TEST BANK Essentials of dental radiography 9th edition by Evelyn Thomson, Orlen Johnson.pdf

TEST BANK Essentials of dental radiography
10th
edition by Evelyn Thomson,
Chapters 1 – 30, Complete

Table of contents
1. Dental Radiography: Historical Perspective and Future Trends
2. Characteristics and Measurement of Radiation
3. The Dental X-ray Machine: Components and Function
4. Factors Affecting Radiographic Quality
5. Effects of Radiation Exposure
6. Radiation Protection
7. Dental X-ray Film and Processing Methods
8. Digital Radiography and Image Acquisition
9. Infection Control
10. Legal and Ethical Responsibilities
11. Patient Relations and Education
12. Introduction to Radiographic Examinations
13. The Periapical Examination—Paralleling (Technique
14. The Periapical Examination—Bisecting Technique
15. The Bitewing Examination
16. The Occlusal Examination
17. The Panoramic Examination
18. Identifying and Correcting Undiagnostic Radiographs
19. Quality Control and Environmental Safety in Dental Radiography
20. Image Orientation and Introduction to Interpretation
21. Recognizing Normal Radiographic Anatomy— Intraoral Radiographs
22. Recognizing Normal Radiographic Anatomy— Panoramic Radiographs
23. Radiographic Appearance of Dental Materials and Foreign Objects
24. The Use of Radiographs in the Detection of Dental Caries
25. The Use of Radiographs in the Evaluation of Periodontal Diseases
26. Describing Radiographic Anomalies, Lesions, and Opportunistic Screening
27. Pediatric Radiographic Techniques
28. Radiographic Techniques for Patients with Special Needs
29. Radiographic Techniques for Specific Oral Conditions
30. Glossary

Chapter 1. Dental Radiography: Historical Perspective and Future Trends
1. Who was awarded the first Nobel Prize for physics in 1901, for his experimental work with
radiation?
2. W. J. Morton
3. O. Walkhof
4. W. D. Coolidge
5. W. C. Roentgen
6. Who is credited with introducing the bitewing radiograph?
7. F. W. McCormack
8. H. R. Raper
9. G. M. Fitzgerald
10. C. E. Kells
11. Who developed the hot cathode ray tube?
12. W. D. Coolidge
13. W. A. Price
14. H. R. Raper
15. W. H. Rollins
16. The development of radiation protection as a science is credited to:
17. A. Cieszyński.
18. W. D. Coolidge.
19. W. H. Rollins.
20. F. Mouyen.
21. What New Orleans dentist first made practical use of x-rays in the treatment of dental patients?
22. H. R. Raper
23. G. M. Fitzgerald

24. F. Mouyen
25. C. E. Kells
26. Early researchers working in the field of radiography were not aware that continued exposure to x-
rays produced accumulations of radiation efects in the body because x-rays are invisible.
27. Both the statement and reason are correct and related.
28. Both the statement and reason are correct but NOT related.
29. The statement is correct, but the reason is NOT.
30. The statement is NOT correct, but the reason is correct.
31. NEITHER the statement NOR the reason is correct.
32. 7. The most significant advancement in the early days of radiography came in 1913 when W. D.
Coolidge:
33. became the first to alert the profession of the dangers of radiation exposure and advocated for the
science of radiation protection.
34. exposed a prototype of a dental radiograph, setting the stage for preventive oral health care.
35. developed a variable, high kilovoltage x-ray machine compatible with the paralleling technique.
36. introduced an x-ray tube that allowed for an x-ray output that could be predetermined and
accurately controlled.
37. The first dental radiograph was produced using an exposure time of:
38. 0.5 second.
39. 1 minute.
40. 5 minutes.
41. 25 minutes.
42. 1 hour.
43. What component of the dental x-ray machine best limits the size of the x-ray beam to the
approximate size of the image receptor?
44. A pointed cone

45. An open round cylinder
46. A rectangular PID
47. A slit collimator
48. Panoramic radiology became popular in the:
49. 1930s.
50. 1940s.
51. 1950s.
52. 1960s.
53. 1970s.
54. Which of the following is NOT true regarding cone beam volumetric imaging?
55. It images a single selected plane of tissues.
56. It is based on computed tomography.
57. It uses less radiation than a panoramic radiograph.
58. It is designed specifically for imaging dental applications.
59. It is purported to become the gold standard for imaging certain oral conditions.
60. Early dental film required long exposure times because:
61. it was hand-wrapped.
62. the emulsion was only on one side.
63. glass plates were used as the base.
64. the packets were not moisture resistant.
65. Each of the following is an advantage of digital imaging EXCEPT one. Which one is the
EXCEPTION?
66. It reduces radiation over film-based radiography.
67. It eliminates the need for the darkroom and processing chemistry.

