Reflection paperPaper
Yu Liang
Student ID : 628399Comment by S L: No space here.
Trinity Western University
LDRS 303 I3 - Contemporary Leadership Approaches
Steven Stephen Liang
May 17, 2022
Chapter 11Comment by S L: Do not leave a line between the heading and the paragraph.
After reading chapter 11 I learned that adaptive leadership is how leaders motivate their followers to adapt and respond to changes, problems and challenges. Unlike authentic leadership, which focuses on the characteristics of the leader, adaptive leadership emphasizes the complex interactions of leaders and followers in different contexts. In general, adaptive leadership focuses on how followers change and adapt to new situations. It asks leaders to address three situational challenges: 1) technical challenges, 2) technical and adaptive challenges, and 3) adaptive challenges.Comment by S L: This is not APA.
An important point for me in this chapter is that adaptive leadership is follower-centric. Adaptive leaders always help their followers do what they need to do to adapt to the challenges or problems they face (Northouse, 2018). I think this is important. I remember when I was in Vancouver Premier College before because our team members did not understand the instructions given by the teacher during the group work process. Later, under the active discussion of our group, he finally adapted to the topic given by the teacher teacher, and we got good grades.Comment by S L: Awkward. Unclear.
I will apply this leadership style to my practice. At home, this entails encouraging each family member to deal with tough life issues. At work, this entails encouraging employees to adapt to challenges and thrive when faced with them. In a community, adaptive leadership involves encouraging community members to deal with problems, such as disease outbreaks, natural disasters, or terrorism. A key advantage of adaptive leaders is that they can adapt their leadership methods to the situation.Comment by S L: A little repetitious. I'd like to see more specifics.
Adaptive leadership has to do with the culture I come from. I grew up in a culture of transparency and openness. Adaptable leaders must face challenges with transparency and openness. Adaptive leadership can also be rooted in other cultures, including those that support change. This will ensure success when implementing the change program.Comment by S L: You are introducing something new in your conclusion.
Reference
Preece, J. (2016). Negotiating service learning through community engagement: Adaptive 434
leadership, knowledge, dialogue and power. Education as Change, 20(1), 104–125.
Edwin. Did someone help you with this?
You citation and reference doesn’t match.
2
Leadership
Eighth Edition
3
To Madison, Isla, and Sullivan
4
Leadership
Theory and Practice
Eighth Edition
Peter G. Northouse
Western Michigan University
5 ...
Reflection paperPaper
Yu Liang
Student ID : 628399Comment by S L: No space here.
Trinity Western University
LDRS 303 I3 - Contemporary Leadership Approaches
Steven Stephen Liang
May 17, 2022
Chapter 11Comment by S L: Do not leave a line between the heading and the paragraph.
After reading chapter 11 I learned that adaptive leadership is how leaders motivate their followers to adapt and respond to changes, problems and challenges. Unlike authentic leadership, which focuses on the characteristics of the leader, adaptive leadership emphasizes the complex interactions of leaders and followers in different contexts. In general, adaptive leadership focuses on how followers change and adapt to new situations. It asks leaders to address three situational challenges: 1) technical challenges, 2) technical and adaptive challenges, and 3) adaptive challenges.Comment by S L: This is not APA.
An important point for me in this chapter is that adaptive leadership is follower-centric. Adaptive leaders always help their followers do what they need to do to adapt to the challenges or problems they face (Northouse, 2018). I think this is important. I remember when I was in Vancouver Premier College before because our team members did not understand the instructions given by the teacher during the group work process. Later, under the active discussion of our group, he finally adapted to the topic given by the teacher teacher, and we got good grades.Comment by S L: Awkward. Unclear.
I will apply this leadership style to my practice. At home, this entails encouraging each family member to deal with tough life issues. At work, this entails encouraging employees to adapt to challenges and thrive when faced with them. In a community, adaptive leadership involves encouraging community members to deal with problems, such as disease outbreaks, natural disasters, or terrorism. A key advantage of adaptive leaders is that they can adapt their leadership methods to the situation.Comment by S L: A little repetitious. I'd like to see more specifics.
Adaptive leadership has to do with the culture I come from. I grew up in a culture of transparency and openness. Adaptable leaders must face challenges with transparency and openness. Adaptive leadership can also be rooted in other cultures, including those that support change. This will ensure success when implementing the change program.Comment by S L: You are introducing something new in your conclusion.
Reference
Preece, J. (2016). Negotiating service learning through community engagement: Adaptive 434
leadership, knowledge, dialogue and power. Education as Change, 20(1), 104–125.
Edwin. Did someone help you with this?
You citation and reference doesn’t match.
2
Leadership
Eighth Edition
3
To Madison, Isla, and Sullivan
4
Leadership
Theory and Practice
Eighth Edition
Peter G. Northouse
Western Michigan University
5 ...
Module 3 - SLPPRINCIPLES OF MARKETINGFor this SLP assignment, .docxroushhsiu
Module 3 - SLP
PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING
For this SLP assignment, you will prepare a 5-minute video, a PowerPoint presentation with voice-over, or a PowerPoint presentation with speaker notes.
Visit two large retailers (e.g., Target and Walmart) near you. (Please note: If you are in a location that does not have large retailers nearby, choose two competing retailers with whom you are familiar. If you have any concerns, please contact your professor for approval of your choices.)
Walk around the stores and make note of the components of the marketing mix (the 4 P’s) and what types of marketing and buying behaviors you observe. Prepare a 5-minute video or a PowerPoint presentation with photos (at least 6 slides) and voice over comparing and contrasting the marketing mixes of the two retailers. You want to convey to the viewer the look and feel of the different retail experiences. Concentrate on “who, what, when, where, and how.”
Keys to the Assignment
· Your presentation should be professionally prepared, as if you were making a presentation to your boss.
· PowerPoint presentations must include voice-overs and/or speaker notes.
· Explain your analysis using terminology and concepts introduced in this module.
· Include a title page and reference sheet with your assignment submission.
· Cite all sources and provide a reference list using APA format.
· Presentations should be edited and error-free.
· Submit your assignment to TLC by the due date for this module.
· For instruction on writing papers, citing sources, proper referencing, and so forth, use Trident University's Student Guide to Writing a High-Quality Academic Paper.
SLP Assignment Expectations
Your paper will be evaluated using the criteria as stated in the SLP rubric. The following is a review of the rubric criteria:
Assignment-Driven: Does the paper fully address all aspects of the assignment? Is the assignment addressed accurately and precisely using sound logic? Does the paper meet minimum length requirements?
Critical Thinking: Does the paper demonstrate graduate-level analysis, in which information derived from multiple sources, expert opinions, and assumptions has been critically evaluated and synthesized in the formulation of a logical set of conclusions? Does the paper address the topic with sufficient depth of discussion and analysis?
Business Writing: Is the essay logical, well organized and well written? Are the grammar, spelling, and vocabulary appropriate for graduate-level work? Are section headings included? Are paraphrasing and synthesis of concepts the primary means of responding, or is justification/support instead conveyed through excessive use of direct quotations?
Effective Use of Information: Does the submission demonstrate that the student has read, understood, and can apply the background materials for the module? If required, has the student demonstrated effective research, as evidenced by student’s use of relevant and quality sources? Do additional sources use ...
APPLYING THE CONCEPT(total of 39; average of 3 boxes, 18.docxjewisonantone
APPLYING THE CONCEPT
(total of 39; average of 3 boxes, 18
applications per chapter; partial
listing below)
1.1 Leadership Managerial Roles
2.3 Achievement Motivation
Theory
3.2 The Leadership Grid
4.2 Using Power
5.3 Path-Goal Leadership
6.3 Selecting Conflict
Management Styles
7.1 In-Groups versus Out-Groups
8.4 Group Problem People
9.4 Transformational or
Transactional Leadership
10.1 Low- or High-Performance
Culture
11.2 Strategic Thinking
12.2 Traditional or Learning
Organization
WORK APPLICATION
(total of 107; average of 9 per
chapter; sample below)
1.4 Are the managers where you
work(ed) effective at
influencing their employees
to bring about change?
Explain.
CASES: CHAPTER OPENING
1. General Electric (GE)
2. Lorraine Monroe
3. Market America
4. Mark Cuban
5. Indra Nooyi (PepsiCo)
6. The Ranch Golf Club
7. Joel Osteen
8. John Chambers (Cisco)
9. Oprah Winfrey
10. Andrea Jung (Avon)
11. Google
12. Rick Wagoner (GM)
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
(total of 84; average of 7 per
chapter; sample below)
3.5 Which of the three process
motivation theories do you
prefer? Why?
SKILL-DEVELOPMENT EXERCISES
(total of 30; average of 2 per
chapter)
1.1 Getting to Know You by
Name
1.2 Identifying Leadership
Traits and Behaviors
2.1 Improving Attitudes and
Personality Traits
2.2 Personality Perceptions
2.3 Ethics and Whistleblowing
3.1 Writing Objectives
3.2 Giving Praise
4.1 Influencing Tactics
4.2 Influencing, Power, and
Politics
4.3 Networking Skills
4.4 Car Dealer Negotiation
5.1 Identifying Normative
Leadership Styles
5.2 Using the Normative
Leadership Models
6.1 Giving Instructions
6.2 Situational Communications
6.3 Coaching
6.4 Initiating Conflict Resolution
7.1 Improving Dyadic
Relationships—Followership
7.2 Delegating
8.1 Deciding Which Leadership
Decision-Making Style to Use
8.2 Individual Versus Group
Decision Making
9.1 Is the President of the United
States a Charismatic Leader?
10.1 Identifying and Improving
Organizational Culture
10.2 Diversity Training
10.3 Developing an Effective
Multicultural Team
11.1 Strategic Planning
11.2 Planning a Change Using
the Force-Field Model
11.3 Managing Change at Your
College
12.1 Handling a Crisis
12.2 The Learning Organization
MODELS
3.1 Writing Effective Objectives
Model
3.2 Giving Praise
4.1 The Negotiation Process
6.1 The Oral Message-Sending
Process
6.2 Job Instructional Training Steps
6.3 The Performance Formula
6.4 Coaching Model
6.5 The Collaborating Conflict
Style
6.6 Situational Communication
7.1 Steps in the Delegation Model
8.1 Leadership Decision Making
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
(total of 37; average of 3 per
chapter)
1.1 Leadership Potential
1.2 Names
2.1 Personality Profile
2.2 Motive Profile
2.3 Motive Profile with Socialized
Power
2.4 Leadership Interest
2.5 Theory X and Theory Y
Attitudes
2.6 How Ethical Is Your Behavior?
3.1 Your Leadership Style
3.2 Your Personal.
Question A Ten (10) - page Final Paper is required at the end of .docxcatheryncouper
Question: A Ten (10) - page Final Paper is required at the end of the course. This paper is your synopsis of the semester and the opportunity to propose your personal leadership model. It should have elements from your Strength Finder self-assessment, “Participation and Observation Assignment;” your team case studies; your own self-understanding; the leadership theories and skills learned in class; the readings and viewings. It is your chance to self-assess and look at the different leadership styles and opportunities you have and will encounter (see the grading rubric) and determine which best fits you.
1. The above is the actual question posted so I need two assignments each 10 pages MLA format with 5 citations minimum. One for me and other for my friend.
Course Outcomes
Questions
Exemplary
Acceptable
Needs Improvement
Read, think and communicate like a leader.
How has your understanding of leadership changed or developed during the course?
Used comparison or contrast to analyze changes in personal approach to leadership.
Provided an understanding of leadership.
Did not describe an approach to leadership or how it had changed.
Develop solutions to leadership and teamwork problems
Did any of the leadership theories resonate with you? Why?
Does this model work for you?
Described a leadership theory that matches your personal talents and situation; described why. Compare your leadership model to another model(s); provided logic or evidence for choice.
Described a leadership model that they espoused. Compared your leadership model to another model(s); did not support with evidence.
Did not describe an approach to leadership or how it resonated with them.
Understand the principles of leadership ethics and social responsibility
What did you learn about ethics and social responsibility based on the case studies, “Who Is?” and “Participate and Observe” assignments?
Describe how you will incorporate an understanding of ethics and social responsibility into your leadership model
Shallow understanding of the importance of ethical leadership. Limited concern for socially responsible leadership.
Did not address the issue.
Explain and discuss leadership issues intelligently; bring discussions and experiences into later leadership opportunities
What are you going to do differently after this course or after this degree?
What changes in behavior, style or roles?
Provided logic for changes and clear understanding of personal capabilities and shortcomings.
Developed a specific plan for development but did not provide a framework for why.
Little analysis, plan is based on generalities and platitudes about leadership.
Develop solutions to leadership and teamwork problems
What did you learn about leadership problems and decisions based on the course?
In-depth understanding of the difficulties involved; described several tools for addressing these types of issues.
Either didn’t understand the difficult aspects of being a leader or provided no ...
This presentation was given by Teri Okoro of TOCA (and also the Chair of the APM Women in Project Management SIG) to delegates at the APM Scottish Conference 2015 which was held on 10th September at BT Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh.
Introduction
As a Rudolph Kwanue University College Leadership and Organization Development teaching
and Research and Extension agent or community citizen, you have many opportunities to
promote leadership development as specific leadership programs, as parts of other educational
programs, or in working with other professionals or volunteers. This LEADERSHIP AND
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Resource book provides a variety of materials to assist
you in your leadership development work. The acronym LDAs’ refers to ―Leadership Excellence
and Dynamic Solutions,‖ expressing the RKUC Research and Extension vision of actionoriented programming to address Leadership and community issues. Background information,
teaching methods, learning activities, and evaluation tools are provided for a wide range of
topics. Materials can be tailored for beginning and experienced audiences, youth, adult, or
combinations. The purpose of this resource book is to help you become more aware of
possibilities for initiating and conducting leadership programs in your community, to learn how
to do this with a minimum of confusion, to feel comfortable about working in the leadership
field, and to become excited and motivated to make use of it. Community may be a specific
locality (such as a neighborhood, town, or county), a school, a work site … any place where
there are some common needs, interests, or opportunities.
Leadership
seventh edition
To Laurel, Lisa, Madison, Scott, and Kallie
Leadership
Theory and practice • seventh edition
Peter g.Northouse
Western Michigan University
Acquisitions Editor: Maggie Stanley
Associate Editor: Abbie Rickard
Editorial Assistant: Nicole Mangona
Production Editor: Libby Larson
Copy Editor: Melinda Masson
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Sally Jaskold
Indexer: Sheila Bodell
Cover Designer: Gail Buschman
Marketing Manager: Liz Thornton
Digital Content Editor: Katie Bierach
Copyright 2016 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Northouse, Peter Guy.
Leadershop : theory and practice/Peter Northouse,
Western Michigan University.—Seventh Edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4833-1753-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Leadership. 2. Leadership—Case studies. I. Title.
HM1261.N67 2015
303.3′4—dc23 2014044695
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
15 16 17 18 19 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
FoR INFoRMATIoN:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand oaks, California 91320
E-mail: [email protected]
SAGE Publications Ltd.
1 oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
London EC1Y 1SP
United Kingdom
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area
Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044
India
SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd.
3 Church Street
#10-04 Samsung Hub
Singapore 049483
Brief Contents
Preface xvii
1. Introduction 1
2. Trait Approach 19
3. Skills Approach 43
4. Behavioral Approach 71
5. Situational Approach 93
6. Path–Goal Theory 115
7. Leader–Member Exchange Theory 137
8. Transformational Leadership 161
9. Authentic Leadership 195
10. Servant Leadership 225
11. Adaptive Leadership 257
12. Psychodynamic Approach 295
13. Leadership Ethics 329
14. Team Leadership 363
15. Gender and Leadership 397
16. Culture and Leadership 427
Author Index 467
Subject index 477
About the Author 491
About the Contributors 493
Detailed Contents
Preface xvii
1. Introduction 1
Leadership Defined 2
Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership 5
Def inition and Components 6
Leadership Described 7
Trait Versus Process Leadership 7
Assigned Versus Emergent Leadership 8
Leadership and Power 10
Leadership and Coercion 12
Leadership and Management 13
Plan of the Book 15
Summary 16
References 17
2. Trait Approach 19
Description 19
Intelligence 23
Self-Conf idence 24
Determination 24
Integrity 25
Sociability 26
Five-Factor Personality Model and Leadership 26
Emotional Intelligence 27
How Does the Trait Approach Work? 29
Strengths 30
Criticisms 30
Application 32
Case Studi ...
Problem 1
Problem 2 (two screen shots)
Problem 3 (two screen shots)
Problem 4 (three screen shots)
Problem 5 (one screen shot)
Problem 6 (six screenshots plus a data table)
.
Problem 20-1A Production cost flow and measurement; journal entrie.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 20-1A Production cost flow and measurement; journal entries L.O. P1, P2, P3, P4
[The following information applies to the questions displayed below.]
Edison Company manufactures wool blankets and accounts for product costs using process costing. The following information is available regarding its May inventories.
Beginning
Inventory
Ending
Inventory
Raw materials inventory
$
60,000
$
41,000
Goods in process inventory
449,000
521,500
Finished goods inventory
610,000
342,001
The following additional information describes the company's production activities for May.
Raw materials purchases (on credit)
$
250,000
Factory payroll cost (paid in cash)
1,850,300
Other overhead cost (Other Accounts credited)
82,000
Materials used
Direct
$
200,500
Indirect
50,000
Labor used
Direct
$
1,060,300
Indirect
790,000
Overhead rate as a percent of direct labor
115
%
Sales (on credit)
$
3,000,000
The predetermined overhead rate was computed at the beginning of the year as 115% of direct labor cost.
\\\\\
rev: 11_02_2011
references
1.
value:
2.00 points
Problem 20-1A Part 1
Required:
1(a)
Compute the cost of products transferred from production to finished goods. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Cost of products transferred
$
1(b)
Compute the cost of goods sold. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Cost of goods sold
$
rev: 10_31_2011
check my workeBook Links (4)references
2.
value:
5.00 points
Problem 20-1A Part 2
2(a)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the raw materials purchases. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(b)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the direct materials usage. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(c)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the indirect materials usage. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(d)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the payroll costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(e)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the direct labor costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(f)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the indirect labor costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(g)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the other overhead costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(h)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the overhead applied. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(i)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the goods transferred from production to finished goods.(Omit the "$" sign in yo.
