now there is major grumbling, and allegations of preferential treatment are evident. Bill is an associate vice president, supervises the one program coordinator with the advanced degree, and reports directly to Carol. He has recently earned a doctorate in educational leadership, is very astute with organizational dynamics, and feels obligated to quietly and privately bring his concerns for this situation to Carol. During his weekly “one-on-one time,” Bill asks Carol if he could discuss his concerns for the recent promotion of the program coordinator. Carol agrees to hear Bill’s © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 48. concerns, and Billdoes his best to respectfully discuss the situation with Carol. Bill even starts out acknowledging the reasonableness of Carol’s attempt to get someone promoted and a higher salary. Partway through his discussion of the perceived inequities and repercussions of the promotion, she interrupts him and angrily accuses him of believing he knows more than she does now that he has his doctoral degree—which she describes as a simple “union card” to be qualified for upper adminis- tration. Furthermore, she reminds him that she has more than twenty-nine years of student affairs experience and doesn’t need anyone telling her what to do. Bill tries one more time and asks Carol if she would like to hear his full recommendation on how to fix the situation. She proceeds to act totally offended and responds, “I don’t need your advice or help, and if I did, I’d ask.” More than a month passes, and unexpectedly (without any acknowledgment or apology to Bill) during a directors’ meeting, Carol announces that for consistency, she is also promoting the other program managers to director. Unbeknownst to Bill, right after his attempt to give her feedback, human resources had come to Carol and insisted she change the titles and pay of all program coor- dinators. Furthermore, Carol has become consistently agitated around and dismissive of Bill in all public meetings and gatherings. During their weekly one-on-one meetings, Carol is abrupt and cool, and her body posture reflects a closed style in Bill’s presence. 2.2 Personality Types and Leadership Traits Learning Objectives 1. Identify and assess your personality traits and how they impact leadership style and ability. 2. Develop an understanding and appreciation of the impact the “Big 5” traits and emotional intelligence have on leadership effectiveness. 3. Through self-assessment and inquiry, apply your individual personality and trait profiles to predicted success in practicing the “Big 5” traits, skills, and emotional intelligence. Carol struggled to hear Bill’s feedback. Carol also gave the strong impression that she wasn’t open to the feedback, to the point of dismissing his thoughts as unnecessary and offensive to her self- image. Bill is unlikely to “look out” for Carol in the future. Furthermore, Bill’s impression of Carol’s leadership, communication style, and maturity has changed for the worse. 34 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 49. traits Personal characteristics that aredependable, consistent, representative of “default” patterns of behavior and values, and difficult to alter or refine without openness to inquiry and self-reflection. Individuals are believed to possess a combination or set of traits that are very functional in numerous situations yet dysfunctional in others or when overused. skills Any set of behaviors that can be learned to perform a specific function. These behaviors or skills can generally be divided into technical (specific to an occupational or scientific area), conceptual (generalizable skills for assessing risk, uncovering and exploiting patterns and connections, and application of theories or research), and interpersonal, which compromises emotional intelligence, persuasion, and what is commonly referred to as “soft skills.” Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality assessment generally based on Carl Jung’s theories of worldview and personal preference characteristics. These characteristics represent variances in interests, preferences, and values believed to be a combination of inherited and socialized tendencies. Big 5 A summary of the top five traits and values exhibited by successful leaders. Let’s look at some theories, concepts, and assessments to put into perspective Carol’s internal struggles and the impact of her interpersonal skills development, or lack thereof, on Bill. To this end, the chapter explores the personal factors, personality traits, and skills for individuals to con- sider in assessing their skills and motivations as leaders, role models, and in this case, enforcing a fair and equitable workplace. Gary Yukl[1] describes four levels of conceptualization for exploring leadership theories and lev- els of leader influence. Ultimately, these four levels represent four different relationship types, or processes, where we see leadership implemented and developed. Therefore, leadership relationship levels can be viewed as (1) intraindividual or internal, as evidenced by Carol’s internal struggles; (2) one-on-one or dyadic relationships, as experienced between Bill and Carol; (3) a group or team set of interactional dynamics; and (4) an organizational relationship–focused process. These relationship levels require the leader to focus and sometimes balance varying levels of follower concerns. Additionally, these levels necessitate different interpersonal skills and have sig- nificant implications on leader effectiveness in these four areas. Lastly, the intraindividual, or internal area, is viewed as the key level for the leader to consistently investigate, using openness to inquiry, throughout his or her professional career. Leaders are commonly judged and evaluated based on their respective behavioral abilities and perceived sources of motivation. Generally, the two main factors that interact to drive our motiva- tion and behavior are viewed as traits and skills. Traits are primarily viewed as human characteristics that are “hardwired,” or innate in nature. Innate factors are usually described as a combination of inherited propensities and enculturated tendencies that form our worldviews, also known as governing variables.