68. It allows the use of pointed cones without radiation hazards.
69. It avoids the need for disposal of hazardous materials such as lead foils from film packets.
70. It produces enhanced two- and three-dimensional images.
71. The <KT>bisecting technique was the first and earliest radiographic technique for exposing
intraoral radiographs because the bisecting technique is based on the rule of isometry.
77. The <KT>parpaparalleling technique is taught in all dental assisting, dental hygiene, and dental
schools because it is the technique of choice for imaging intraoral radiographs.
83. The rule of isometry is the basis for what dental radiographic technique?
84. Bisecting
85. Paralleling
86. Panoramic
87. Digital
88. Computed tomography
89. Each of the following is a potential use of dental radiographs EXCEPT one. Which one is the
EXCEPTION?

90. Diagnosing dental caries
91. Evaluating development of dentition
92. Detecting missing teeth
93. Assessing patient self-care
94. Evaluating trauma to teeth and supporting bone
18. Producing radiographs of the teeth and/or the oral cavity is called:
19. Radiation producing.
20. Radiology.
21. Roentgenograph.
22. X-raying.
23. Radiography.
24. Dental assistants and dental hygienists meet an important need by providing each of the
following EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXEPTION?
25. Exposing radiographs
26. Processing radiographs
27. Mounting radiographs
28. Prescribing radiographs
29. Interpreting radiographs
30. The positioning indicating device (PID) is sometimes called a “cone” because the PID of early
dental x-ray machines was of a pointed shape.

True/False
1. William Herbert Rollins was awarded the first Nobel Prize for physics.
2. C. Edmund Kells encouraged the practical use of radiographs in dentistry.
3. The radiographer should help the patient hold the image receptor in place during exposure.
4. In the early 1900s dental patients would have to be sent to hospitals or a physician’s office to have
a dental radiograph exposed.
5. Early dental x-ray machines were an electrical hazard.
6. Pointed cones should be used to direct radiation from the x-ray tube to the patient.
7. Dental x-ray film available today is coated with emulsion on both sides.
8. The bisecting technique is the technique of choice for intraoral radiography.
9. Dental radiography supplements visual and physical examination to provide a quality evaluation of a
patient.
10. Digital imaging systems can reduce radiation dosage more than film-based radiography.
11. A radiograph is an image produced by exposure to x-rays.
12. Computed tomography eliminates the use of radiation to produce an image.
13. Digital imaging replaces the conventional dental x-ray machine.
14. The paralleling technique is based on the rule of isometry.
15. The PID is used to direct the useful beam of radiation.
16. X-radiation was discovered when Roentgen was working with a Crookes tube.
17. Roentgen named his discovery the roentgen ray.

18. The x-radiation output of the Crookes tube (named after the English chemist William Crookes)
could be predetermined and accurately controlled.
19. Early scientists and researchers working in the field of radiography were not aware that
continued exposure produced accumulations of radiation efects in the body.
20. In the early 1900s, it was common practice for the radiographer to help the patient hold the film in
place while making the exposure.
Short Answer
1. Who first determined that x-rays would play a role in dentistry?
2. Who is considered to be the first advocate for the science of radiation protection?
3. Who developed the hot cathode ray tube?
4. Which radiograph displays the entire dentition and surrounding structures?
5. What is the technique of choice for intraoral radiography?
6. In dental digital imaging systems, what replaces film?
7. What medical imaging modality records a selected plane of tissues?
8. What is the name of the device that functions to direct the x-ray beam toward the patient?
9. What is the purpose of studying the history of radiography and dental radiography?
10. What are the two techniques for exposing intraoral dental radiographs?
Chapter 2
Multiple Choice
1. Each of the following is a form of energy EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?
2. Heat