Module 3 - SLPPRINCIPLES OF MARKETINGFor this SLP assignment, .docxroushhsiu
Module 3 - SLP
PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING
For this SLP assignment, you will prepare a 5-minute video, a PowerPoint presentation with voice-over, or a PowerPoint presentation with speaker notes.
Visit two large retailers (e.g., Target and Walmart) near you. (Please note: If you are in a location that does not have large retailers nearby, choose two competing retailers with whom you are familiar. If you have any concerns, please contact your professor for approval of your choices.)
Walk around the stores and make note of the components of the marketing mix (the 4 P’s) and what types of marketing and buying behaviors you observe. Prepare a 5-minute video or a PowerPoint presentation with photos (at least 6 slides) and voice over comparing and contrasting the marketing mixes of the two retailers. You want to convey to the viewer the look and feel of the different retail experiences. Concentrate on “who, what, when, where, and how.”
Keys to the Assignment
· Your presentation should be professionally prepared, as if you were making a presentation to your boss.
· PowerPoint presentations must include voice-overs and/or speaker notes.
· Explain your analysis using terminology and concepts introduced in this module.
· Include a title page and reference sheet with your assignment submission.
· Cite all sources and provide a reference list using APA format.
· Presentations should be edited and error-free.
· Submit your assignment to TLC by the due date for this module.
· For instruction on writing papers, citing sources, proper referencing, and so forth, use Trident University's Student Guide to Writing a High-Quality Academic Paper.
SLP Assignment Expectations
Your paper will be evaluated using the criteria as stated in the SLP rubric. The following is a review of the rubric criteria:
Assignment-Driven: Does the paper fully address all aspects of the assignment? Is the assignment addressed accurately and precisely using sound logic? Does the paper meet minimum length requirements?
Critical Thinking: Does the paper demonstrate graduate-level analysis, in which information derived from multiple sources, expert opinions, and assumptions has been critically evaluated and synthesized in the formulation of a logical set of conclusions? Does the paper address the topic with sufficient depth of discussion and analysis?
Business Writing: Is the essay logical, well organized and well written? Are the grammar, spelling, and vocabulary appropriate for graduate-level work? Are section headings included? Are paraphrasing and synthesis of concepts the primary means of responding, or is justification/support instead conveyed through excessive use of direct quotations?
Effective Use of Information: Does the submission demonstrate that the student has read, understood, and can apply the background materials for the module? If required, has the student demonstrated effective research, as evidenced by student’s use of relevant and quality sources? Do additional sources use ...
APPLYING THE CONCEPT(total of 39; average of 3 boxes, 18.docxjewisonantone
APPLYING THE CONCEPT
(total of 39; average of 3 boxes, 18
applications per chapter; partial
listing below)
1.1 Leadership Managerial Roles
2.3 Achievement Motivation
Theory
3.2 The Leadership Grid
4.2 Using Power
5.3 Path-Goal Leadership
6.3 Selecting Conflict
Management Styles
7.1 In-Groups versus Out-Groups
8.4 Group Problem People
9.4 Transformational or
Transactional Leadership
10.1 Low- or High-Performance
Culture
11.2 Strategic Thinking
12.2 Traditional or Learning
Organization
WORK APPLICATION
(total of 107; average of 9 per
chapter; sample below)
1.4 Are the managers where you
work(ed) effective at
influencing their employees
to bring about change?
Explain.
CASES: CHAPTER OPENING
1. General Electric (GE)
2. Lorraine Monroe
3. Market America
4. Mark Cuban
5. Indra Nooyi (PepsiCo)
6. The Ranch Golf Club
7. Joel Osteen
8. John Chambers (Cisco)
9. Oprah Winfrey
10. Andrea Jung (Avon)
11. Google
12. Rick Wagoner (GM)
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
(total of 84; average of 7 per
chapter; sample below)
3.5 Which of the three process
motivation theories do you
prefer? Why?
SKILL-DEVELOPMENT EXERCISES
(total of 30; average of 2 per
chapter)
1.1 Getting to Know You by
Name
1.2 Identifying Leadership
Traits and Behaviors
2.1 Improving Attitudes and
Personality Traits
2.2 Personality Perceptions
2.3 Ethics and Whistleblowing
3.1 Writing Objectives
3.2 Giving Praise
4.1 Influencing Tactics
4.2 Influencing, Power, and
Politics
4.3 Networking Skills
4.4 Car Dealer Negotiation
5.1 Identifying Normative
Leadership Styles
5.2 Using the Normative
Leadership Models
6.1 Giving Instructions
6.2 Situational Communications
6.3 Coaching
6.4 Initiating Conflict Resolution
7.1 Improving Dyadic
Relationships—Followership
7.2 Delegating
8.1 Deciding Which Leadership
Decision-Making Style to Use
8.2 Individual Versus Group
Decision Making
9.1 Is the President of the United
States a Charismatic Leader?
10.1 Identifying and Improving
Organizational Culture
10.2 Diversity Training
10.3 Developing an Effective
Multicultural Team
11.1 Strategic Planning
11.2 Planning a Change Using
the Force-Field Model
11.3 Managing Change at Your
College
12.1 Handling a Crisis
12.2 The Learning Organization
MODELS
3.1 Writing Effective Objectives
Model
3.2 Giving Praise
4.1 The Negotiation Process
6.1 The Oral Message-Sending
Process
6.2 Job Instructional Training Steps
6.3 The Performance Formula
6.4 Coaching Model
6.5 The Collaborating Conflict
Style
6.6 Situational Communication
7.1 Steps in the Delegation Model
8.1 Leadership Decision Making
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
(total of 37; average of 3 per
chapter)
1.1 Leadership Potential
1.2 Names
2.1 Personality Profile
2.2 Motive Profile
2.3 Motive Profile with Socialized
Power
2.4 Leadership Interest
2.5 Theory X and Theory Y
Attitudes
2.6 How Ethical Is Your Behavior?
3.1 Your Leadership Style
3.2 Your Personal.
Question A Ten (10) - page Final Paper is required at the end of .docxcatheryncouper
Question: A Ten (10) - page Final Paper is required at the end of the course. This paper is your synopsis of the semester and the opportunity to propose your personal leadership model. It should have elements from your Strength Finder self-assessment, “Participation and Observation Assignment;” your team case studies; your own self-understanding; the leadership theories and skills learned in class; the readings and viewings. It is your chance to self-assess and look at the different leadership styles and opportunities you have and will encounter (see the grading rubric) and determine which best fits you.
1. The above is the actual question posted so I need two assignments each 10 pages MLA format with 5 citations minimum. One for me and other for my friend.
Course Outcomes
Questions
Exemplary
Acceptable
Needs Improvement
Read, think and communicate like a leader.
How has your understanding of leadership changed or developed during the course?
Used comparison or contrast to analyze changes in personal approach to leadership.
Provided an understanding of leadership.
Did not describe an approach to leadership or how it had changed.
Develop solutions to leadership and teamwork problems
Did any of the leadership theories resonate with you? Why?
Does this model work for you?
Described a leadership theory that matches your personal talents and situation; described why. Compare your leadership model to another model(s); provided logic or evidence for choice.
Described a leadership model that they espoused. Compared your leadership model to another model(s); did not support with evidence.
Did not describe an approach to leadership or how it resonated with them.
Understand the principles of leadership ethics and social responsibility
What did you learn about ethics and social responsibility based on the case studies, “Who Is?” and “Participate and Observe” assignments?
Describe how you will incorporate an understanding of ethics and social responsibility into your leadership model
Shallow understanding of the importance of ethical leadership. Limited concern for socially responsible leadership.
Did not address the issue.
Explain and discuss leadership issues intelligently; bring discussions and experiences into later leadership opportunities
What are you going to do differently after this course or after this degree?
What changes in behavior, style or roles?
Provided logic for changes and clear understanding of personal capabilities and shortcomings.
Developed a specific plan for development but did not provide a framework for why.
Little analysis, plan is based on generalities and platitudes about leadership.
Develop solutions to leadership and teamwork problems
What did you learn about leadership problems and decisions based on the course?
In-depth understanding of the difficulties involved; described several tools for addressing these types of issues.
Either didn’t understand the difficult aspects of being a leader or provided no ...
This presentation was given by Teri Okoro of TOCA (and also the Chair of the APM Women in Project Management SIG) to delegates at the APM Scottish Conference 2015 which was held on 10th September at BT Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh.
Introduction
As a Rudolph Kwanue University College Leadership and Organization Development teaching
and Research and Extension agent or community citizen, you have many opportunities to
promote leadership development as specific leadership programs, as parts of other educational
programs, or in working with other professionals or volunteers. This LEADERSHIP AND
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Resource book provides a variety of materials to assist
you in your leadership development work. The acronym LDAs’ refers to ―Leadership Excellence
and Dynamic Solutions,‖ expressing the RKUC Research and Extension vision of actionoriented programming to address Leadership and community issues. Background information,
teaching methods, learning activities, and evaluation tools are provided for a wide range of
topics. Materials can be tailored for beginning and experienced audiences, youth, adult, or
combinations. The purpose of this resource book is to help you become more aware of
possibilities for initiating and conducting leadership programs in your community, to learn how
to do this with a minimum of confusion, to feel comfortable about working in the leadership
field, and to become excited and motivated to make use of it. Community may be a specific
locality (such as a neighborhood, town, or county), a school, a work site … any place where
there are some common needs, interests, or opportunities.
Leadership
seventh edition
To Laurel, Lisa, Madison, Scott, and Kallie
Leadership
Theory and practice • seventh edition
Peter g.Northouse
Western Michigan University
Acquisitions Editor: Maggie Stanley
Associate Editor: Abbie Rickard
Editorial Assistant: Nicole Mangona
Production Editor: Libby Larson
Copy Editor: Melinda Masson
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Sally Jaskold
Indexer: Sheila Bodell
Cover Designer: Gail Buschman
Marketing Manager: Liz Thornton
Digital Content Editor: Katie Bierach
Copyright 2016 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Northouse, Peter Guy.
Leadershop : theory and practice/Peter Northouse,
Western Michigan University.—Seventh Edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4833-1753-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Leadership. 2. Leadership—Case studies. I. Title.
HM1261.N67 2015
303.3′4—dc23 2014044695
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
15 16 17 18 19 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
FoR INFoRMATIoN:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
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E-mail: [email protected]
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Brief Contents
Preface xvii
1. Introduction 1
2. Trait Approach 19
3. Skills Approach 43
4. Behavioral Approach 71
5. Situational Approach 93
6. Path–Goal Theory 115
7. Leader–Member Exchange Theory 137
8. Transformational Leadership 161
9. Authentic Leadership 195
10. Servant Leadership 225
11. Adaptive Leadership 257
12. Psychodynamic Approach 295
13. Leadership Ethics 329
14. Team Leadership 363
15. Gender and Leadership 397
16. Culture and Leadership 427
Author Index 467
Subject index 477
About the Author 491
About the Contributors 493
Detailed Contents
Preface xvii
1. Introduction 1
Leadership Defined 2
Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership 5
Def inition and Components 6
Leadership Described 7
Trait Versus Process Leadership 7
Assigned Versus Emergent Leadership 8
Leadership and Power 10
Leadership and Coercion 12
Leadership and Management 13
Plan of the Book 15
Summary 16
References 17
2. Trait Approach 19
Description 19
Intelligence 23
Self-Conf idence 24
Determination 24
Integrity 25
Sociability 26
Five-Factor Personality Model and Leadership 26
Emotional Intelligence 27
How Does the Trait Approach Work? 29
Strengths 30
Criticisms 30
Application 32
Case Studi ...
Problem 1
Problem 2 (two screen shots)
Problem 3 (two screen shots)
Problem 4 (three screen shots)
Problem 5 (one screen shot)
Problem 6 (six screenshots plus a data table)
.
Problem 20-1A Production cost flow and measurement; journal entrie.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 20-1A Production cost flow and measurement; journal entries L.O. P1, P2, P3, P4
[The following information applies to the questions displayed below.]
Edison Company manufactures wool blankets and accounts for product costs using process costing. The following information is available regarding its May inventories.
Beginning
Inventory
Ending
Inventory
Raw materials inventory
$
60,000
$
41,000
Goods in process inventory
449,000
521,500
Finished goods inventory
610,000
342,001
The following additional information describes the company's production activities for May.
Raw materials purchases (on credit)
$
250,000
Factory payroll cost (paid in cash)
1,850,300
Other overhead cost (Other Accounts credited)
82,000
Materials used
Direct
$
200,500
Indirect
50,000
Labor used
Direct
$
1,060,300
Indirect
790,000
Overhead rate as a percent of direct labor
115
%
Sales (on credit)
$
3,000,000
The predetermined overhead rate was computed at the beginning of the year as 115% of direct labor cost.
\\\\\
rev: 11_02_2011
references
1.
value:
2.00 points
Problem 20-1A Part 1
Required:
1(a)
Compute the cost of products transferred from production to finished goods. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Cost of products transferred
$
1(b)
Compute the cost of goods sold. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Cost of goods sold
$
rev: 10_31_2011
check my workeBook Links (4)references
2.
value:
5.00 points
Problem 20-1A Part 2
2(a)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the raw materials purchases. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(b)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the direct materials usage. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(c)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the indirect materials usage. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(d)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the payroll costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(e)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the direct labor costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(f)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the indirect labor costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(g)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the other overhead costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(h)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the overhead applied. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(i)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the goods transferred from production to finished goods.(Omit the "$" sign in yo.
Problem 2 Obtain Io.Let x be the current through j2, ..docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 2: Obtain Io.
Let x be the current through j2, .
Let .
.
.
.
………..1.
…………2.
.
.
…………3.
……………….4.
Solving these 4 equations we can get .
.
Problem 1:Find currents I1, I2, and I3
Problem 2: Obtain Io
Problem 3:Obtain io
.
Problem 1On April 1, 20X4, Rojas purchased land by giving $100,000.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1On April 1, 20X4, Rojas purchased land by giving $100,000 in cash and executing a $400,000 note payable to the former owner. The note bears interest at 10% per annum, with interest being payable annually on March 31 of each year. Rojas is also required to make a $100,000 payment toward the note's principal on every March 31.(a)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the land purchase on April 1, 20X4.(b)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the year-end interest accrual on December 31, 20X4.(c)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the payment of interest and principal on March 31, 20X5.(d)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the year-end interest accrual on December 31, 20X5.(e)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the payment of interest and principal on March 31, 20X6.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.01
B-13.01
Worksheet 1(a), (b), (c), (d), (e)GENERAL JOURNALDateAccountsDebitCredit04-01-X412-31-X403-31-X512-31-X503-31-X6
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.01
B-13.01
Problem 2Ace Brick company issued $100,000 of 5-year bonds. The bonds were issued at par on January 1, 20X1, and bear interest at a rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the bond issue on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Ace would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Ace would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.06
B-13.06
Worksheet 2(a)(b)(c)GENERAL JOURNAL DateAccountsDebitCreditIssueInterestMaturity
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.06
B-13.06
Problem 3Erik Food Supply Company issued $100,000 of face amount of 4-year bonds on January 1, 20X1. The bonds were issued at 98, and bear interest at a stated rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually. The discount is amortized by the straight-line method.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the initial issuance on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Erik would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Erik would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.08
B-13.08
Worksheet 3(a)(b)(c)GENERAL JOURNAL DateAccountsDebitCreditIssueInterestMaturity
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.08
B-13.08
Problem 4Horton Micro Chip Company issued $100,000 of face amount of 6-year bonds on January 1, 20X1. The bonds were issed at 103, and bear interest at a stated rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually. The premium is amortized by the straight-line method.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the initial issue on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Horton would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Horton would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad We.
Problem 17-1 Dividends and Taxes [LO2]Dark Day, Inc., has declar.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 17-1 Dividends and Taxes [LO2]
Dark Day, Inc., has declared a $5.60 per share dividend. Suppose capital gains are not taxed, but dividends are taxed at 15 percent. New IRS regulations require that taxes be withheld at the time the dividend is paid. Dark Day sells for $94.10 per share, and the stock is about to go ex-dividend.
What do you think the ex-dividend price will be? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
Ex-dividend price
$
Problem 17-2 Stock Dividends [LO3]
The owners’ equity accounts for Alexander International are shown here:
Common stock ($0.60 par value)
$
45,000
Capital surplus
340,000
Retained earnings
748,120
Total owners’ equity
$
1,133,120
a-1
If Alexander stock currently sells for $30 per share and a 10 percent stock dividend is declared, how many new shares will be distributed?
New shares issued
a-2
Show how the equity accounts would change.
Common stock
$
Capital surplus
Retained earnings
Total owners’ equity
$
b-1
If instead Alexander declared a 20 percent stock dividend, how many new shares will be distributed?
New shares issued
b-2
Show how the equity accounts would change. (Negative amount should be indicated by a minus sign.)
Common stock
$
Capital surplus
Retained earnings
Total owners’ equity
$
Problem 17-3 Stock Splits [LO3]
The owners' equity accounts for Alexander International are shown here.
Common stock ($0.50 par value)
$
35,000
Capital surplus
320,000
Retained earnings
708,120
Total owners’ equity
$
1,063,120
a-1
If Alexander declares a five-for-one stock split, how many shares are outstanding now?
New shares outstanding
a-2
What is the new par value per share? (Round your answer to 3 decimal places. (e.g., 32.161))
New par value
$ per share
b-1
If Alexander declares a one-for-seven reverse stock split, how many shares are outstanding now?
New shares outstanding
b-2
What is the new par value per share? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New par value
$ per share
Problem 17-4 Stock Splits and Stock Dividends [LO3]
Red Rocks Corporation (RRC) currently has 485,000 shares of stock outstanding that sell for $40 per share. Assuming no market imperfections or tax effects exist, what will the share price be after:
a.
RRC has a four-for-three stock split? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
b.
RRC has a 15 percent stock dividend? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
c.
RRC has a 54.5 percent stock dividend? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
d.
RRC has a two-for-seven reverse stock split? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
Determine the new number of shares outstanding in parts (a) through (d).
a.
New shares outstanding
b.