[2] Traits, as motivating fac- tors, are very hard to change and are viewed as both subconscious and sometimes unconscious. Yet these important factors hold major power over our ability to benefit from constructive feedback, assess uncomfortable situations, engage in critical personal insight, and learn new skills or refine current skills.[3] Understanding that traits and skills are strongly interrelated, we explore two useful trait con- cepts in this chapter: the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big 5. We start by taking a quick look at skills, and the importance of interpersonal skills in particular, and how certain per- sonal traits increase the likelihood of easy or even natural skill acquisition, while other traits may add to our struggle at acquiring or even seeing the value in certain interpersonal skills. Therefore, our next frame of reference involves the skills related to success in three main areas. These skills can be roughly divided into technical, conceptual, and interpersonal categories.[4] Tech- nical skills encompass those competencies specific to our field or occupational grouping (e.g., medical, accounting, information technology, teaching, business administration). Conceptual skills encompass making sense of interrelationships, effective judgment, intuition, foresight, reasoning, and analytical ability. Interpersonal skills involve assessing human interactions and motives, com- prehension of the emotions and feelings of our self and others, application of empathy and situational social sensitivity, and the ability to persuasively communicate and listen effectively. A study by Morgan McCall and Michael Lombardo[5] found technical skills help us enter our chosen professional field, as well as early management positions, but decrease in importance as we are promoted into higher-level leadership positions. Conceptual skills become an increasingly weighed factor in the evaluation of our successes as we move up the leadership ladder, and inter- personal skills, or lack thereof, account for most of how we will be judged by our coworkers and followers and promoted or terminated in positions of leadership. Chapter 2 Developing Interpersonal Skills for Success 35 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 50. There are manycharacteristics associated with good leadership; assessing your characteristics can be a first step in further leadership development. Source: © Thinkstock This chapter primarily focuses on the first level of “relationship with ourselves,” or the “intra,” and our important abilities to bring our interpersonal skills to leadership situations—requiring the internal processes of self-evaluation, formal self-assessment, and continued self-reflection through seeking, valuing, and accepting personal feedback. This chapter also introduces a frame of refer- ence to help leaders understand how we may resist change through refusing or denying the need to alter the worldview or governing variables that ultimately keep us stuck in self-defeating behav- iors and other ineffective interaction patterns. Through the process of looking at ourselves and the impacts of our tendencies, worldviews, emotional reactions, natural strengths, and weaknesses, this chapter discusses a variety of methods to help you toward the end goal of becoming an effective leader. According to Long Yun Siang, of Career Success for Newbies,[6] there are definable character- istics that can help individuals become successful in their jobs, and the same goes for those in a leadership role. The Big 5 It can be difficult to know where we stand if we do not perform some self-assessment of our weaknesses and strengths. A meta-analysis summary of research on effective leadership trait char- acteristics identifies leadership traits, which are beneficial to attain while working in, or toward, a leadership position in an organization. One of the first self-assessments/perspectives to consider is the “Big 5” set of personality traits. The assessment, developed by Paul Costa and Robert (Jeff) McCrae, looks at these five main personality traits:[7] 36 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 51. persuasion A communication style primarilyused to present thoughts, data, research, and other evidence to justify a position, opinion, or decision in a “respectful” process. The style uses a two-sided balancing strategy (presenting both sides of an issue) found effective in reducing resistance, demonstrating comprehension of the issue, increasing speaker’s credibility, and increasing the likelihood of the listener safely reviewing worldview/governing variables. 1. (O) Openness. Those who score high have overt levels of creative energy, curiosity, and insight into new ideas. They value critical feedback and are more prone to explore and act on entre- preneurial opportunities. Effective leaders tend to be somewhat moderate to high on openness traits.