New shares o.
Problem 1Problem 1 - Constant-Growth Common StockWhat is the value.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Problem 1 - Constant-Growth Common StockWhat is the value of a common stock if the firm's earnings and dividends are growing annually at 10%, the current dividend is $1.32,and investors require a 15% return on investment?What is the stock's rate of return if the market price of the stock is $35?
Problem 2Problem 2 - Preferred Stock Price and ReturnA firm has preferred stock outstanding with a $1,000 par value and a $40 annual dividend with no maturity. If the required rate of return is 9%, what is the price of the preferred stock?The market price of a firm's preferred stock is $24 and pays an annual dividend of $2.50. If the stock's par value is $1,000 and it has no maturity, what is the return on the preferred stock?
Problem 3Problem 3 - Bond Valuation and YieldA bond has a par value of $1,000, pays $50 semiannually and has a maturity of 10 years.If the bond earns 12% per year, what is the price of the bond?RateNperPMTFVTypePVWhat is the yield to maturity for the bond?NperPMTPVFVTypeRateWhat would be the bond's price if the rate earned declined to 8% per year?RateNperPMTFVTypePVIf the maturity period is reduced to 5 years and the required rate of return is 8%, what would be the price of the bond?RateNperPMTFVTypePVWhat is the yield to maturity for the bond when the maturity is 5 years and the required rate of return is 8%?NperPMTPVFVTypeRateWhat generalizations about bond prices, interest rates and maturity periods can be made based on the calculations made above?
Problem 4Problem 4 - Callable BondsThe following bonds have a par value of $1,000 and the required rate of return is 10%.Bond XY: 5¼ percent coupon, with interest paid annually for 20 yearsBond AB: 14 percent coupon, with interest paid annually for 20 yearsWhat is each bond's current market price?Bond XYBond ABRateNperPMTFVTypePVIf current interest rates are 9%, which bond would you expect to be called? Explain.
Exercise 10-5
During the month of March, Olinger Company’s employees earned wages of $69,500. Withholdings related to these wages were $5,317 for Social Security (FICA), $8,145 for federal income tax, $3,366 for state income tax, and $434 for union dues. The company incurred no cost related to these earnings for federal unemployment tax but incurred $760 for state unemployment tax.
Prepare the necessary March 31 journal entry to record salaries and wages expense and salaries and wages payable. Assume that wages earned during March will be paid during April. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
Mar. 31
SHOW LIST OF ACCOUNTS
LINK TO TEXT
Prepare the entry to record the company’s payroll tax expense. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
Mar. 31
===========================================
E.
Problem 1Prescott, Inc., manufactures bookcases and uses an activi.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Prescott, Inc., manufactures bookcases and uses an activity-based costing system. Prescott's activity areas and related data follows:ActivityBudgeted Cost
of ActivityAllocation BaseCost Allocation
RateMaterials handling$230,000Number of parts$0.50Assembly3,200,000Direct labor hours16.00Finishing180,000Number of finished
units4.50Prescott produced two styles of bookcases in October: the standard bookcase and an unfinished bookcase, which has fewer parts and requires no finishing. The totals for quantities, direct
materials costs, and other data follow:ProductTotal Units
ProducedTotal Direct
Materials CostsTotal Direct
Labor CostsTotal Number
of PartsTotal Assembling
Direct Labor HoursStandard bookcase3,000$36,000$45,0009,0004,500Unfinished bookcase3,50035,00035,0007,0003,500Requirements:1. Compute the manufacturing product cost per unit of each type of bookcase.2. Suppose that pre-manufacturing activities, such as product design, were assigned to the standard bookcases at $7 each, and to the unfinished bookcases at $2 each. Similar analyses
were conducted of post-manufacturing activities such as distribution, marketing, and customer service. The post-manufacturing costs were $22 per standard bookcase and $14 per
unfinished bookcase. Compute the full product costs per unit.3. Which product costs are reported in the external financial statements? Which costs are used for management decision making? Explain the difference.4. What price should Prescott's managers set for unfinished bookcases to earn $15 per bookcase?
Problem 2Corbertt Pharmaceuticals manufactures an over-the-counter allergy medication. The company sells both large commercial containers of 1,000 capsules to health-care facilities
and travel packs of 20 capsules to shops in airports, train stations, and hotels. The following information has been developed to determine if an activity-based costing system
would be beneficial:ActivityEstimated Indirect Activity
CostsAllocation BaseEstimated Quantity of
Allocation BaseMaterials handling$95,000Kilos19,000 kilosPackaging219,000Machine hours5,475 hoursQuality assurance124,500Samples2,075 samplesTotal indirect costs$438,500Other production information includes the following:Commercial ContainersTravel PacksUnits produced3,500 containers57,000 packsWeight in kilos14,0005,700Machine hours2,625570Number of samples700855Requirements:1. Compute the cost allocation rate for each activity.2. Use the activity-based cost allocation rates to compute the activity costs per unit of the commercial containers and the travel packs. (Hint: First compute the total activity
cost allocated to each product line, and then compute the cost per unit.)3. Corbertt's original single-allocation-base costing system allocated indirect costs to produce at $157 per machine hour. Compute the total indirect costs allocated to the
commercial containers and to the travel packs under the original system. Then compute the indirect cost per unit for ea.
Problem 1Preston Recliners manufactures leather recliners and uses.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Preston Recliners manufactures leather recliners and uses flexible budgeting and a standard cost system. Preston allocates overhead based on yards of direct materials. The company's performance report includes the following selected data:Static Budget
(1,000 recliners)Actual Results
(980 recliners)Sales (1,000 recliners X $495)$495,000 (980 recliners X $475)$465,500Variable manufacturing costs: Direct materials (6,000 yds @ $8.80/yard)52,800 (6,150 yds @ $8.60/yard)52,890 Direct labor (10,000 hrs @ $9.20/hour)92,000 (9,600 hrs @ $9.30/hour)89,280Variable overhead (6,000 yds @ $5.00/yard)30,000 (6,510 yds @ $6.40/yard)39,360Fixed manufacturing costs: Fixed overhead60,00062,000Total cost of goods sold$234,800$243,530Gross profit$260,200$221,970Requirements:1. Prepare a flexible budget based on the actual number of recliners sold.2. Compute the price variance and the efficiency variance for direct materials and for direct labor. For manufacturing overhead, compute the variable overhead spending, variable overhead efficiency, fixed overhead spending, and fixed overhead volume variances.3. Have Preston's managers done a good job or a poor job controlling materials, labor, and overhead costs? Why?4. Describe how Preston's managers can benefit from the standard costing system.
Problem 2AllTalk Technologies manufactures capacitors for cellular base stations and other communications applications. The company's January 2012 flexible budget income statement shows output levels of 6,500, 8,000, and 10,000 units. The static budget was based on expected sales of 8,000 units.ALLTALK TECHNOLOGIES
Flexible Budget Income Statement
Month Ended January 31, 2012Per UnitBy Units (Capacitors)6,5008,00010,000Sales revenue$24$156,000$192,000$240,000Variable expenses$1065,00080,000100,000Contribution margin$91,000$112,000$140,000Fixed expenses53,00053,00053,000Operating income$38,000$59,000$87,000The company sold 10,000 units during January, and its actual operating income was as follows:ALLTALK TECHNOLOGIES
Income Statement
Month Ended January 31, 2012Sales revenue$246,000Variable expenses104,500Contribution margin$141,500Fixed expenses54,000Operating income$87,500Requirements:1. Prepare an income statement performance report for January.2. What was the effect on AllTalk's operating income of selling 2,000 units more than the static budget level of sales?3. What is AllTalk's static budget variance? Explain why the income statement performance report provides more useful information to AllTalk's managers than the simple static budget variance. What insights can AllTalk's managers draw from this performance report?
Problem 3Java manufacturers coffee mugs that it sells to other companies for customizing with their own logos. Java prepares flexible budgets and uses a standard cost system to control manufacturing costs. The standard unit.
Problem 1Pro Forma Income Statement and Balance SheetBelow is the .docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Pro Forma Income Statement and Balance SheetBelow is the income statement and balance sheet for Blue Bill Corporation for 2013. Based on the historical statements and theadditional information provided, construct the firm's pro forma income statement and balance sheet for 2014.Blue Bill CorporationIncome StatementFor the year ended 2013Projected201220132014Revenue$60,000$63,000Cost of goods sold42,00044,100Gross margin18,00018,900SG&A expense6,0006,300Depreciation expense1,8002,000Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT)10,20010,600Interest expense1,5001,800Taxable income8,7008,800Income Tax Expense3,0453,080Net income5,6555,720Dividends750800To retained earnings$4,905$4,920Additional income statement information:Sales will increase by 5% in 2014 from 2013 levels.COGS and SG&A will be the average percent of sales for the last 2 years.Depreciation expense will increase to $2,200.Interest expense will be $1,900.The tax rate is 35%.Dividend payout will increase to $850.Blue Bill CorporationBalance SheetDecember 31, 2013Projected20132014Current assetsCash$8,000Accounts receivable3,150Inventory9,450Total current assets20,600Property, plant, and equipment (PP&E)28,500Accumulated depreciation16,400Net PP&E12,100Total assets$32,700Current liabilitesAccounts payable$3,780Bank loan (10%)3,200Other current liabilities1,250Total current liabilities8,230Long-term debt (12%)4,800Common stock1,250Retained earnings18,420Total liabilities and equity$32,700Additional balance sheet information:The minimum cash balance is 12% of sales.Working capital accounts (accounts receivable, accounts payable, and inventory) will be the same percent of sales in 2014 as they were in 2013.$8,350 of new PP&E will be purchased in 2014.Other current liabilities will be 3% of sales in 2014.There will be no changes in the common stock or long-term debt accounts.The plug figure (the last number entered that makes the balance sheet balance) is bank loan.
1
Rough Draft
Rough Draft
Rasmussen College
Metro Dental Care is a dental office that provides affordable, convenient, and high quality of care to patients. As a patient at Metro, I personally believe that Metro Dental Care is one of the best dental clinics around, and that’s why I have chosen this company. Metro Dental Care measures their results by recording patient satisfaction.
Managing financial reports, and the quality of service they provide to their customers. Furthermore, the dentists and staff at Metro Dental Care know how important your smile is. Their mission statement states “We pride ourselves in making your smile look great so you not only look good, but feel confident with your smile.”
Metro Dental Care offers convenience for their patients with more than 40 offices throughout the Minneapolis and St. Paul metro area offering flexible hours including early morning, evening and Saturday appointments. Whether you work or live Metro Dental Care has a location near you. Metro Dental .
PROBLEM 14-6AProblem 14-6A Norwoods Borrowings1. Total amount of .docxChantellPantoja184
PROBLEM 14-6AProblem 14-6A: Norwoods Borrowings1. Total amount of each installment payment.Present value of an ordinary annuity$200,000Interest per period(i)0.08Number of periods(n)5Total amount of each installment payment($50,091.29)Therefore the total amount of each installment payment is $ 50,091.292.Norwoods Amortization TablePeriod Ending DateBeginning balance Interest expenseNotes PayableCash paymentEnding Balance10/31/15$200,000.00$16,000.00$34,091.29$50,091.29$165,908.7110/31/16$165,909.00$13,272.72$36,818.57$50,091.29$129,090.4310/31/17$129,090.43$10,327.23$39,764.06$50,091.29$89,326.3710/31/18$89,326.37$7,146.11$42,945.18$50,091.29$46,381.1910/31/19$46,381.19$3,710.50$46,380.79$50,091.29$0.403.a) Accrued interest as December 31st 2015Accrued interest expense = $200,000*8%*2/12= $2,666.67. Thus the journal entry is as shown below:DescriptionDr($)Cr($)interest expense $2,666.67 Interest payable $2,666.67b) The first annual payment on the note.Ten more months of interest has accrued $200,000*8%*10/12 =$13,333.33 accrued interest .Therefore the journal entry is as shown below:DescriptionDr($)Cr($)Notes payable$34,091.29interest expense$13,333.33interest payable$2,666.67 Cash$50,091.29
PROBLEM 14-7AProblem 14-7AQuestion 1a) Debt to equity ratiosPulaski CompanyScott Company Total liabilities$360,000.00$240,000.00Total Equity$500,000.00$200,000.00Debt-Equity Ratio0.721.2Question 2The debt to equity ratio measures the amount of debt a company uses has to finance its business for every dollar of equity it has. A higher debt to equity ratio implies that a company uses more debt than equity for financing. In this case, the debt to equity ratio for Pulaski Company is 0.72 which is less than 1 implying that the stockholder's equity exceeds the amount of debt borrowed. Thus Pulaski Company may not likely suffer from risks brought about by huge amount of debts in the capital structure. On the other hand, the debt to equity ratio of Scott Company is 1.2 which is greater than 1 implying that the debt exceeds the totalamount stockholders equity. Huge debts is associated with a lot of risks. First, there is the risk of defaulting whereby the company may be unable to repay its debt and therefore leading to bankruptcy. Second, a company may find it difficult to obtain additional funding from creditors.This is because the creditors prefer companies with low debt to equity ratio. Finally, there is the risks of violating the debt covenants. A covenant is an agreement that requires a company to maintain adequate financial ratio levels. Too much borrowings may violate this covenant. Since ScottCompany has a higher debt to equity ratio, it may experience these risks which may eventually lead to the company being declared bankrupt .
PROBLEM 14-6BProblem 14-6B: Gordon Enterprises Borrowings1. Total amount of each installment payment.Present value of an ordi.
Problem 13-3AThe stockholders’ equity accounts of Ashley Corpo.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 13-3A
The stockholders’ equity accounts of Ashley Corporation on January 1, 2012, were as follows.
Preferred Stock (8%, $49 par, cumulative, 10,200 shares authorized)
$ 387,100
Common Stock ($1 stated value, 1,937,100 shares authorized)
1,408,700
Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par—Preferred Stock
123,200
Paid-in Capital in Excess of Stated Value—Common Stock
1,496,800
Retained Earnings
1,814,400
Treasury Stock (10,300 common shares)
51,500
During 2012, the corporation had the following transactions and events pertaining to its stockholders’ equity.
Feb. 1
Issued 24,100 shares of common stock for $123,900.
Apr. 14
Sold 6,000 shares of treasury stock—common for $33,800.
Sept. 3
Issued 5,100 shares of common stock for a patent valued at $35,700.
Nov. 10
Purchased 1,100 shares of common stock for the treasury at a cost of $5,700.
Dec. 31
Determined that net income for the year was $456,600.
No dividends were declared during the year.
(a)
Journalize the transactions and the closing entry for net income. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
Feb. 1
Apr. 14
Sept. 3
Nov. 10
Dec. 31
Click if you would like to Show Work for this question:
Open Show Work
LINK TO TEXT
LINK TO TEXT
LINK TO TEXT
LINK TO TEXT
LINK TO TEXT
.
Problem 12-9AYour answer is partially correct. Try again..docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 12-9A
Your answer is partially correct. Try again.
Condensed financial data of Odgers Inc. follow.
ODGERS INC.Comparative Balance Sheets
December 31
Assets
2014
2013
Cash
$ 131,704
$ 78,892
Accounts receivable
143,114
61,940
Inventory
183,375
167,646
Prepaid expenses
46,292
42,380
Long-term investments
224,940
177,670
Plant assets
464,550
395,275
Accumulated depreciation
(81,500
)
(84,760
)
Total
$1,112,475
$839,043
Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity
Accounts payable
$ 166,260
$ 109,699
Accrued expenses payable
26,895
34,230
Bonds payable
179,300
237,980
Common stock
358,600
285,250
Retained earnings
381,420
171,884
Total
$1,112,475
$839,043
ODGERS INC.Income Statement Data
For the Year Ended December 31, 2014
Sales revenue
$633,190
Less:
Cost of goods sold
$220,800
Operating expenses, excluding depreciation
20,228
Depreciation expense
75,795
Income tax expense
44,466
Interest expense
7,710
Loss on disposal of plant assets
12,225
381,224
Net income
$ 251,966
Additional information:
1.
New plant assets costing $163,000 were purchased for cash during the year.
2.
Old plant assets having an original cost of $93,725 and accumulated depreciation of $79,055 were sold for $2,445 cash.
3.
Bonds payable matured and were paid off at face value for cash.
4.
A cash dividend of $42,430 was declared and paid during the year.
Prepare a statement of cash flows using the indirect method. (Show amounts that decrease cash flow with either a - sign e.g. -15,000 or in parenthesis e.g. (15,000).)
ODGERS INC.Statement of Cash Flows
For the Year Ended December 31, 2014
$
Adjustments to reconcile net income to
$
$
Problem 12-10A
Condensed financial data of Odgers Inc. follow.
ODGERS INC.Comparative Balance Sheets
December 31
Assets
2014
2013
Cash
$ 151,904
$ 90,992
Accounts receivable
165,064
71,440
Inventory
211,500
193,358
Prepaid expenses
53,392
48,880
Long-term investments
259,440
204,920
Plant assets
535,800
455,900
Accumulated depreciation
(94,000
)
(97,760
)
Total
$1,283,100
$967,730
Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity
Accounts payable
$ 191,760
$ 126,524
Accrued expenses payable
31,020
39,480
Bonds payable
206,800
274,480
Common stock
413,600
329,000
Retained earnings
439,920
198,246
Total
$1,283,100
$967,730
ODGERS INC.Income Statement Data
For the Year Ended December 31, 2014
Sales revenue
$730,305
Less:
Cost of goods sold
$254,665
Operating expenses, excluding depreciation
23,331
Depreciation expense
87,420
Income taxes
51,286
Interest expense
8,892
Loss on disposal of plant assets
14,100
439,694
Net income
$ 290,611
Additional information:
1.
New plant assets costing $188,000 were purchased for c.
Problem 1123456Xf122437455763715813910106Name DateTopic.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1123456Xf122437455763715813910106
Name: Date:
Topic One: Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation
Please type your answer in the cell beside the question.
5. The following is the heart rate for 10 randomly selected patients on the unit. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the data using the descriptive statistics option in the data analysis toolpak.
75, 80, 62, 97, 107, 59, 76, 83, 84, 69
6. The following is a frequency distribution fo the number of times patience use the call light in a days time. X is the number of times the call light is used and f is the frequency (meaning the number of patients). Create a histogram of the data.
Sheet2
Sheet3
EXERCISE 11 USING STATISTICS TO DESCRIBE A STUDY SAMPLE
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE IN REVIEW
Most studies describe the subjects that comprise the study sample. This description of the sample is called the sample characteristics which may be presented in a table or the narrative of the article. The sample characteristics are often presented for each of the groups in a study (i.e. experimental and control groups). Descriptive statistics are used to generate sample characteristics, and the type of statistic used depends on the level of measurement of the demographic variables included in a study (Burns & Grove, 2007). For example, measuring gender produces nominal level data that can be described using frequencies, percentages, and mode. Measuring educational level usually produces ordinal data that can be described using frequencies, percentages, mode, median, and range. Obtaining each subject's specific age is an example of ratio data that can be described using mean, range, and standard deviation. Interval and ratio data are analyzed with the same type of statistics and are usually referred to as interval/ratio level data in this text.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Source: Troy, N. W., & Dalgas-Pelish, P. (2003). The effectiveness of a self-care intervention for the management of postpartum fatigue. Applied Nursing Research, 16 (1), 38–45.
Introduction
Troy and Dalgas-Pelish (2003) conducted a quasi-experimental study to determine the effectiveness of a self-care intervention (Tiredness Management Guide [TMG]) on postpartum fatigue. The study subjects included 68 primiparous mothers, who were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (32 subjects) or the control group (36 subjects) using a computer program. The results of the study indicated that the TMG was effective in reducing levels of morning postpartum fatigue from the 2nd to 4th weeks postpartum. These researchers recommend that “mothers need to be informed that they will probably experience postpartum fatigue and be taught to assess and manage this phenomenon” (Troy & Dalgas-Pelish, 2003, pp. 44-5).
Relevant Study Results
“A total of 80 women were initially enrolled [in the study] … twelve of these women dropped out of the study resulting in a final sample of 68.” (Troy & Dalgas-Pelish, 2003, p. 39). The researchers presen.
Problem 1. For the truss and loading shown below, calculate th.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1. For the truss and loading shown below, calculate the horizontal
displacement of point "D" using the method of virtual work. Show ALL your work!
HW No. 8 - Part 1
Solution
HW FA15 2 Page 1
Problem 1 Continued
Member L (in.) N (lb) N (in) NnL
HW No. 8 - Part 1
.
Problem 1 (30 marks)Review enough information about .docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1 (30 marks)
Review enough information about Trinidad Drilling Ltd. to propose a vision and strategic objectives for the company. Develop a balanced scorecard that will help the company achieve this vision and monitor how well it is accomplishing its strategic objectives. Include a strategy map in table format that shows objectives and performance measures, with arrows illustrating hypothesized cause-and -effect relationships. Provide rationale for your strategy map. The body of your report should not exceed 1,000 words. Cite material you used to prepare the response and provide references in an appendix.
Problem 2 (20 marks)
Ajax Auto Upholstery Ltd. manufactures upholstered products for automobiles, vans, and trucks. Among the various Ajax plants around Canada is the Owlseye plant located in rural Alberta.
The chief financial officer has just received a report indicating that Ajax could purchase the entire annual output of the Owlseye plant from a foreign supplier for $37 million per year.
The budgeted operating costs (in thousands) for the Owlseye plant’s for the coming year is as follows:
Materials $15,000
Labor
Direct $12,000
Supervision 4,000
Indirect plant 5,000 19,000
Overhead
Depreciation – plant 6,000
Utilities, property tax, maintenance 2,000
Pension expense 4,500
Plant manager and staff 2,500
Corporate headquarters overhead allocation 3,000 18,000
Total budgeted costs $52,000
If material purchase orders are cancelled as a consequence of the plant closing, termination charges would amount to 10 percent of the annual cost of direct materials in the first year (zero thereafter).
A clause in the Ajax union contract requires the company to provide employment assistance to its former employees for 12 months after a plant closes. The estimated cost to administer this service if the Owlseye plant closes would be $2 million. $3.6 million of next year’s pension expense would continue indefinitely whether or not the plant remains open. About $900,000 of labour would still be required in the first year after closure to decommission the plant. After that, the plant would be sold for an estimated $1 million. Utilities, property taxes, and maintenance costs would remain unchanged in the first year after closure, but disappear when the plant is sold.
The plant manager and her staff would be somewhat affected by the closing of the Owlseye plant. Some managers would still be responsible for managing three other plants. As a result, total management salaries would be about 50% of the current level, starting at closure and remaining into the future.
Required:
Assume you are the company’s chief financial officer. Perform a five-year financial analysis and make a recommendation whether to close the Owlseye plant on this basis. Provide support for and cautions about your recommendation with organized, clearly-labeled data. Use bullet points where appropriate.
Problem 3 (16 marks)
Br.
Problem 1 (10 points) Note that an eigenvector cannot be zero.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1 (10 points): Note that an eigenvector cannot be zero, but an eigenvalue can
be 0. Suppose that 0 is an eigenvalue of A. What does it say about A? (Hint: One of the
most important properties of a matrix is whether or not it is invertible. Think about the
Invertible Matrix Theorem and all the ‘good things’ of dealing with invertible matrices)
Problem 5: (20 points): The figure below shows a network of one-way streets with
traffic flowing in the directions indicated. The flow rate along the streets are measured
as the average number of vehicles per hour.
a) Set up a mathematical model whose solution provides the unknown flow rates
b) Solve the model for the unknown flow rates
c) If the flow rates along the road A to B must be reduced for construction, what is
the minimum flow that is required to keep traffic flowing on all roads?
Problem 6 (20 points): Problem 7 (9 points): Prove that if A and B are matrices of the same
size, then tr(A+B)=tr(A)+tr(B)
Given:
Goal:
Proof:
Problem 7 (20 points)*: In the 1990, the northern spotted owl became the center of a
nationwide controversy over the use and misuse of the majestic forests in the Pacific
Northwest. Environmentalists convinced the federal government that the owl was
threatened with extinction if logging continued in the old-growth forests (with trees over
200 years old), where the owls prefer to live. The timber industry, anticipating the loss of
30,000 to 100,000 jobs as a result of new government restrictions on logging, argued that
the owl should not be classified as a “threatened species” and cited a number of published
scientific reports to support its case.
Caught in the crossfire of the two lobbying groups, mathematical ecologists
intensified their drive to understand the population dynamics of the spotted owl. The life
cycle of a spotted owl divides naturally into three stages: juvenile (up to 1 year old),
subadult (1 to 2 years), and adult (over 2 years). The owls mate for life during the subadult
and adult stages, begin to breed as adults, and live for up to 20 years. Each owl pair
requires about 1,000 hectares (4 square miles) for its own home territory. A critical time in
the life cycle is when the juveniles leave the nest. To survive and become a subadult, a
juvenile must successfully find a new home range (and usually a mate).
A first step in studying the population dynamics is to model the population at yearly
intervals, at times denoted by 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2, …. Usually, one assumes that there is a 1:1 ratio of
males to females in each life stage and counts only the females. The population at year 𝑘𝑘
can be described by a vector 𝒙𝒙𝒌𝒌 = (𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘 , 𝑠𝑠𝑘𝑘 , 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 ), where 𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘 , 𝑠𝑠𝑘𝑘 , and 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 are the numbers of
females in the juvenile, subadult, and adult stages, respectively. Using actual field data from
demographic studies, a rese
Probation and Parole 3Running head Probation and Parole.docxChantellPantoja184
Probation and Parole 3
Running head: Probation and Parole
Probation and Parole
Student Name
Allied American University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for Probation and Parole, Module 8 Check Your Understanding taught by [INSERT INSTRUCTOR’S NAME].
Directions: Respond to the following questions using complete sentences. Your answer should be at least 1 paragraph in length, which must be composed of three to five sentences.
1. What is meant by intermediate punishments and what programs are included in this category?
2. How do intermediate punishments serve to keep down prison populations?
3. Why has electronic monitoring proven so popular?
4. What is meant by shock probation/parole?
5. What are the essential features of the boot camp program?
6. Why has intensive supervision been a public relations success?
7. What are the criticisms of boot camp programs?
8. What has research revealed with respect to intensive supervision?
9. What are the criticisms of electronic monitoring in probation and parole?
10. What are the criticisms leveled at intensive supervision?
11. What are the purposes of and services offered by a day reporting center?
12. Why would heroin addicts who have no intention of giving up drug use voluntarily enter a drug treatment program? What are the advantages of using methadone to treat heroin addicts?
13. Why is behavior modification difficult to use in treating drug abusers?
14. What are the characteristics of chemical dependency (CD) programs?
15. What are the primary characteristics of the therapeutic community (TC) approach for treating drug abusers?
16. What are criticisms of the Alcoholics Anonymous approach?
17. What are the problems inherent in drug testing?
18. What are the typical characteristics of sex offenders? How have sex offender laws affected P/P supervision?
19. What are the pros and cons of restitution and charging offenders fees in probation or parole?
20. What are the problems encountered in using the interstate compact?
.
Problem 1(a) Complete the following ANOVA table based on 20 obs.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1:
(a) Complete the following ANOVA table based on 20 observations for the regression equation
(a) Is the overall regression significant? Fill in the missing values in the table.
Source DF SS MS F
Regression ___ 350 ____ ____
Error ___ _____
Total 500
(b) Suppose that you have computed the following sequential sums of squares due to regression:
Regressor Variables in Model SS Regression
………………………………………. 300
……………………………………… 250
…………………………………….. 340
……………………………………. 325
Fill in the missing values in the following “computer output”:
Source DF Partial SS F-value Pr>F
……………………………………………………………………………………….. 0.1245
………………………………………………………………………………………. 0.3841
………………………………………………………………………………………. 0.0042
………………………………………………………………………………………. 0.0401
Problem 2:
The time required for a merchandise to stock a grocery store shelf with a soft drink product as well as the number of cases of product stocked are given below. Consider a linear regression of delivery time against number of cases.
X=number of cases
Y=delivery time
Delivery time number of cases Hat diagonals
1.41 4 0.5077
2.96 6 0.3907
6.04 14 0.2013
7.57 19 0.3092
9.38 24 0.5912
Observations used L.S. Model
4,6,14,19,24
6,14,19,24
4,14,19,24
4,14,19,24
4,6,14,24
4,6,14,19
(a)
Calculate the PRESS statistic for the model .
(b) Calculate the regular residual for the model above. Then, compare these residuals with the PRESS residuals for this model.
Exercises from the Text
Use SAS whenever possible to do these exercises:
# 3.4 on p 122
# 3.5
# 3.8
# 3.15
# 3.21
# 3.27
# 3.28
# 3.31
# 3.38
# 3.39
Example with SAS on Sequential and Partial Sum of Squares
Data Weather;
Title 'Lows and Highs from N&O Jan 28,29,30 1992';
Title2 'using actual numbers (yesterday values)';
input city $ hi2 lo2 yhi ylo thi tlo;
* Mon Tues Wed ;
cards;
seattle 51 44 52 44 59 47
.
.
.
;
proc reg; model thi = yhi hi2 tlo ylo lo2/ss1 ss2;
test tlo=0, ylo=0, lo2=0;
/*-----------------------------------------------
| Showing sequential and partial sums of squares|
| Note t**2 = F relationship for partial F. By |
| hand, construct F to leave out .
Probe 140 SPrecipitation in inchesTemperature in F.docxChantellPantoja184
Probe 1
40 S
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 26.8
Precip 27.1
MAT(F) 59.8
Probe 2
6 S
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 69.2
Precip 124.6
MAT(F) 77.9
Probe 3
57 S
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 21.5
Precip 38.7
MAT(F) 43.5
Probe 4
38 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 30.3
Precip 16.5
MAT(F) 53.6
Probe 5
55 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 21.3
Precip 28.1
MAT(F) 40.6
Probe 6
43 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 25.4
Precip 14.4
MAT(F) 47.2
Probe 7
42 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 17.3
Precip 31.2
MAT(F) 26.0
Probe 8
42 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 29.6
Precip 38.8
MAT(F) 51.6
Probe 9
18 S
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 66.1
Precip 74.8
MAT(F) 77.7
Probe 10
58 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 16.5
Precip 24.8
MAT(F) 36.9
Probe 11
26 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 47.6
Precip 3.8
MAT(F) 70.1
Probe 12
29 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
POTET 44.0
Precip 47.3
MAT(F) 63.2
Probe 4
Probe 2
Probe 10
Probe 5
Probe 6
Probe 7
Probe 11
Probe 12
Probe 8
Probe 9
Probe 3
Probe 1
Map 1
20 N
40 N
60 N
80 N
0
20 S
40 S
60 S
0
1000
miles
Geography 204
Koppen Climate Classification Guidelines
If POTET exceeds Precip then B
BW = POTET more than 2x Precip
(desert)
h = mean annual temp > 18 C (64.4 F)
k = mean annual temp < 18 C (64.4 F)
BS = POTET less than 2x Precip
(steppe)
h = mean annual t.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
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This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
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Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
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Macroeconomics- Movie Location
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Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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2. Theory and Practice
Ninth Edition
Peter G. Northouse
Western Michigan University
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FOR INFORMATION:
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4. 9
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owners. Reference to these trademarks in no way indicates any
relationship
with, or endorsement by, the trademark owner.
Printed in Canada
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Northouse, Peter Guy, author.
Title: Leadership : theory and practice / Peter G. Northouse,
Western Michigan University.
Description: Ninth Edition. | Thousand Oaks : SAGE
Publishing, 2021. | Revised edition of
the author’s Leadership, [2019] | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020045038 | ISBN 9781544397566
(paperback) | ISBN
9781071836149 | 9781071834466 (epub) | ISBN
9781071834473 (epub) | ISBN
9781071834480 (pdf)
5. Subjects: LCSH: Leadership. | Leadership—Case studies.
Classification: LCC HM1261 .N67 2021 | DDC 303.3/4—dc23
LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2020045038
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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6. 11
12
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
About the Contributors
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Trait Approach
Chapter 3 Skills Approach
Chapter 4 Behavioral Approach
Chapter 5 Situational Approach
Chapter 6 Path–Goal Theory
Chapter 7 Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Chapter 8 Transformational Leadership
Chapter 9 Authentic Leadership
Chapter 10 Servant Leadership
Chapter 11 Adaptive Leadership
Chapter 12 Inclusive Leadership
Chapter 13 Followership
Chapter 14 Gender and Leadership
Chapter 15 Leadership Ethics
Chapter 16 Team Leadership
References
Author Index
Subject Index
7. 13
14
DETAILED CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
About the Contributors
Chapter 1 Introduction
Leadership Defined
Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership
Definition and Components
Leadership Described
Trait Versus Process Leadership
Assigned Versus Emergent Leadership
Leadership and Power
Leadership and Coercion
Leadership and Morality
Leadership Is a Neutral Process
Leadership Is a Moral Process
Leadership and Management
Plan of the Book
Case Study
Case 1.1 Open Mouth . . .
Leadership Instrument
Conceptualizing Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
8. Chapter 2 Trait Approach
Description
Intelligence
Self-Confidence
Determination
Integrity
Sociability
Five-Factor Personality Model and Leadership
Strengths and Leadership
Emotional Intelligence
How Does the Trait Approach Work?
Strengths
15
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 2.1 Choosing a New Director of Research
Case 2.2 Recruiting for the Bank
Case 2.3 Elon Musk
Leadership Instrument
Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ)
Summary
Chapter 3 Skills Approach
Description
Three-Skill Approach
9. Technical Skills
Human Skills
Conceptual Skills
Summary of the Three-Skill Approach
Skills Model
Individual Attributes
Competencies
Influences on Skills Development
Leadership Outcomes
Summary of the Skills Model
How Does the Skills Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 3.1 A Strained Research Team
Case 3.2 Andy’s Recipe
Case 3.3 2019 Global Teacher of the Year: Peter Tabichi
Leadership Instrument
Skills Inventory
Summary
Chapter 4 Behavioral Approach
Description
Task and Relationship Behaviors
Task Orientation
16
10. Relationship Orientation
Historical Background of the Behavioral Approach
The Ohio State Studies
The University of Michigan Studies
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial (Leadership) Grid
Paternalism/Maternalism
Opportunism
Recent Studies
How Does the Behavioral Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 4.1 A Drill Sergeant at First
Case 4.2 We Are Family
Case 4.3 Cheer Coach Monica Aldama
Leadership Instrument
Leadership Behavior Questionnaire
Summary
Chapter 5 Situational Approach
Description
Leadership Style
Development Level
How Does SLII® Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
11. Case 5.1 Marathon Runners at Different Levels
Case 5.2 Getting the Message Across
Case 5.3 Philosophies of Chinese Leadership
Leadership Instrument
SLII® Questionnaire: Sample Items
Summary
Chapter 6 Path–Goal Theory
Description
Leader Behaviors
17
Directive Leadership
Supportive Leadership
Participative Leadership
Achievement-Oriented Leadership
Follower Characteristics
Task Characteristics
How Does Path–Goal Theory Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 6.1 Three Shifts, Three Supervisors
Case 6.2 Playing in the Orchestra
Case 6.3 Row the Boat
Leadership Instrument
12. Path–Goal Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
Chapter 7 Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Description
Early Studies
Later Studies
Leadership Development
Emotions and LMX Development
How Does LMX Theory Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 7.1 His Team Gets the Best Assignments
Case 7.2 Working Hard at Being Fair
Case 7.3 Pixar: Creating Space for Success
Leadership Instrument
LMX-7 Questionnaire
Summary
Chapter 8 Transformational Leadership
Description
Transformational Leadership Defined
18
Transformational Leadership and Charisma
A Model of Transformational Leadership
13. Transformational Leadership Factors
Transactional Leadership Factors
Nonleadership Factor
Transformational Leadership Measurements
Other Transformational Perspectives
Bennis and Nanus
Kouzes and Posner
How Does the Transformational Leadership Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 8.1 The Vision Failed
Case 8.2 An Exploration in Leadership
Case 8.3 Grandmothers and Benches
Leadership Instrument
Transformational Leadership Inventory
Summary
Chapter 9 Authentic Leadership
Description
Authentic Leadership Defined
Approaches to Authentic Leadership
Practical Approach
Theoretical Approach
How Does Authentic Leadership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
14. Application
Case Studies
Case 9.1 Am I Really a Leader?