[8] Leaders who have low levels of openness usually struggle with change, find the impact of new information on recently made decisions very uncomfortable, and tend to shy away from innovations, improved procedures they see no use for, or critical personal feedback. In our scenario, Carol did not display openness to Bill’s feedback and perspectives. 2. (C) Conscientiousness. A high score on this trait implies a high level of thoughtfulness, meet- ing timelines and commitments, high impulse control, and good organization and orientation to detail. Those who score high on conscientiousness are predicted to have increased rates of effective leadership experiences. This is the second highest trait (next to extraversion) related to effective leadership.[9] Leaders with low levels of conscientiousness tend to view timelines and commitments as flexible and more negotiable than is appropriate for the situation. Fur- thermore, low conscientiousness leads to low trust and perceived procedural injustice by followers. In our scenario, Carol’s initial decision to make a deal with one person, while ignor- ing the domino impact on the other program coordinators, could be viewed as an example of both poor conscientiousness and poor impulse control. 3. (E) Extraversion. This trait includes the amount of excitability, sociability, talkativeness, and ability to assert one’s self. Extraversion also allows leaders to naturally navigate business and social situations with ease and comfort, especially with new people in new situations. High scores on extraversion are linked strongly to successful leadership abilities, more so than the other traits listed.[10] As the scenario described, Carol possessed high levels of extraversion. Those with low levels of extraversion are often viewed as sullen, uninterested in communi- cation, insecure, and unsuitable to lead groups in problem solving and exploring unresolved issues (pay special attention to Video Clip 2.1). 4. (A) Agreeableness/tact. This dimension includes kindness, excellent timing when asked to critique ideas and activities, good emotional intelligence, a giving nature, and high levels of affection and ability to trust others. Agreeableness/tact is seen in leaders who can quickly assess a situation and ascertain what behavior or style is indicated and then act accordingly. They will avoid interrupting or being dismissive. Therefore, they will postpone critical com- ments until the time is right and use a persuasion style when critiquing an idea, position, plan, or worldview presented by others. “Shooting from the hip” is a style rarely, if ever, displayed by effective leaders. This trait is mildly linked to effective leadership skills.[11] In our scenario, Carol should have calmly listened to Bill’s concerns and promised to consider his thoughts and get back to him with her conclusions (also an example of openness and conscientiousness). Fur- thermore, Carol would have been wise to view Bill’s feedback as an example of loyalty to her, given both the risk he took to bring it up to her and how his concerns served to protect her from the repercussions of her decision to promote/recategorize only one of the program coor- dinators. 5. (N) Low neuroticism / stability under stress. Successful leaders have the ability to keep cool under pressure and not emotionally escalate situations that involve receiving critical feedback and/or unexpected information. This coolness and grace is especially evident while receiving opinions and advice that imply leader mistakes, oversights, or poor judgment. Successful lead- ers will also know when a situation demands their complete attention, when doing nothing is not an option, and when the needs of others outweigh their own needs or comfort. Conversely, people high in neuroticism tend to be unstable emotionally, especially during stressful situations. They may view critical/constructive feedback as a personal attack and as unsupportive and can be overfocused on image or impression management. They are likely to become defensive, may confuse loyalty with ubiquitous agreement, are more often depressed, and report more anxiety than those that score low on this trait.[12] In our scenario, Carol showed very high levels of neuroticism in her reaction to Bill’s feedback and concerns. She was defen- sive and seemed worried about giving the impression that she knew everything there was to Chapter 2 Developing Interpersonal Skills for Success 37 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 52. know and thatshe didn’t need anyone to help her assess a situation, especially a peer with a doctorate degree. A helpful mnemonic device for remembering the Big 5 is “OCEAN.” This TED Talk by Susan Cain, the author of Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World that Can’t Stop Talking, discusses leadership and the introvert personality. View in the online reader Follow this link to take a Big 5 personality assessment: http://similarminds.com/big5.html Since we know effective leaders are perceived to have excellent social skills and high extraver- sion,[13] asking yourself how you might become more extraverted in social situations is important. Attending organizational social events and networking are important opportunities to develop this skill area and should not be avoided by a leader. Many people are concerned about what to talk about at these types of events.