Case 9.2 Kassie’s Story
Case 9.3 The Arena of Authenticity
Leadership Instrument
Authentic Leadership Self-Assessment Questionnaire
Summary
19
Chapter 10 Servant Leadership
Description
Servant Leadership Defined
Historical Basis of Servant Leadership
Ten Characteristics of a Servant Leader
Building a Theory About Servant Leadership
Model of Servant Leadership
Antecedent Conditions
Servant Leader Behaviors
Outcomes
Summary of the Model of Servant Leadership
How Does Servant Leadership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
15. Case 10.1 Global Health Care
Case 10.2 Servant Leadership Takes Flight
Case 10.3 Energy to Inspire the World
Leadership Instrument
Servant Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
Chapter 11 Adaptive Leadership
Description
Adaptive Leadership Defined
A Model of Adaptive Leadership
Situational Challenges
Technical Challenges
Technical and Adaptive Challenges
Adaptive Challenges
Leader Behaviors
Adaptive Work
How Does Adaptive Leadership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
20
Case 11.1 Silence, Stigma, and Mental Illness
Case 11.2 Taming Bacchus
Case 11.3 Agonizing Options for Marlboro College
16. Leadership Instrument
Adaptive Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
Chapter 12 Inclusive Leadership
Description
Inclusion Defined
A Model of Inclusive Leadership
Antecedent Conditions
Leader Characteristics
Group Diversity Cognitions
Organizational Policies and Practices
Inclusive Leadership Behaviors
Outcomes
How Does Inclusive Leadership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Assessment
Challenge
Support
Case Studies
Case 12.1 Difficult Decision
Case 12.2 The Extraversion Advantage
Case 12.3 Inclusive Leadership During a Crisis
Leadership Instrument
Inclusive Leadership Reflection Instrument
17. Summary
Chapter 13 Followership
Description
Followership Defined
Role-Based and Relational-Based Perspectives
Typologies of Followership
The Zaleznik Typology
The Kelley Typology
21
The Chaleff Typology
The Kellerman Typology
Theoretical Approaches to Followership
Reversing the Lens
The Leadership Co-Created Process
New Perspectives on Followership
Perspective 1: Followers Get the Job Done
Perspective 2: Followers Work in the Best Interest of
the Organization’s Mission
Perspective 3: Followers Challenge Leaders
Perspective 4: Followers Support the Leader
Perspective 5: Followers Learn From Leaders
Followership and Destructive Leaders
1. Our Need for Reassuring Authority Figures
2. Our Need for Security and Certainty
3. Our Need to Feel Chosen or Special
4. Our Need for Membership in the Human Community
18. 5. Our Fear of Ostracism, Isolation, and Social Death
6. Our Fear of Powerlessness to Challenge a Bad
Leader
How Does Followership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 13.1 Bluebird Care
Case 13.2 Olympic Rowers
Case 13.3 Penn State Sexual Abuse Scandal
Leadership Instrument
Followership Questionnaire
Summary
Chapter 14 Gender and Leadership
Description
The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth
Evidence of the Leadership Labyrinth
Understanding the Labyrinth
Gender Differences in Leadership Styles and Effectiveness
22
Navigating the Labyrinth
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
19. Case Studies
Case 14.1 The “Glass Ceiling”
Case 14.2 Pregnancy as a Barrier to Job Status
Case 14.3 Jacinda Ardern, Prime Minister of New Zealand
Leadership Instrument
Gender-Leader Bias Questionnaire
Summary
Chapter 15 Leadership Ethics
Description
Ethics Defined
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Level 2. Conventional Morality
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
Ethical Theories
Centrality of Ethics to Leadership
Heifetz’s Perspective on Ethical Leadership
Burns’s Perspective on Ethical Leadership
The Dark Side of Leadership
Principles of Ethical Leadership
Ethical Leaders Respect Others
Ethical Leaders Serve Others
Ethical Leaders Are Just
Ethical Leaders Are Honest
Ethical Leaders Build Community
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
20. Case 15.1 Choosing a Research Assistant
Case 15.2 Reexamining a Proposal
Case 15.3 Ship Shape
Leadership Instrument
Ethical Leadership Style Questionnaire (Short Form)
23
Summary
Chapter 16 Team Leadership
Description
Team Leadership Model
Team Effectiveness
Leadership Decisions
Leadership Actions
How Does the Team Leadership Model Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 16.1 Team Crisis Within the Gates
Case 16.2 Starts With a Bang, Ends With a Whimper
Case 16.3 1980 U.S. Olympic Hockey Team
Leadership Instrument
Team Excellence and Collaborative Team Leader
Questionnaire
21. Summary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
24
25
PREFACE
As this ninth edition of Leadership: Theory and Practice goes to
press, the
number of confirmed deaths worldwide from the COVID-19
pandemic is
over 1 million. The horrific nature of this pandemic has
challenged societies
on a global scale and highlights for all of us the importance of
understanding how leadership works and the value of leadership
in times of
crisis. To that end, this edition is written with the objective of
bridging the
gap between the often-simplistic popular approaches to
leadership and the
more abstract theoretical approaches. Like the previous
editions, this edition
reviews and analyzes a selected number of leadership theories,
giving
special attention to how each theoretical approach can be
applied in real-
world organizations. In essence, my purpose is to explore how
leadership
theory can inform and direct the way leadership is practiced.
22. 26
NEW TO THIS EDITION
First and foremost, this edition includes a new chapter on
inclusive
leadership, which examines the nature of inclusive leadership,
its
underpinnings, and how it functions. Authored by two scholars
in the areas
of diversity and inclusion, Donna Chrobot-Mason and Quinetta
Roberson,
the chapter presents definitions, a model, and the latest research
and
applications of this emerging approach to leadership.
Underscored in the
chapter is how inclusion is an integration of two factors: (1) an
individual’s
connectedness to others and (2) a person’s uniqueness. Finally,
this new
chapter provides case studies and leadership instruments to
explore how to
practice inclusive leadership in a variety of contexts.
In addition to the discussion of inclusive leadership in Chapter
12, this
edition includes an expanded analysis of leadership and
morality—the
“Hitler Question.” It discusses the perplexing question of
whether the
process of leadership is inherently a moral process that is
concerned with
the common good or whether it is a neutral process that is not
23. dependent on
promoting the common good.
Another new feature in this edition is the inclusion of a real -
world case
study in each chapter. Because it is important to acknowledge
and see real
leaders exhibiting the behaviors and concepts behind the
leadership
approaches discussed in the text, the third case study in each
chapter
profiles a leader that epitomizes the chapter’s concepts. These
new real-
world case studies include profiles from across the globe
including a mental
health program utilizing grandmothers in Africa, an Italian
energy
company, and New Zealand prime minister Jacinda Ardern. In
addition,
there are profiles of leaders responding to crisis including
closing a college
and battling COVID-19 on a U.S. aircraft carrier.
This edition retains many special features from previous
editions but has
been updated to include new research findings, figures and
tables, and
everyday applications for many leadership topics including
leader–member
exchange theory, transformational and authentic leadership,
team
leadership, the labyrinth of women’s leadership, and historical
definitions of
24. 27
leadership. In addition, it includes an expanded look at the
relationship
between emotional intelligence and leadership. The format of
this edition
parallels the format used in earlier editions. As with previous
editions, the
overall goal of Leadership: Theory and Practice is to advance
our
understanding of the many different approaches to leadership
and ways to
practice it more effectively.
28
SPECIAL FEATURES
Although this text presents and analyzes a wide range of
leadership
research, every attempt has been made to present the material in
a clear,
concise, and interesting manner. Reviewers of the book have
consistently
commented that clarity is one of its major strengths. In addition
to the
writing style, several other features of the book help make it
user-friendly.
Each chapter follows the same format: It is structured to include
first
theory and then practice.
Every chapter contains a discussion of the strengths and
25. criticisms of
the approach under consideration, and assists readers in
determining
the relative merits of each approach.
Each chapter includes an application section that discusses the
practical aspects of the approach and how it could be used in
today’s
organizational settings.
Three case studies are provided in each chapter to illustrate
common
leadership issues and dilemmas. Thought-provoking questions
follow
each case study, helping readers to interpret the case.
A questionnaire is provided in each of the chapters to help
readers
apply the approach to their own leadership style or setting.
Figures and tables illustrate the content of the theory and make
the
ideas more meaningful.
Through these special features, every effort has been made to
make this text
substantive, understandable, and practical.
29
AUDIENCE
This book provides both an in-depth presentation of leadership
theory and a
26. discussion of how it applies to real-life situations. Thus, it is
intended for
undergraduate and graduate classes in management, leadership
studies,
business, educational leadership, public administration, nursing
and allied
health, social work, criminal justice, industrial and
organizational
psychology, communication, religion, agricultural education,
political and
military science, and training and development. It can also be
utilized
outside of academia by small and large companies, as well as
federal
government agencies, to aid in developing the learner’s
leadership skills. It
is particularly well suited as a supplementary text for core
organizational
behavior courses or as an overview text within MBA curricula.
This book
would also be useful as a text in student activities, continuing
education, in-
service training, and other leadership-development programs.
30
TEACHING RESOURCES
This text includes an array of instructor teaching materials
designed to save
you time and to help you keep students engaged. To learn more,
visit
sagepub.com or contact your SAGE representative at
sagepub.com/findmyrep.
27. In the electronic edition of the book you have purchased, there
are
several icons that reference links (videos, journal articles) to
additional content. Though the electronic edition links are not
live,
all content referenced may be accessed at . This URL is
referenced
at several points throughout your electronic edition.
http://sagepub.com/
http://sagepub.com/findmyrep
31
32
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people directly or indirectly contributed to the
development of the
ninth edition of Leadership: Theory and Practice. First, I would
like to
acknowledge my editor, Maggie Stanley, and her talented team
at SAGE
Publications (Lauren Gobell and Sarah Wilson), who have
contributed in so
many different ways to the quality and success of this book. For
their very
capable work during the production phase, I would like to thank
the copy
editor, Melinda Masson, and the project editor, Tracy Buyan. In
her own
unique way, each of these people made valuable contributions to
28. the ninth
edition.
I would like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable
contributions to the development of this manuscript:
Sidney R. Castle, National University
Jason Headrick, Texas Tech University
Michelle Jefferson, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Gary F. Kohut, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte
R. Jeffery Maxfield, Utah Valley University
Daniel F. Nehring, Morehead State University
Michael Pace, Texas A&M University
Heather I. Scott, Kennesaw State University
Charlotte Silvers, Texas Tech University
Elena Svetieva, University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Mark Vrooman, Utica College
33
Isaac Wanasika, University of Northern Colorado
Rosie Watwood, Concordia University Texas
29. I would like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable
contributions to the development of the eighth-edition
manuscript:
Sandra Arumugam-Osburn, St. Louis Community College–
Forest Park
Rob Elkington, University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Abimbola Farinde, Columbia Southern University
Belinda S. Han, Utah Valley University
Deborah A. Johnson-Blake, Liberty University
Benjamin Kutsyuruba, Queen’s University
Chenwei Liao, Michigan State University
Heather J. Mashburn, Appalachian State University
Comfort Okpala, North Carolina A&T State University
Ric Rohm, Southeastern University
Patricia Dillon Sobczak, Virginia Commonwealth University
Victor S. Sohmen, Drexel University
Brigitte Steinheider, University of Oklahoma-Tulsa
Robert Waris, University of Missouri–Kansas City
Sandi Zeljko, Lake-Sumter State College
30. 34
Mary Zonsius, Rush University
I would like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable
contributions to the development of the seventh-edition
manuscript:
Hamid Akbari, Winona State University
Meera Alagaraja, University of Louisville
Mel Albin, Excelsior College
Thomas Batsching, Reutlingen University
Cheryl Beeler, Angelo State University
Julie Bjorkman, Benedictine University
Mark D. Bowman, Methodist University
Dianne Burns, University of Manchester
Eric Buschlen, Central Michigan University
Steven Bryant, Drury University
Daniel Calhoun, Georgia Southern University
David Conrad, Augsburg College
Joyce Cousins, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
Denise Danna, LSUHSC School of Nursing
31. S. Todd Deal, Georgia Southern University
Caroline S. Fulmer, University of Alabama
35
Brad Gatlin, John Brown University
Greig A. Gjerdalen, Capilano University
Andrew Gonzales, University of California, Irvine
Decker B. Hains, Western Michigan University
Amanda Hasty, University of Colorado–Denver
Carl Holschen, Missouri Baptist University
Kiran Ismail, St. John’s University
Irma Jones, University of Texas at Brownsville
Michele D. Kegley, University of Cincinnati, Blue Ash College
Jeanea M. Lambeth, Pittsburg State University
David Lees, University of Derby
David S. McClain, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Carol McMillan, New School University
Richard Milter, Johns Hopkins University
32. Christopher Neck, Arizona State University–Tempe
Keeok Park, University of La Verne
Richard Parkman, University of Plymouth
Lori M. Pindar, Clemson University
Chaminda S. Prelis, University of Dubuque
Casey Rae, George Fox University
36
Noel Ronan, Waterford Institute of Technolo gy
Louis Rubino, California State University, Northridge
Shadia Sachedina, Baruch College (School of Public Affairs)
Harriet L. Schwartz, Carlow University
Kelli K. Smith, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
David Swenson, The College of St. Scholastica
Danny L. Talbot, Washington State University
Robert L. Taylor, University of Louisville
Precious Taylor-Clifton, Cambridge College
John Tummons, University of Missouri
33. Kristi Tyran, Western Washington University
Tamara Von George, Granite State College
Natalie Walker, Seminole State College
William Welch, Bowie State University
David E. Williams, Texas Tech University
Tony Wohlers, Cameron University
Sharon A. Wulf, Worcester Polytechnic Institute School of
Business
Alec Zama, Grand View University
Xia Zhao, California State University, Dominguez Hills
37
In addition, I would like to thank, for their exceptional work on
the
leadership profile tool and the ancillaries, Isolde Anderson
(Hope College),
John Baker (Western Kentucky University), and Eric Buschlen.
A very special acknowledgment goes to Laurel Northouse who
has been my
number-one critic and supporter from the inception of the book
in 1990 to
the present. In addition, I am especially grateful to Marie Lee
for her
34. exceptional editing and guidance throughout this project. For
her
comprehensive literature reviews and chapter updates, I would
like to thank
Terri Scandura.
For his review of and comments on the morality and leadership
section, I
am indebted to Joseph Curtin (Northeastern University). I would
like to
thank Kate McCain (University of Nebraska–Lincoln) and Jason
Headrick
(University of Nebraska–Lincoln) for their contributions to the
adaptive
leadership chapter, John Baker for his contributions to the team
leadership
chapter, Jenny Steiner for her case study on adaptive leadership,
Jeff Brink
for sharing his story about transformational leadership, and
Kassandra
Gutierrez for her case study on authentic leadership. In
addition, I would
like to acknowledge Barbara Russell (Chemeketa Community
College) for
her research and writing of many of the new real-world case
studies.
Finally, I would like to thank the many undergraduate and
graduate students
whom I have taught through the years. Their ongoing feedback
has helped
clarify my thinking about leadership and encouraged me to
make plain the
practical implications of leadership theories.
35. 38
39
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Peter G. Northouse,
PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Communication in the School of
Communication at
Western Michigan University. Leadership: Theory and Practice
is the best-selling
academic textbook on leadership in the world and has been
translated into 16 languages.
In addition to authoring publications in professional journals,
he is the author of
Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice (now in its
fifth edition) and co-
author of Leadership Case Studies in Education (now in its third
edition) and Health
Communication: Strategies for Health Professionals (now in its
third edition). His
scholarly and curricular interests include models of leadership,
leadership assessment,
ethical leadership, and leadership and group dynamics. For more
than 30 years, he has
taught undergraduate and graduate courses in leadership,
interpersonal communication,
and organizational communication on both the undergraduate
and graduate levels.
Currently, he is a consultant and lecturer on trends in leadership
research, leadership
development, and leadership education. He holds a doctorate in
speech communication
36. from the University of Denver, and master’s and bachelor’s
degrees in communication
education from Michigan State University.
40
41
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
Donna Chrobot-Mason,
PhD, is an associate professor and director of the Center for
Organizational
Leadership at the University of Cincinnati (UC). She is director
of UC
Women Lead, a 10-month executive leadership program for
high-potential
women at UC. Her research and consulting work has spanned
two decades
and centers on leadership across differences and strategies for
creating
organizations that support diversity, equity, and inclusion and
foster
intergroup collaboration. She has published nearly 40 articles
and scholarly
works in journals such as the Journal of Management, The
Leadership
Quarterly, Journal of Organizational Behavior, and Group and
Organization Management. She has served on the editorial
review board for
the Journal of Management, Personnel Psychology, and the
Journal of
Business and Psychology. Her book (co-authored with Chris
37. Ernst),
Boundary Spanning Leadership: Six Practices for Solving
Problems,
Driving Innovation, and Transforming Organizations, was
published by
McGraw-Hill Professional in 2010. Dr. Chrobot-Mason has been
invited to
address numerous audiences including the Brookings Institute,
Federal
Bureau of Investigation, Environmental Protection Agency,
Internal
Revenue Service, Catholic Health Partners, and the
International
Leadership Association. She has consulted with numerous
organizations
including Briggs and Stratton, Dayton Public Schools,
Boehringer-
Ingelheim, Emory University, Milacron, and Forest City
Enterprises. She
holds a PhD and master’s degree in applied psychology from the
University
of Georgia.
Crystal L. Hoyt
is a professor and associate dean for academic affairs, and holds
the
Thorsness Endowed Chair in Ethical Leadership at the Jepson
School of
Leadership Studies at the University of Richmond. Her research
explores
the role of belief systems, such as mindsets, self-efficacy,
stereotypes, and
political ideologies, in a range of social issues including stigma
and
discrimination, ethical failures in leadership, leadership and
educational
38. achievement gaps, public health, and wealth inequality. Dr.
Hoyt’s research
appears in journals such as Psychological Science, Journal of
Experimental
and Social Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, Group
42
Processes & Intergroup Relations, and The Leadership
Quarterly. She has
published over 70 journal articles and book chapters and has co-
edited three
books. Dr. Hoyt is an associate editor at the Journal of
Experimental
Psychology: General, is on the editorial boards at Leadership
Quarterly and
Sex Roles, and has served as a reviewer for over 45 journals.
Susan E. Kogler Hill
(PhD, University of Denver, 1974) is Professor Emeritus and
former chair
of the School of Communication at Cleveland State University.
Her
research and consulting have been in the areas of interpersonal
and
organizational communication. She specializes in group
leadership,
teamwork, empowerment, and mentoring. She is author of a text
titled
Improving Interpersonal Competence. In addition, she has
written book
chapters and published articles in many professional journals.
39. Quinetta Roberson,
PhD, is the John A. Hannah Distinguished Professor of
Management and
Psychology at Michigan State University. Prior to her current
position, she
was an Endowed Chair at Villanova University and a tenured
professor at
Cornell University. She has been a visiting scholar at
universities on six
continents and has more than 20 years of global experience in
teaching
courses, facilitating workshops, and advising organizations on
diversity and
inclusion, leadership, and talent management. Dr. Roberson has
published
over 40 scholarly journal articles and book chapters and edited
a Handbook
of Diversity in the Workplace (2013). Her research and
consulting work
focus on developing organizational capability and enhancing
effectiveness
through the strategic management of people, particularly
diverse work
teams, and is informed by her background in finance, having
worked as a
financial analyst and small business development consultant
prior to
obtaining her doctorate. She earned her PhD in organizational
behavior
from the University of Maryland and holds undergraduate and
graduate
degrees in finance.
Stefanie Simon
is an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at
Siena College.
40. She earned her PhD in social psychology from Tulane
University and was
the Robert A. Oden Jr. Postdoctoral Fellow for Innovation in
the Liberal
43
Arts at Carleton College before joining the faculty at Siena. Her
research
centers on the psychology of diversity, with a focus on
prejudice,
discrimination, and leadership. In her work, she focuses on the
perspective
of the target of prejudice and discrimination, as well as the
perspective of
the perpetrator of prejudice and discrimination. She is
particularly
interested in how leaders of diverse groups can promote positive
intergroup
relations and reduce inequality in society. She has published
articles in
various psychology and leadership journals including The
Leadership
Quarterly, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, Social
Psychological
and Personality Science, and Sex Roles.
44
45
41. 1 INTRODUCTION
Leadership is a highly sought-after and highly valued
commodity. In the 25 years since the first edition of this
book was published, the public has become increasingly
captivated by the idea of leadership. People continue to
ask themselves and others what makes good leaders. As
individuals, they seek more information on how to
become effective leaders. As a result, bookstore shelves are
filled with popular books about leaders and how to be
a leader. Many people believe that leadership is a way to
improve their personal, social, and professional lives.
Corporations seek those with leadership ability because they
believe these individuals bring special assets to their
organizations and, ultimately, improve the bottom line.
Academic institutions throughout the country have
responded by offering programs in leadership studies, including
at the master’s and doctoral levels.
In addition, leadership has gained the attention of researchers
worldwide. Leadership research is increasing
dramatically, and findings underscore that there is a wide
variety of different theoretical approaches to explain the
complexities of the leadership process (e.g., Bass, 2008;
Bryman, 1992; Bryman, Collinson, Grint, Jackson, &
Uhl-Bien, 2011; Day & Antonakis, 2012; Dinh et al., 2014; J.
Gardner, 1990; W. Gardner et al., 2020; Hickman,
2016; Mumford, 2006; Rost, 1991). Some researchers
conceptualize leadership as a trait or as a behavior, whereas
others view leadership from an information-processing
perspective or relational standpoint.
Leadership has been studied using both qualitative and
quantitative methods in many contexts, including small
groups, therapeutic groups, and large organizations. In recent
years, this research has included experiments
42. designed to explain how leadership influences follower attitudes
and performance (Podsakoff & Podsakoff, 2019)
in hopes of increasing the practical usefulness of leadership
research.
Collectively, the research findings on leadership provide a
picture of a process that is far more sophisticated and
complex than the often-simplistic view presented in some of the
popular books on leadership.
This book treats leadership as a complex process having
multiple dimensions. Based on the research literature, this
text provides an in-depth description and application of many
different approaches to leadership. Our emphasis is
on how theory can inform the practice of leadership. In this
book, we describe each theory and then explain how
the theory can be used in real situations.
46
LEADERSHIP DEFINED
There are many ways to finish the sentence “Leadership is . . .”
In fact, as Stogdill (1974, p. 7) pointed out in a
review of leadership research, there are almost as many
different definitions of leadership as there are people who
have tried to define it. It is much like the words democracy,
love, and peace. Although each of us intuitively knows
what we mean by such words, the words can have different
meanings for different people. As Box 1.1 shows,
scholars and practitioners have attempted to define leadership
for more than a century without universal consensus.
Box 1.1
43. The Evolution of Leadership Definitions
While many have a gut-level grasp of what leadership is,
putting a definition to the term has proved to be a
challenging endeavor for scholars and practitioners alike. More
than a century has lapsed since leadership
became a topic of academic introspection, and definitions have
evolved continuously during that period.
These definitions have been influenced by many factors, from
world affairs and politics to the perspectives
of the discipline in which the topic is being studied. In a
seminal work, Rost (1991) analyzed materials
written from 1900 to 1990, finding more than 200 different
definitions for leadership. His analysis
provides a succinct history of how leadership has been defined
through the last century:
47
1900–1929
Definitions of leadership appearing in the first three decades of
the 20th century emphasized control and
centralization of power with a common theme of domination.
For example, at a conference on leadership
in 1927, leadership was defined as “the ability to impress the
will of the leader on those led and [to] induce
obedience, respect, loyalty, and cooperation” (Moore, 1927, p.
124).
48
44. 1930s
In the 1930s, traits became the focus of defining leadership,
with an emerging view of leadership as
influence rather than domination. Leadership was also identified
as the interaction of an individual’s
specific personality traits with those of a group; it was noted
that while the attitudes and activities of the
many may be changed by the one, the many may also influence
a leader.
49
1940s
The group approach came into the forefront in the 1940s with
leadership being defined as the behavior of
an individual while involved in directing group activities
(Hemphill, 1949). At the same time, leadership
by persuasion was distinguished from “drivership” or leadership
by coercion (Copeland, 1942).
50
1950s
Three themes dominated leadership definitions during the
1950s:
continuance of group theory, which framed leadership as what
leaders do in groups;
45. leadership as a relationship that develops shared goals, which
defined leadership based on behavior
of the leader; and
effectiveness, in which leadership was defined by the ability to
influence overall group effectiveness .
51
1960s
Although a tumultuous time for world affairs, the 1960s saw
harmony among leadership scholars. The
prevailing definition of leadership as behavior that influences
people toward shared goals was underscored
by Seeman (1960), who described leadership as “acts by persons
which influence other persons in a shared
direction” (p. 53).
52
1970s
In the 1970s, the group focus gave way to the organizational
behavior approach, where leadership became
viewed as “initiating and maintaining groups or organizations to
accomplish group or organizational goals”
(Rost, 1991, p. 59). Burns’s (1978) definition, however, was the
most important concept of leadership to
emerge: “Leadership is the reciprocal process of mobilizing by
persons with certain motives and values,
46. various economic, political, and other resources, in a context of
competition and conflict, in order to
realize goals independently or mutually held by both leaders
and followers” (p. 425).
53
1980s
The 1980s exploded with scholarly and popular works on the
nature of leadership, bringing the topic to the
apex of the academic and public consciousness. As a result, the
number of definitions for leadership
became a prolific stew with several persevering themes:
Do as the leader wishes. Leadership definitions still
predominantly delivered the message that
leadership is getting followers to do what the leader wants done.
Influence. Probably the most often used word in leadership
definitions of the 1980s, influence was
examined from every angle. To distinguish leadership from
management, however, scholars insisted
that leadership is noncoercive influence.
Traits. Spurred by the national best seller In Search of
Excellence (Peters & Waterman, 1982), the
leadership-as-excellence movement brought leader traits back to
the spotlight. As a result, many
people’s understanding of leadership is based on a trait
orientation.
Transformation. Burns (1978) is credited for initiating a
movement defining leadership as a
47. transformational process, stating that leadership occurs “when
one or more persons engage with
others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one
another to higher levels of motivation and
morality” (p. 83).
54
1990s
While debate continued through the 1990s as to whether
leadership and management were separate
processes, research emphasized the process of leadership with
the focus shifting to followers. Several
approaches emerged that examine how leaders influence a group
of individuals to achieve a common goal,
placing particular attention on the role of followers in the
leadership process. Among these leadership
approaches were
servant leadership, which puts the leader in the role of a servant
who utilizes “caring principles”
focusing on followers’ needs to help followers become more
autonomous, knowledgeable, and like
servants themselves (Graham, 1991);
followership, which puts a spotlight on followers and the role
they play in the leadership process
(Hollander, 1992); and
adaptive leadership, in which leaders encourage follower s to
adapt by confronting and solving
problems, challenges, and changes (Heifetz, 1994).
48. 55
The 21st Century
The turn of the 21st century brought the emergence of moral
approaches to leadership, with authentic and
ethical leadership gaining interest from researchers and
executives. These new approaches also include
leader humility and spirituality. Leadership theory and research
also highlighted communication between
leaders and followers, and as organizational populations became
increasingly diverse, inclusive leadership
was introduced. Among these approaches were
authentic leadership, in which the authenticity of leaders and
their leadership is emphasized (George,
2003);
ethical leadership, which draws attention to the appropriate
conduct of leaders in their personal
actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of
such conduct to followers (Brown,
Treviño, & Harrison, 2005);
spiritual leadership, which focuses on leadership that utilizes
values and sense of calling and
membership to motivate followers (Fry, 2003);
discursive leadership, which posits that leadership is created not
so much through leader traits, skills,
and behaviors, but through communication practices that are
negotiated between leader and follower
(Aritz, Walker, Cardon, & Zhang, 2017; Fairhurst, 2007);
49. humble leadership, in which leaders’ humility allows them to
show followers how to grow as a result
of work (Owens & Hekman, 2012); and
inclusive leadership, which focuses on diversity and leader
behaviors that facilitate followers’ feeling
of belongingness to the group while maintaining their
individuality (Shore, Cleveland, & Sanchez,
2018).
After decades of dissonance, leadership scholars agree on one
thing: They can’t come up with a common
definition for leadership. Because of such factors as growing
global influences and generational
differences, leadership will continue to have different meanings
for different people. The bottom line is
that leadership is a complex concept for which a determined
definition may long be in flux.
56
Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership
In the past 60 years, as many as 65 different classification
systems have been developed to define the dimensions
of leadership (Fleishman et al., 1991). One such classification
system, directly related to our discussion, is the
scheme proposed by Bass (2008, pp. 11–20). He suggested that
some definitions view leadership as the focus of
group processes. From this perspective, the leader is at the
center of group change and activity and embodies the
will of the group. Another set of definitions conceptualizes
leadership from a personality perspective, which
suggests that leadership is a combination of special traits or
50. characteristics that some individuals possess. These
traits enable those individuals to induce others to accomplish
tasks. Other approaches to leadership define it as an
act or a behavior—the things leaders do to bring about change
in a group.
In addition, some define leadership in terms of the power
relationship that exists between leaders and followers.
From this viewpoint, leaders have power that they wield to
effect change in others. Others view leadership as a
transformational process that moves followers to accomplish
more than is usually expected of them. Finally, some
scholars address leadership from a skills perspective. This
viewpoint stresses the capabilities (knowledge and
skills) that make effective leadership possible.
57
Definition and Components
Despite the multitude of ways in which leadership has been
conceptualized, the following components can be
identified as central to the phenomenon: (a) Leadership is a
process, (b) leadership involves influence, (c)
leadership occurs in groups, and (d) leadership involves
common goals. Based on these components, the following
definition of leadership is used in this text:
Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a
group of individuals to achieve a common
goal.
Defining leadership as a process means that it is not a trait or
characteristic that resides in the leader, but rather a
51. transactional event that occurs between the leader and the
followers. Process implies that a leader affects and is
affected by followers. It emphasizes that leadership is not a
linear, one-way event, but rather an interactive event.
When leadership is defined in this manner, it becomes available
to everyone. It is not restricted to the formally
designated leader in a group.
Leadership involves influence. It is concerned with how the
leader affects followers and the communication that
occurs between leaders and followers (Ruben & Gigliotti,
2017). Influence is the sine qua non of leadership.
Without influence, leadership does not exist.
Leadership occurs in groups. Groups are the context in which
leadership takes place. Leadership involves
influencing a group of individuals who have a common purpose.
This can be a small task group, a community
group, or a large group encompassing an entire organization.
Leadership is about one individual influencing a
group of others to accomplish common goals. Others (a group)
are required for leadership to occur. Leadership
training programs that teach people to lead themselves are not
considered a part of leadership within the definition
that is set forth in this discussion.
Leadership includes attention to common goals. Leaders direct
their energies toward individuals who are trying to
achieve something together. By common, we mean that the
leaders and followers have a mutual purpose. Attention
to common goals gives leadership an ethical overtone because it
stresses the need for leaders to work with
followers to achieve selected goals. Stressing mutuality lessens
the possibility that leaders might act toward
followers in ways that are forced or unethical. It also increases
the possibility that leaders and followers will work
52. together toward a common good (Rost, 1991).
Throughout this text, the people who engage in leadership will
be called leaders, and those toward whom
leadership is directed will be called followers. Both leaders and
followers are involved together in the leadership
process. Leaders need followers, and followers need leaders
(Burns, 1978; Heller & Van Til, 1983; Hollander,
1992; Jago, 1982). An extended discussion of followership is
provided in Chapter 12. Although leaders and
followers are closely linked, it is the leader who often initiates
the relationship, creates the communication
linkages, and carries the burden for maintaining the
relationship.
In our discussion of leaders and followers, attention will be
directed toward follower issues as well as leader
issues. Leaders have an ethical responsibility to attend to the
needs and concerns of followers. As Burns (1978)
pointed out, discussions of leadership sometimes are viewed as
elitist because of the implied power and
importance often ascribed to leaders in the leader–follower
relationship. Leaders are not above or better than
followers. Leaders and followers must be understood in relation
to each other (Hollander, 1992) and collectively
(Burns, 1978). They are in the leadership relationship
together—and are two sides of the same coin (Rost, 1991).
58
LEADERSHIP DESCRIBED
In addition to definitional issues, it is important to discuss
several other questions pertaining to the nature of
53. leadership. In the following section, we will address questions
such as how leadership as a trait differs from
leadership as a process; how appointed leadership differs from
emergent leadership; and how the concepts of
power, coercion, morality, and management interact with
leadership.
59
Trait Versus Process Leadership
We have all heard statements such as “He is born to be a leader”
or “She is a natural leader.” These statements are
commonly expressed by people who take a trait perspective
toward leadership. The trait perspective suggests that
certain individuals have special innate or inborn characteristics
or qualities that make them leaders, and that it is
these qualities that differentiate them from nonleaders. Some of
the personal qualities used to identify leaders
include unique physical factors (e.g., height), personality
features (e.g., extraversion), and other characteristics
(e.g., intelligence and fluency; Bryman, 1992). In Chapter 2, we
will discuss a large body of research that has
examined these personal qualities.
To describe leadership as a trait is quite different from
describing it as a process (Figure 1.1). The trait viewpoint
conceptualizes leadership as a property or set of properties
possessed in varying degrees by different people (Jago,
1982). This suggests that it resides in select people and restricts
leadership to those who are believed to have
special, usually inborn, talents.
Description
54. Figure 1.1 The Different Views of Leadership
Source: Adapted from A Force for Change: How Leadership
Differs From Management (pp. 3–8), by J. P. Kotter,
1990, New York, NY: Free Press.
The process viewpoint suggests that leadership is a phenomenon
that resides in the context of the interactions
between leaders and followers and makes leadership available to
everyone. As a process, leadership can be
observed in leader behaviors (Jago, 1982) and can be learned.
The process definition of leadership is consistent
with the definition of leadership that we have set forth in this
chapter.
60
Assigned Versus Emergent Leadership
Some people are leaders because of their formal position in an
organization, whereas others are leaders because of
the way other group members respond to them. These two
common forms of leadership are called assigned
leadership and emergent leadership. Leadership that is based on
occupying a position in an organization is
assigned leadership. Team leaders, plant managers, department
heads, directors, and administrators are all
examples of assigned leaders.
Yet the person assigned to a leadership position does not al ways
become the real leader in a particular setting.
When others perceive an individual as the most influential
member of a group or an organization, regardless of the
55. individual’s title, the person is exhibiting emergent leadership.
The individual acquires emergent leadership
through other people in the organization who support and accept
that individual’s behavior. This type of leadership
is not assigned by position; rather, it emerges over a period
through communication. Some of the positive
communication behaviors that account for successful leader
emergence include being verbally involved, being
informed, seeking others’ opinions, initiating new ideas, and
being firm but not rigid (Ellis & Fisher, 1994).
Researchers have found that, in addition to communication
behaviors, personality plays a role in leadership
emergence. For example, Smith and Foti (1998) found that
certain personality traits were related to leadership
emergence in a sample of 160 male college students. The
individuals who were more dominant, more intelligent,
and more confident about their own performance (general self-
efficacy) were more likely to be identified as
leaders by other members of their task group. Although it is
uncertain whether these findings apply to women as
well, Smith and Foti suggested that these three traits could be
used to identify individuals perceived to be emergent
leaders.
Leadership emergence may also be affected by gender-biased
perceptions. In a study of 40 mixed-sex college
groups, Watson and Hoffman (2004) found that women who
were urged to persuade their task groups to adopt
high-quality decisions succeeded with the same frequency as
men with identical instructions. Although women
were equally influential leaders in their groups, they were rated
significantly lower than comparable men were on
leadership. Furthermore, these influential women were also
rated as significantly less likable than comparably
influential men were. Another study found that men who spoke
56. up to promote new ideas in teams were granted
higher status compared to women who did so (McClean, Martin,
Emich, & Woodruff, 2018). These results suggest
that there continue to be barriers to women’s emergence as
leaders in some settings.