[14] Finding topics to discuss (avoiding politics and religion) before you go can help alleviate anxiety associated with attending such an event. To develop skills in the area of conscientiousness (since it is the second highest Big 5 predictor of leadership ability), learning how to better organize your life and time is important. For example, keeping a schedule or to-do list can help ensure you don’t forget important things. Video Clip 1 38 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 53. emotional intelligence A set ofskills and values preparing the individual to engage in communication styles appropriate for the situation. These skills encompass empathy, self-regulation, self-awareness, and comprehending when to prioritize the needs of others. Emotional Intelligence Related to the Big 5 traits of extraversion, agreeableness/tact, and stability under stress is the con- cept of emotional intelligence. Understanding your own levels of emotional intelligence and improving on them can be a valuable way to analyze your strengths and weaknesses. Emotional intelligence is the ability to not only assess and control your emotions but also understand the emotions of those around you. As noted by Daniel Goleman,[15] self-awareness, self-regulation, social skills, and empathy are all aspects of emotional intelligence. Self-awareness refers to your ability to know your strengths, weaknesses, drives, and motivations. Self-regulation involves being able to control your emotions, based on outside stimuli. Social skill is the ability to manage relationships. Empathy refers to the ability to consider others’ feelings and thoughts and be able to put yourself in their position. Throughout his research, Goleman found effective leaders in organizations tend to score high on emotional intelligence. He calls skills and technical abilities important as the gate- way to get into management positions, but once people move up the ranks into executive positions, emotional intelligence skills are crucial. As we saw in the opening scenario, Carol showed very poor emotional intelligence, as evi- denced by a lack of humility, an inability to control her emotions, and a refusal to see how her behavior would impact on Bill. Conversely, Bill showed good emotional intelligence by using a per- suasion style in presenting his advice and concerns to Carol, in the hopes of reducing her potential for resistance to his perspective.[16] He asked for permission to give his feedback and even acknowl- edged the reasonableness of Carol’s idea to promote within the organization. He also showed foresight in understanding the long-term unintended consequences of Carol’s decision. And even in the face of Carol’s overreaction to the emotional stress of his feedback to her, Bill kept his cool and did not escalate the situation. Given that emotional intelligence skills are so important, how can you improve them? Here are a few ways:[17] • Practice personal observation and reflection. Look at how you work with others. For example, do you judge quickly? Being able to honestly assess how you interact with others can improve your self-awareness and your self-regulation skills. • Manage stress. Be aware of how you react to stress, as managing stress is part of self-regula- tion. When you are stressed, do you lash out at your significant other or colleagues? Under- standing how you manage stress—and managing it—can result in better self-regulation and social skills. • Consider how your actions will affect others (foresight). This can be both a social skill and a self-regulation skill. If we consider how our actions will affect others, we can be more ethical in our decision making. • Practice humility and an appreciation of team contributions. Humility can go a long way in relationship management and social skills. When we are humble, we give credit where credit is due, which creates better connections with our employees. • Learn good listening and persuasion skills. Good listening skills result in a better ability to develop our social skills. Furthermore, presenting advice and feedback in a manner that reduces the likelihood of resistance helps us to be viewed as thorough, informed, and balanced; it will also help others to see the reasonableness of our ways. • Practice empathy and connect with people. This goes without saying, but developing our con- nections with others and showing true caring for others is both an empathic and a social skill. • Be aware of body language and the impact of nonverbal communication on building rapport. Understanding your body language and the body language of others can improve self-aware- ness, develop our social skills, and result in greater empathy for others. • Be energetic. Energy tends to create charisma, which can result in better social skills. Chapter 2 Developing Interpersonal Skills for Success 39 © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
- 54. Follow this linkto take an emotional intelligence quiz: http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/bl_eq_quiz.htm The MBTI While there exists a plethora of personality assessment tools related to leadership, one helpful assessment is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). As we’ll see, the MBTI helps us predict how “hardwired” we are for the Big 5 characteristics. All five of the “OCEAN” traits are exhibited in the MBTI profiles as either naturally occurring or needing to be consciously practiced, perfected, and appreciated. The MBTI explores the strength of certain traits and the scale (high or low) of that particular trait. Myers-Briggs looks at extraversion (E) versus introversion (I) as a source for what energizes an individual; sensing (S) versus intuition (N) helps us indicate our preferred sources of trusted infor- mation; thinking (T) versus feeling (F) reveals