A unique perspective on leadership emergence is provided by
social identity theory (Hogg, 2001). From this
perspective, leadership emergence is the degree to which a
person fits with the identity of the group as a whole. As
groups develop over time, a group prototype also develops.
Individuals emerge as leaders in the group when they
become most like the group prototype. Being similar to the
prototype makes leaders attractive to the group and
gives them influence with the group.
The leadership approaches we discuss in the subsequent
chapters of this book apply equally to assigned leadership
and emergent leadership. When a person is engaged in
leadership, that person is a leader, whether leadership was
assigned or emerged. This book focuses on the leadership
process that occurs when any individual is engaged in
influencing other group members in their efforts to reach a
common goal.
61
Leadership and Power
The concept of power is related to leadership because it is part
of the influence process. Power is the capacity or
potential to influence. People have power when they have the
ability to affect others’ beliefs, attitudes, and courses
of action. Judges, doctors, coaches, and teachers are all
57. examples of people who have the potential to influence us.
When they do, they are using their power, the resource they
draw on to effect change in us.
Although there are no explicit theories in the research literature
about power and leadership, power is a concept
that people often associate with leadership. It is common for
people to view leaders (both good and bad) and
people in positions of leadership as individuals who wield
power over others, and as a result, power is often
thought of as synonymous with leadership. In addition, people
are often intrigued by how leaders use their power.
Understanding how power is used in leadership is instrumental
as well in understanding the dark side of
leadership, where leaders use their leadership to achieve their
own personal ends and lead in toxic and destructive
ways (Krasikova, Green, & LeBreton, 2013). Studying how
famous leaders, such as Adolf Hitler or Alexander the
Great, use power to effect change in others is titillating to many
people because it underscores that power can
indeed effectuate change and maybe if they had power they too
could effectuate change.
In her 2012 book The End of Leadership, Kellerman argues
there has been a shift in leadership power during the
last 40 years. Power used to be the domain of leaders, but that
is diminishing and shifting to followers. Changes in
culture have meant followers demand more from leaders, and
leaders have responded. Access to technology has
empowered followers, given them access to huge amounts of
information, and made leaders more transparent. The
result is a decline in respect for leaders and leaders’ legitimate
power. In effect, followers have used information
power to level the playing field. Power is no longer synonymous
with leadership, and in the social contract
between leaders and followers, leaders wield less power,
58. according to Kellerman. For example, Posner (2015)
examined volunteer leaders, such as those who sit on boards for
nonprofit organizations, and found that while
these individuals did not have positional authority in the
organization, they were able to influence leadership.
Volunteer leaders engaged more frequently in leadership
behaviors than did paid leaders.
In college courses today, the most widely cited research on
power is French and Raven’s (1959) work on the bases
of social power. In their work, they conceptualized power from
the framework of a dyadic relationship that
included both the person influencing and the person being
influenced. French and Raven identified five common
and important bases of power—referent, expert, legitimate,
reward, and coercive—and Raven (1965) identified a
sixth, information power (Table 1.1). Each of these bases of
power increases a leader’s capacity to influence the
attitudes, values, or behaviors of others.
Table 1.1 Six Bases of Power
62
Referent
Power
Based on followers’ identification and liking for the leader. A
teacher who is adored by students
has referent power.
Expert
Power
59. Based on followers’ perceptions of the leader’s competence. A
tour guide who is knowledgeable
about a foreign country has expert power.
Legitimate
Power
Associated with having status or formal job authority. A judge
who administers sentences in the
courtroom exhibits legitimate power.
Reward
Power
Derived from having the capacity to provide rewards to others.
A supervisor who compliments
employees who work hard is using reward power.
Coercive
Power
Derived from having the capacity to penalize or punish others.
A coach who sits players on the
bench for being late to practice is using coercive power.
Information
Power
Derived from possessing knowledge that others want or need. A
boss who has information
regarding new criteria to decide employee promotion eligibility
has information power.
Sources: Adapted from “The Bases of Social Power,” by J. R.
French Jr. and B. Raven, 1962, in D. Cartwright (Ed.), Group
Dynamics: Research and
60. Theory (pp. 259–269), New York, NY: Harper & Row; and
“Social Influence and Power,” by B. H. Raven, 1965, in I. D.
Steiner & M. Fishbein
(Eds.), Current Studies in Social Psychology (pp. 371–382),
New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
In organizations, there are two major kinds of power: position
power and personal power. Position power, which
includes legitimate, reward, coercive, and information power
(Table 1.2), is the power a person derives from a
particular office or rank in a formal organizational system. It is
the influence capacity a leader derives from having
higher status than the followers have. Position power allows
leaders to attain central roles in organizations; for
example, vice presidents and department heads have more power
than staff personnel do because of the positions
63
they hold in the organization. In addition, leaders’ informal
networks bring them greater social power, which
separates leaders from nonleaders (Chiu, Balkundi, & Weinberg,
2017).
Table 1.2 Types and Bases of Power
Position Power Personal Power
Legitimate Referent
Reward Expert
Coercive
61. Information
Source: Adapted from A Force for Change: How Leadership
Differs From Management (pp. 3–8), by J. P. Kotter, 1990, New
York, NY: Free Press.
Personal power is the influence capacity a leader derives from
being seen by followers as likable and
knowledgeable. When leaders act in ways that are important to
followers, it gives leaders power. For example,
some managers have power because their followers consider
them to be good role models. Others have power
because their followers view them as highly competent or
considerate. In both cases, these managers’ power is
ascribed to them by others, based on how they are seen in their
relationships with others. Personal power includes
referent and expert power (Table 1.2).
In discussions of leadership, it is not unusual for leaders to be
described as wielders of power, as individuals who
dominate others. In these instances, power is conceptualized as
a tool that leaders use to achieve their own ends.
Contrary to this view of power, Burns (1978) emphasized power
from a relationship standpoint. For Burns, power
is not an entity that leaders use over others to achieve their own
ends; instead, power occurs in relationships. It
should be used by leaders and followers to promote their
collective goals.
In this text, our discussions of leadership treat power as a
relational concern for both leaders and followers. We pay
attention to how leaders work with followers to reach common
goals.
62. 64
Leadership and Coercion
Coercive power is one of the specific kinds of power available
to leaders. Coercion involves the use of force to
effect change. To coerce means to influence others to do
something against their will and may include
manipulating penalties and rewards in their work environment.
Coercion often involves the use of threats,
punishment, and negative reward schedules and is most often
seen as a characteristic of the dark side of leadership.
Classic examples of coercive leaders are Adolf Hitler in
Germany, the Taliban leaders in Afghanistan, Jim Jones in
Guyana, and Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte, each of
whom used power and restraint to force followers to
engage in extreme behaviors. At an extreme, coercion combines
with other bullying and tyrannical behaviors
known as abusive supervision (Tepper, 2007).
It is important to distinguish between coercion and leadership
because it allows us to separate out from our
examples of leadership the behaviors of individuals such as
Hitler, the Taliban, and Jones. In our discussions of
leadership, coercive people are not used as models of ideal
leadership. Our definition suggests that leadership is
reserved for those who influence a group of individuals toward
a common goal. Leaders who use coercion are
interested in their own goals and seldom are interested in the
wants and needs of followers. Using coercion runs
counter to working with followers to achieve a common goal.
63. 65
Leadership and Morality
In considering the relationship of leadership and morality, let’s
start with a simple question: Do you agree or
disagree with the following statement:
Hitler’s rule in Germany could be considered a good example of
leadership.
Throughout the United States and around the world, in
classroom discussions of leadership, the question about
whether or not Adolf Hitler was a “great” leader inevitably
comes up. Your response to this statement is intended
to bring out whether your conceptualization of leadership
includes a moral dimension or if you think that
leadership is a neutral concept that treats leadership as amoral.
If you answered agree to the statement, you probably come
down on the side of thinking the phenomenon of
leadership is neutral, or amoral. You might think it is obvious
that Hitler was a leader because he was very
charismatic and persuasive and his actions had a huge impact on
Germany and the world. On the other hand, if you
answered disagree, you most likely do not think of Hitler’s
leadership as being in any way positive and that the
notion of Hitler as a model of leadership is repugnant because
you reserve the concept of leadership for
nondestructive leaders who create change for the common good.
That is, you believe leadership cannot be
divorced from values; it is a moral phenomenon and has a moral
component.
For as long as leadership has been studied, the debate of
whether or not leadership has a moral dimension has been
64. a focus of leadership scholars. It is an important debate because
it gets at the core of what we think the
phenomenon of leadership actually entails. How we define
leadership is central to how we talk about leadership,
how we develop the components of leadership, how we research
it, and how we teach it.
There are two consistent trains of thought regarding the
relationship of leadership and morality: Either leadership
is a neutral process that is not guided or dependent on a value
system that advances the common good, or
leadership is a moral process that is guided and dependent on
values promotive of the common good.
Leadership Is a Neutral Process
It is common for people to think of leadership as a neutral
concept—one that is not tied to morality. From this
perspective, leadership can be used for good ends or bad, and
can be employed both by individuals who have
worthy intentions and by those who do not. For example, moral
leaders like Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela, and
Martin Luther King Jr. used leadership for good. On the other
hand, Adolf Hitler, Pol Pot, and Idi Amin used
leadership destructively. Common to all of these examples is
that these leaders used leadership to influence
followers to move toward and accomplish certain goals. The
only difference is that some leaders used leadership in
laudatory ways while others used leadership in highly
destructive ways.
A classic historical example of treating leadership as an amoral
concept can be found in Niccolò Machiavelli’s The
Prince (c. 1505; Nederman, 2019). In this book, Machiavelli
philosophizes that moral values need not play a role
in decision making; instead, leaders should concentrate on using
65. power to achieve their goals. Their focus should
be on the ends, or consequences, of their leadership and need
not be about the means. Machiavelli endorsed
leaders’ use of fear and deception, if necessary, to accomplish
tasks; he was concerned with the pragmatics of what
leaders do and not the rightness or wrongness of a leader’s
actions (Nederman, 2019).
There are an abundance of definitions of leadership, and most of
these treat the concept of morality in a neutral
fashion (e.g., Rost’s 1991 analysis of 221 definitions of
leadership). These definitions do not require that
leadership result in only positive outcomes. To use a specific
example, Padilla (2013) defines leadership as “an
organized group process with associated goals resulting in a set
of outcomes” (p. 12), which involves a leader,
followers, and contexts. From his perspective, leadership is
value-neutral and can be used for constructive or
66
destructive ends. Padilla argues that Hitler should be considered
a leader even though the outcome of his
leadership was horrendously destructive.
Leadership Is a Moral Process
In contrast to describing leadership as a neutral process, some
in the field of leadership argue (as we do in this
chapter) that leadership has a value dimension—it is about
influencing others to make changes to achieve a
common good. From this perspective, Hitler, who thwarted the
common good, cannot be considered a “great”
leader.
66. One of the first scholars to conceptualize leadershi p as a moral
process was James MacGregor Burns in his book
Leadership (1978). For Burns, leadership is about raising the
motivations and moral levels of followers. He argued
it is the responsibility of a leader to help followers assess their
own values and needs in order to raise them to a
higher level of functioning, to a level that will stress values
such as liberty, justice, and equality (Ciulla, 2014).
Burns (2003) argued that values are central to what leaders do.
Expanding on Burns, Bass (1985) developed a model of
leadership (see Chapter 8, “Transformational Leadership”)
that delineated transforming leadership, a kind of leadership
that affects the level of values of followers. Because it
is difficult to use the term transformational leadership when
describing a leader such as Adolf Hitler, the term
pseudotransformational leadership was coined by Bass to refer
to leaders who focus on their own personal goals
over the common good and are self-consumed, exploitive, and
power-oriented, with warped moral values (Bass &
Riggio, 2006; Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). In contrast to
pseudotransformational leadership, “real” or “ideal”
transformational leadership is described as socialized
leadership—leadership that is concerned with the collective
good. Socialized leaders transcend their own interests for the
sake of others (Howell & Avolio, 1993).
Additionally, morals have a central role in two established
leadership theories, authentic leadership and servant
leadership. Authentic leadership (see Chapter 9) is an extension
of transformational leadership, stressing that
leaders do what is “right” and “good” for their followers and
society. They understand their own values, place
followers’ needs above their own, and work with followers to
align their interests in order to create a greater
67. common good. Similarly, servant leadership has a strong moral
dimension. It makes altruism the central
component of the leadership process and frames leadership
around the principle of caring for others. Within this
paradigm, leaders are urged to not dominate, direct, or control
others; they are urged to give up control rather than
seek control.
Referring back to the question about whether you agree or
disagree that Hitler is an example of leadership, your
answer has to be predicated on what you think leadership is. If
you think leadership is a neutral process that does
not have a moral requirement, then Hitler is an example of
leadership. On the other hand, if you think leadership
includes ethical considerations such as elevating the morals,
values, and goals of followers to make more
principled judgments (Burns, 1978), then Hitler is not an
example of leadership. In this view, he was nothing more
than a despotic, Machiavellian autocrat and an evil dictator
responsible for the imprisonment, abuse, and execution
of millions of innocent people and the unprovoked origin of
World War II—the deadliest armed conflict in history.
67
Leadership and Management
Leadership is a process that is similar to management in many
ways. Leadership involves influence, as does
management. Leadership entails working with people, which
management entails as well. Leadership is concerned
with effective goal accomplishment, and so is management. In
general, many of the functions of management are
activities that are consistent with the definition of leadership we
68. set forth at the beginning of this chapter.
But leadership is also different from management. Whereas the
study of leadership can be traced back to Aristotle,
management emerged around the turn of the 20th century with
the advent of our industrialized society.
Management was created as a way to reduce chaos in
organizations, to make them run more effectively and
efficiently. The primary functions of management, as first
identified by Fayol (1916), were planning, organizing,
staffing, and controlling. These functions are still representative
of the field of management today.
In a book that compared the functions of management with the
functions of leadership, Kotter (1990) argued that
they are quite dissimilar (Figure 1.2). The overriding function
of management is to provide order and consistency
to organizations, whereas the primary function of leadership is
to produce change and movement. Management is
about seeking order and stability; leadership is about seeking
adaptive and constructive change.
As illustrated in Figure 1.2, the major activities of management
are played out differently than the activities of
leadership. Although they are different in scope, Kotter (1990,
pp. 7–8) contended that both management and
leadership are essential if an organization is to prosper. For
example, if an organization has strong management
without leadership, the outcome can be stifling and
bureaucratic. Conversely, if an organization has strong
leadership without management, the outcome can be
meaningless or misdirected change for change’s sake. To be
effective, organizations need to nourish both competent
management and skilled leadership.
Figure 1.2 Functions of Management and Leadership
69. Source: Adapted from A Force for Change: How Leadership
Differs From Management (pp. 3–8), by J. P. Kotter,
1990, New York, NY: Free Press.
Many scholars, in addition to Kotter (1990), argue that
leadership and management are distinct constructs. For
example, Bennis and Nanus (2007) maintained that there is a
significant difference between the two. To manage
means to accomplish activities and master routines, whereas to
lead means to influence others and create visions
for change. Bennis and Nanus made the distinction very clear in
their frequently quoted sentence, “Managers are
people who do things right and leaders are people who do the
right thing” (p. 221).
Rost (1991) has also been a proponent of distinguishing
between leadership and management. He contended that
leadership is a multidirectional influence relationship and
management is a unidirectional authority relationship.
68
Whereas leadership is concerned with the process of developing
mutual purposes, management is directed toward
coordinating activities to get a job done. Leaders and followers
work together to create real change, whereas
managers and subordinates join forces to sell goods and services
(Rost, 1991, pp. 149–152).
In a recent study, Simonet and Tett (2012) explored how best to
conceptualize leadership and management by
having 43 experts identify the overlap and differences between
leadership and management in regard to 63
70. different competencies. They found a large number of
competencies (22) descriptive of both leadership and
management (e.g., productivity, customer focus,
professionalism, and goal setting), but they also found several
unique descriptors for each. Specifically, they found leadership
was distinguished by motivating intrinsically,
creative thinking, strategic planning, tolerance of ambiguity,
and being able to read people, and management was
distinguished by rule orientation, short-term planning,
motivating extrinsically, orderliness, safety concerns, and
timeliness.
Approaching the issue from a narrower viewpoint, Zaleznik
(1977) went so far as to argue that leaders and
managers themselves are distinct, and that they are basically
different types of people. He contended that managers
are reactive and prefer to work with people to solve problems
but do so with low emotional involvement. They act
to limit choices. Zaleznik suggested that leaders, on the other
hand, are emotionally active and involved. They seek
to shape ideas instead of responding to them and act to expand
the available options to solve long-standing
problems. Leaders change the way people think about what is
possible.
Although there are clear differences between management and
leadership, the two constructs overlap. When
managers are involved in influencing a group to meet its goals,
they are involved in leadership. When leaders are
involved in planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling, they
are involved in management. Both processes
involve influencing a group of individuals toward goal
attainment. For purposes of our discussion in this book, we
focus on the leadership process. In our examples and case
studies, we treat the roles of managers and leaders
similarly and do not emphasize the differences between them.
71. 69
PLAN OF THE BOOK
This book is user-friendly. It is based on substantive theories
but is written to emphasize practice and application.
Each chapter in the book follows the same format. The first
section of each chapter briefly describes the leadership
approach and discusses various research studies applicable to
the approach. The second section of each chapter
evaluates the approach and how it works, highlighting its
strengths and criticisms. Special attention is given to how
the approach contributes or fails to contribute to an overall
understanding of the leadership process. Finally,
beginning with Chapter 2, each chapter has an application
section with case studies and a leadership questionnaire
that measures the reader’s leadership style to prompt discussion
of how the approach can be applied in ongoing
organizations. Each chapter ends with a summary and
references.
70
Case Study
Case 1.1 is provided to illustrate different dimensions of
leadership as well as allow you to examine your own
perspective on what defines a leader and leadership. At the end
of the case, you will find questions that will help in
analyzing the case.
72. Case 1.1 Open Mouth . . .
When asked by a sports editor for the Lanthorn, Grand Valley
State University’s student publication, what three
historical figures he would most like to have dinner with,
Morris Berger, the newly announced offensive
coordinator for the GVSU Lakers football team, responded
Adolf Hitler, John F. Kennedy, and Christopher
Columbus.