our main values in reviewing fairness, accountability, or justice; and judging (J) versus perceiving (P) gives us a view of how we prefer to interact with the world around us. To expand on these scales, extraversion or introversion indicates how you focus your attention (inwardly or outwardly), while sensing or intuition refers to how you take in infor- mation and what sources of information make the most impact for you. Thinking or feeling refers to how you make decisions based on the heart/compassion for the individual or via consistency, logic, and fairness for all. Judging versus perceiving addresses how you deal primarily in a planned or spontaneous style with the outside world and events. Research shows that those with the ESTJ profile are effective leaders, especially as chief exec- utive officers, given their natural tendency to take charge while also being naturally social. ESTJ means the leader exhibits extraversion in his or her personality; he or she uses sensing by focusing on facts and details and prefer a hands-on experience. Thinking, the third aspect, means leaders tend to focus more on making decisions using facts and objective data and tend to be logical in making a decision. Leaders also tend to lean toward judging, which means they focus on structure and firm decisions. Some studies have also supported the ENTJ and even the ENTP profiles as being naturally sup- portive of both the Big 5 and entrepreneurial characteristics. Remember, most of us will exhibit a different style depending on the situation. In a leadership position, it is imperative to not only understand our own leadership style but also understand, based on another’s personality, the right way to lead them. Rather than solely use, or overdepend on, our own style for leadership, we should adapt our leadership style to the situation and the person. Interestingly, the interrelation- ship between the MBTI and the Big 5 reveals how “Ts” tend to be emotionally stable (N), yet not naturally tactful (A), and too direct. “Js” are usually very conscientious (C), but when combined with an “S” profile, they tend to be less than open to inquiry or new ideas (O). “Fs” tend to be very tact- ful yet find difficulty with equal application of accountability and discussing uncomfortable topics related to poor performance (N). Lastly, extraversion in social situations is key to communication and emotional intelligence (E). Table 2.1 shows some potential uses for other styles. Follow this link to take a shortened version of the Myers-Brigg test: http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes1.htm 40 The Art of Leadership and Supervision © 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
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- 57. Annual Meeting. The AmericanMissionary Association will hold its Thirty- fifth Anniversary in the city of Worcester, November 1-3. On Tuesday, at three o’clock p. m., the Executive Committee will render their Annual Report. At 7.30 o’clock, Tuesday evening, the Annual Sermon will be preached by Rev. C. D. Hartranft, D. D., of Hartford, Communion following. On Wednesday morning, papers will be read on topics of special interest relating to the work. Wednesday afternoon and Thursday will be occupied with Reports of Committees and addresses thereon. On Wednesday and Thursday evenings, there will be addresses from Senator George F. Hoar, Gen. O. O. Howard, President M. H. Buckham, and other distinguished speakers. The Committees on hospitality, reduction of railroad fares, and other matters of detail pertaining to the meeting, will be duly published in the religious papers. The Executive Committee proposes the following amendments to the Constitution of the American Missionary Association to be submitted to the Annual Meeting for action thereon, viz.:
- 58. Art. III. Anyperson who contributes to the funds of the Association may become a member thereof for the current year by requesting to be enrolled as such at the time such contribution is paid into the treasury of the Association, and any contributor to the amount of thirty dollars, at one time, may, on request to that effect, be enrolled as a Life Member. Art. V. The Annual Meeting shall consist of the Officers, Life Members who have been such prior to the first day of October preceding the time of such meeting, such persons as have been enrolled as members within one year prior to that date, and of delegates from churches that have within the year contributed to the funds of the Society, and from State Associations and Conferences, each of such churches, associations and conferences to be entitled to one delegate. Art. VI. The officers of the Association shall be a President, Vice-Presidents, Corresponding Secretaries, (who shall also keep the records of the Association,) Treasurer, Auditors, and an Executive Committee of not less than twelve members. Art. VII. After “dismissing,” omit the parenthesis. Omit Art. VIII., and number Arts. IX. and X. respectively VIII. and IX. DAVID H. GILDERSLEEVE, PRINTER, 101 CHAMBERS STREET, NEW YORK.
- 59. Transcriber’s Notes: Spelling andpuntuation were changed only where the error appears to be a printing error. Capitalization and punctuation in the Receipts section is inconsistent, and was retained as printed. The remaining corrected punctuation changes are too numerous to list; the others are as follows: Page number 283 changed to 289 on title page. Totals for Massachusetts changed to agree with heading. Gratton changed to Grafton in receipts for Massachusetts.
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