“This is probably not going to get a good review,” he said, “but
I’m going to say Adolf Hitler. It was obviously
very sad and he had bad motives, but the way he was able to
lead was second-to-none. How he rallied a group and
a following, I want to know how he did that. Bad intentions of
course, but you can’t deny he wasn’t a great leader”
(Voss, 2020).
When the article ran, it caused a stir. Shortly after, the writer,
Kellen Voss, was asked by someone in the
university’s athletics department to alter the online story to
remove those comments. The Lanthorn initially
complied, but then changed course and added the full interview
back in. Once the Lanthorn republished the quote,
the story went viral. It was covered in the Washington Post, on
ESPN, and in Sports Illustrated and even ended up
in the monologue of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon
(Boatner, 2020).
In addition to public dismay, GVSU’s Hillel chapter, a Jewish
campus organization, spoke out strongly against
Coach Berger after his comments were made public. “It is
unfortunate to see a member of our Grand Valley
community glorify the Holocaust, a period that brought such
destruction and travesty to the world,” the group
posted to its Facebook page. “We appreciate the university’s
73. swift response and we will continue to partner with
them to educate our campus community and provide a safe and
inclusive environment for all students” (Colf,
2020).
Seven days after the article appeared, GVSU announced that
Coach Berger, who had been suspended by the
university, had resigned. Matt Mitchell, the team’s head coach,
gave a statement: “Nothing in our background and
reference checks revealed anything that would have suggested
the unfortunate controversy that has unfolded,”
Coach Mitchell said. “This has been a difficult time for
everyone. I accepted Coach Berger’s resignation in an
effort for him to move on and for us to focus on the team and
our 2020 season” (Wallner, 2020).
In another statement, Coach Berger said he was disappointed to
leave, but added, “I do not want to be a distraction
to these kids, this great university, or Coach Mitchell as they
begin preparations for the upcoming season”
(Wallner, 2020).
Coach Berger also issued a more personal apology in a Twitter
post:
I failed myself, my parents, and this university—the answer I
attempted to give does not align with the
values instilled in me by my parents, nor [does it] represent
what I stand for or believe in—I mishandled
the answer, and fell way short of the mark.
For the last 11-years, I worked tirelessly for each and every
opportunity and was excited to be a Laker.
Throughout my life, I have taken great pride in that
responsibility—as a teacher, mentor, coach, role-
74. model, and member of the community.
It is my hope that you will consider accepting my apology.
71
I recognize that I cannot undo the hurt and the embarrassment I
have caused.
But I can control the way I choose to positively learn from my
mistake moving forward—as I work to
regain the trust and respect of everyone that I have let down.
(Berger, 2020)
A few weeks later, GVSU announced that it would increase its
curriculum around the Holocaust and Native
American history. “We will use this moment to work diligently
toward institutional systemic change that creates a
healthier campus climate for all,” the university’s president,
Philomena Mantella, said (Colf, 2020).
72
Questions
1. Who are the leaders in this situation? How would you
describe their actions as leaders based on the definition
of leadership in this chapter?
2. Do you think it was wrong for Coach Berger to cite Hitler as
a “great leader”?
3. What is your reaction to Coach Berger resigning one week
75. after signing a contract to coach at GVSU?
4. Based on our discussion of morality and leadership in this
chapter, would you say Coach Berger’s comments
are based on leadership as a neutral process or on leadership as
a process that has a moral dimension? Why?
5. What does the university’s response suggest regarding how
the university views leadership?
6. If you were the president of the university and you were
asked to define leadership, how would you define it?
7. Bobby Knight was a coach who was known to use
questionable leadership tactics. Do you think Coach
Berger would have been safe to ask Coach Knight to dinner?
Why?
73
Leadership Instrument
The meaning of leadership is complex and includes many
dimensions. For some people, leadership is a trait or an
ability, for others it is a skill or a behavior, and for still others
it is a relationship or a process. In reality, leadership
probably includes components of all of these dimensions. Each
dimension explains a facet of leadership.
Which dimension seems closest to how you think of leadership?
How would you define leadership? Answers to
these questions are important because how you think about
leadership will strongly influence how you practice
leadership. In this section, the Conceptualizing Leadership
Questionnaire is provided as an example of a measure
that can be used to assess how you define and view leadership.
76. Conceptualizing Leadership Questionnaire
Purpose: To identify how you view leadership and to explore
your perceptions of different aspects of
leadership
Instructions: Using the scale below, indicate the extent to which
you agree or disagree with the following
statements about leadership.
Key: 1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 =
Agree 5 = Strongly agree
74
1. When I think of leadership, I think of a person with special
personality traits. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Much like playing the piano or tennis, leadership is a learned
ability. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Leadership requires knowledge and know-how. 1 2 3 4 5
4. Leadership is about what people do rather than who they are.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Followers can influence the leadership process as much as
leaders. 1 2 3 4 5
6. Leadership is about the process of influencing others. 1 2 3 4
5
7. Some people are born to be leaders. 1 2 3 4 5
77. 8. Some people have the natural ability to be leaders. 1 2 3 4 5
9. The key to successful leadership is having the right skills. 1 2
3 4 5
10. Leadership is best described by what leaders do. 1 2 3 4 5
11. Leaders and followers share in the leadership process. 1 2 3
4 5
12. Leadership is a series of actions directed toward positive
ends. 1 2 3 4 5
13. A person needs to have certain traits to be an effective
leader. 1 2 3 4 5
14. Everyone has the capacity to be a leader. 1 2 3 4 5
15. Effective leaders are competent in their roles. 1 2 3 4 5
16. The essence of leadership is performing tasks and dealing
with people. 1 2 3 4 5
17. Leadership is about the common purposes of leaders and
followers. 1 2 3 4 5
18. Leadership does not rely on the leader alone but is a process
involving the leader,
followers, and the situation.
1 2 3 4 5
19. People become great leaders because of their traits. 1 2 3 4
5
78. 75
20. People can develop the ability to lead. 1 2 3 4 5
21. Effective leaders have competence and knowledge. 1 2 3 4 5
22. Leadership is about how leaders work with people to
accomplish goals. 1 2 3 4 5
23. Effective leadership is best explained by the leader –follower
relationship. 1 2 3 4 5
24. Leaders influence and are influenced by followers. 1 2 3 4 5
76
Scoring
1. Sum scores on items 1, 7, 13, and 19 (trait emphasis)
2. Sum scores on items 2, 8, 14, and 20 (ability emphasis)
3. Sum scores on items 3, 9, 15, and 21 (skill emphasis)
4. Sum scores on items 4, 10, 16, and 22 (behavior emphasis)
5. Sum scores on items 5, 11, 17, and 23 (relationship emphasis)
6. Sum scores on items 6, 12, 18, and 24 (process emphasis)
77
Total Scores
1. Trait emphasis: ____________________
79. 2. Ability emphasis: __________________
3. Skill emphasis: ____________________
4. Behavior emphasis: _______________
5. Relationship emphasis: ____________
6. Process emphasis: _________________
78
Scoring Interpretation
The scores you received on this questionnaire provide
information about how you define and view
leadership. The emphasis you give to the various dimensions of
leadership has implications for how you
approach the leadership process. For example, if your highest
score is for trait emphasis, it suggests that
you emphasize the role of the leader and the leader’s special
gifts in the leadership process. However, if
your highest score is for relationship emphasis, it indicates that
you think leadership is centered on the
communication between leaders and followers, rather than on
the unique qualities of the leader. By
comparing your scores, you can gain an understanding of the
aspects of leadership that you find most
important and least important. The way you think about
leadership will influence how you practice
leadership.
79
Summary
80. Leadership is a topic with universal appeal; in the popular press
and academic research literature, much has been
written about leadership. Despite the abundance of writing on
the topic, leadership has presented a major challenge
to practitioners and researchers interested in understanding the
nature of leadership. It is a highly valued
phenomenon that is very complex.
Through the years, leadership has been defined and
conceptualized in many ways. The component common to
nearly all classifications is that leadership is an influence
process that assists groups of individuals toward goal
attainment. Specifically, in this book leadership is defined as a
process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal.
Because both leaders and followers are part of the leadership
process, it is important to address issues that confront
followers as well as issues that confront leaders. Leaders and
followers should be understood in relation to each
other.
In prior research, many studies have focused on leadership as a
trait. The trait perspective suggests that certain
people in our society have special inborn qualities that make
them leaders. This view restricts leadership to those
who are believed to have special characteristics. In contrast, the
approach in this text suggests that leadership is a
process that can be learned, and that it is available to everyone.
Two common forms of leadership are assigned and emergent.
Assigned leadership is based on a formal title or
position in an organization. Emergent leadership results from
what one does and how one acquires support from
followers. Leadership, as a process, applies to individuals in
both assigned roles and emergent roles.
81. Related to leadership is the concept of power, the potential to
influence. There are two major kinds of power:
position and personal. Position power, which is much like
assigned leadership, is the power an individual derives
from having a title in a formal organizational system. It
includes legitimate, reward, information, and coercive
power. Personal power comes from followers and includes
referent and expert power. Followers give it to leaders
because followers believe leaders have something of value.
Treating power as a shared resource is important
because it de-emphasizes the idea that leaders are power
wielders.
While coercion has been a common power brought to bear by
many individuals in charge, it should not be viewed
as ideal leadership. Our definition of leadership stresses using
influence to bring individuals toward a common
goal, while coercion involves the use of threats and punishment
to induce change in followers for the sake of the
leaders. Coercion runs counter to leadership because it does not
treat leadership as a process that emphasizes
working with followers to achieve shared objectives.
There are two trains of thought regarding leadership and
morality. Some argue that leadership is a neutral process
that can be used by leaders for good and bad ends and treats
Hitler as an example of strong leadership. Others
contend that leadership is a moral process that involves
influencing others to achieve a common good. From this
perspective Hitler would not be an example of leadership.
Leadership and management are different concepts that overlap.
They are different in that management
traditionally focuses on the activities of planning, organizing,
staffing, and controlling, whereas leadership
82. emphasizes the general influence process. According to some
researchers, management is concerned with creating
order and stability, whereas leadership is about adaptation and
constructive change. Other researchers go so far as
to argue that managers and leaders are different types of people,
with managers being more reactive and less
emotionally involved and leaders being more proactive and
more emotionally involved. The overlap between
leadership and management is centered on how both involve
influencing a group of individuals in goal attainment.
In this book, we discuss leadership as a complex process. Based
on the research literature, we describe selected
approaches to leadership and assess how they can be used to
improve leadership in real situations.
80
Descriptions of Images and Figures
Back to Figure
Trait definition of leadership: Leadership is defined by the
traits such as height, intelligence, extraversion, fluency,
and other traits that a leader with followers possesses.
Process definition of leadership: Leadership is defined as the
interaction between leader and followers.
81
83. 82
2 TRAIT APPROACH
83
DESCRIPTION
Of interest to scholars throughout the 20th century, the trait
approach was one of the first systematic attempts to
study leadership. In the early 20th century, leadership traits
were studied to determine what made certain people
great leaders. The theories that were developed were called
“great man” theories because they focused on
identifying the innate qualities and characteristics possessed by
great social, political, and military leaders (e.g.,
Catherine the Great, Mohandas Gandhi, Indira Gandhi, Abraham
Lincoln, Joan of Arc, and Napoleon Bonaparte).
It was believed that people were born with these traits, and that
only the “great” people possessed them. During
this time, research concentrated on determining the specific
traits that clearly differentiated leaders from followers
(Bass, 2008; Jago, 1982).
In the mid-20th century, the trait approach was challenged by
research that questioned the universality of
leadership traits. In a major review, Stogdill (1948) suggested
that no consistent set of traits differentiated leaders
from nonleaders across a variety of situations. An individual
with leadership traits who was a leader in one
situation might not be a leader in another situation. Rather than
being a quality that individuals possess, leadership
was reconceptualized as a relationship between people in a
social situation. Personal factors related to leadership
84. continued to be important, but researchers contended that these
factors were to be considered as relative to the
requirements of the situation.
The trait approach has generated much interest among
researchers for its explanation of how traits influence
leadership (Bryman, 1992). For example, Kirkpatrick and Locke
(1991) went so far as to claim that effective
leaders are actually distinct types of people. Lord, DeVader,
and Alliger (1986) found that traits were strongly
associated with individuals’ perceptions of leadership. More
recently, Dinh and Lord (2012) examined the
relationship between leadership effectiveness and followers’
perception of leadership traits.
The trait approach has earned new interest through the current
emphasis given by many researchers to visionary
and charismatic leadership (see Bass, 2008; Bennis & Nanus,
2007; Jacquart & Antonakis, 2015; Nadler &
Tushman, 2012; Zaccaro, 2007; Zaleznik, 1977). Charismatic
leadership catapulted to the forefront of public
attention with the 2008 election of the United States’ first
African American president, Barack Obama, who is
perceived by many to be charismatic, among many other
attributes. In a study to determine what distinguishes
charismatic leaders from others, Jung and Sosik (2006) found
that charismatic leaders consistently possess traits of
self-monitoring, engagement in impression management,
motivation to attain social power, and motivation to
attain self-actualization. In short, the trait approach is alive and
well. It began with an emphasis on identifying the
qualities of great persons, shifted to include the impact of
situations on leadership, and, currently, has shifted back
to reemphasize the critical role of traits in effective leadership.
When discussing the trait approach, it is important to define
85. what is meant by traits. Traits refer to a set of
distinctive characteristics, qualities, or attributes that descr ibe a
person. They are inherent and relatively
unchanging over time. Taken together, traits are the internal
factors that comprise our personality and make us
unique. Because traits are derived from our personality and are
fundamentally fixed, this chapter will not
emphasize how people can use this approach to develop or
change their leadership. Instead, the focus of the
chapter will be on identifying leaders’ traits and overall role of
traits in leadership.
While research on traits spanned the entire 20th century, a good
overview of the approach is found in two surveys
completed by Stogdill (1948, 1974). In his first survey, Stogdill
analyzed and synthesized more than 124 trait
studies conducted between 1904 and 1947. In his second study,
he analyzed another 163 studies completed
between 1948 and 1970. By taking a closer look at each of these
reviews, we can obtain a clearer picture of how
individuals’ traits contribute to the leadership process.
Stogdill’s first survey identified a group of important leadership
traits that were related to how individuals in
various groups became leaders. His results showed that an
average individual in a leadership role is different from
an average group member with regard to the following eight
traits: intelligence, alertness, insight, responsibility,
initiative, persistence, self-confidence, and sociability.
84
The findings of Stogdill’s first survey also indicated that an
individual does not become a leader solely because
86. that individual possesses certain traits. Rather, the traits that
leaders possess must be relevant to situations in which
the leader is functioning. As stated earlier, leaders in one
situation may not necessarily be leaders in another
situation. Findings showed that leadership was not a passive
state but resulted from a working relationship between
the leader and other group members. This research marked the
beginning of a new approach to leadership research
that focused on leadership behaviors and leadership situations.
Stogdill’s second survey, published in 1974, analyzed 163 new
studies and compared the findings of these studies
to the findings he had reported in his first survey. The second
survey was more balanced in its description of the
role of traits and leadership. Whereas the first survey i mplied
that leadership is determined principally by
situational factors and not traits, the second survey argued more
moderately that both traits and situational factors
were determinants of leadership. In essence, the second survey
validated the original trait idea that a leader’s
characteristics are indeed a part of leadership.
Similar to the first survey, Stogdill’s second survey identified
traits that were positively associated with leadership.
The list included the following 10 characteristics:
1. Drive for responsibility and task completion
2. Vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals
3. Risk-taking and originality in problem solving
4. Drive to exercise initiative in social situations
5. Self-confidence and sense of personal identity
6. Willingness to accept consequences of decision and action
7. Readiness to absorb interpersonal stress
8. Willingness to tolerate frustration and delay
9. Ability to influence other people’s behavior
87. 10. Capacity to structure social interaction systems to the
purpose at hand
Mann (1959) conducted a similar study that examined more than
1,400 findings regarding traits and leadership in
small groups, but he placed less emphasis on how situational
factors influenced leadership. Although tentative in
his conclusions, Mann suggested that certain traits could be
used to distinguish leaders from nonleaders. His
results identified leaders as strong in the following six traits:
intelligence, masculinity, adjustment, dominance,
extraversion, and conservatism.
Lord et al. (1986) reassessed Mann’s (1959) findings using a
more sophisticated procedure called meta-analysis
and found that intelligence, masculinity, and dominance were
significantly related to how individuals perceived
leaders. From their findings, the authors argued strongly that
traits could be used to make discriminations
consistently across situations between leaders and nonleaders.
Both of these studies were conducted during periods in
American history where male leadership was prevalent in
most aspects of business and society. In Chapter 15, we explore
more contemporary research regarding the role of
gender in leadership, and we look at whether traits such as
masculinity and dominance still bear out as important
factors in distinguishing between leaders and nonleaders.
Yet another review argued for the importance of leadership
traits: Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991, p. 59) contended
that “it is unequivocally clear that leaders are not like other
people.” From a qualitative synthesis of earlier
research, Kirkpatrick and Locke postulated that leaders differ
from nonleaders on six traits: drive, motivation,
integrity, confidence, cognitive ability, and task knowledge.
88. According to these writers, individuals can be born
with these traits, they can learn them, or both. It is these six
traits that make up the “right stuff” for leaders.
Kirkpatrick and Locke asserted that leadership traits make some
people different from others, and this difference
should be recognized as an important part of the leadership
process.
In the 1990s, researchers began to investigate the leadership
traits associated with “social intelligence,” which is
characterized as the ability to understand one’s own and others’
feelings, behaviors, and thoughts and act
appropriately (Marlowe, 1986). Zaccaro (2002) defined social
intelligence as having such capacities as social
awareness, social acumen, self-monitoring, and the ability to
select and enact the best response given the
contingencies of the situation and social environment. A number
of empirical studies showed these capacities to be
85
a key trait for effective leaders. Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader
(2017) included such social abilities in the categories of
leadership traits they outlined as important leadership attributes
(Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics
Stogdill
(1948)
Mann
(1959)