3. Water
4. Light
5. X-radiation
6. What is the maximum number of electron shells (energy levels) an atom can have? 7.
1
8. 3
9. 5
10. 7
11. Each of the following is a form of ionizing radiation EXCEPT one. Which one is the
EXCEPTION?
12. Cosmic rays
13. X-rays
14. Radio waves
15. Gamma rays
16. Each of the following statements about electromagnetic radiations is true EXCEPT one. Which
one is the EXCEPTION?
17. They have a negative electrical charge.
18. They have no mass.
19. They pass through space as particles and in a wave-like motion.
20. They have no weight.
21. Which of the following statements about x-rays is NOT true?
22. They travel at the speed of light.
23. They are invisible.
24. They have no mass.
25. They travel in convergent lines.

26. Which one of these is NOT a Système International (SI) unit of measurement?
27. Sievert
28. Roentgen
29. Coulombs per kilogram
30. Gray
31. The Système International unit for measuring absorbed dose is the
32. Gray
33. Sievert
34. Rad
35. Rem
36. The greatest exposure to ionizing radiation to the population comes from
37. Medical x-rays
38. Occupational exposure
39. Dental x-rays
40. Background radiation
41. The speed of a wave is its
42. Wavelength
43. Velocity
44. Frequency
45. Photon
46. The majority of x-rays produced by dental x-ray machines are formed by:
47. Characteristic radiation
48. Radionuclide decay
49. Bremsstrahlung radiation

50. Coherent scattering
51. Radiation is best described as a:
52. substance that occupies space.
53. resistor of heat.
54. type of electricity.
55. movement of energy.
56. The smallest particle of a substance that still retains the properties of that substance is a/an:
57. atom.
58. electron.
59. neutron.
60. molecule.
61. The emission and movement of electromagnetic or particulate energy through space is known as:
62. ionization.
63. radiation.
64. radioactivity.
65. the formation of ion pairs.
66. The measure of the number of waves that pass a given point per unit of time is known as the:
67. angstrom unit.
68. wavelength.
69. frequency.
70. velocity.
71. When x-rays pass through matter, which interaction results in x-rays being scattered in all
directions?
72. The coherent efect

73. The photoelectric efect
74. The Compton efect
75. The amount of energy deposited in the teeth or soft tissue by any type of radiation is called the:
76. exposure amount.
77. absorbed dose.
78. dose equivalent.
79. background radiation.
80. The units used to measure the dose equivalent of radiation is the:
81. Gray (Gy).
82. Sieverts (Sv).
83. Coulombs per kilogram (C/kg).
84. Roentgens (R).
85. The sievert and rem are units of measurement for:
86. the radiation exposure in the air.
87. the amount of energy absorbed by tissues.
88. the comparison of biological efects.
89. All of the above.
90. A weighting (qualifying) factor is used to determine which of the following?
91. coulombs per kilogram
92. sievert
93. roentgen
94. gray
95. The wavelength determines the energy and penetrating power of the radiation.
The longer the wavelength, the higher the energy of the radiation.

1. The first statement is true. The second statement is false.
2. The first statement is false. The second statement is true.
3. Both statements are true.
4. Both statements are false.
True/False
1. Matter is defined as the ability to do work and overcome resistance.
2. An atom is the smallest part of an element that still retains properties of that element.
3. Electrons have a positive charge.
4. The inner-most electron shell in an atom is the K shell.
5. Dental x-rays do not involve the use of radioactivity.
6. X-rays travel at the speed of sound.
7. Wavelength and frequency are directly related.
8. X-rays make the materials they pass through radioactive.
9. The photoelectric efect is an all-or-nothing energy loss.
10. The Compton efect causes x-rays to be scattered in all directions.
11. The number of electrons in the nucleus of an element determines its <KT>atomic number.
12. Background radiation includes cosmic rays from outer space, naturally occurring radiation from the
earth, and radiation from radioactive materials.
13. Kinetic energy is the internal energy within the atom that holds its components together.
14. The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines the atomic number.
15. Energy that travels in a diferent direction than that of the original x-ray is collectively called
“secondary radiation.”
16. The majority of x-rays produced by dental x-ray machines are formed by general
(bremsstrahlung) radiation.

17. The electromagnetic spectrum arranges energy types by decay rates.
18. X-rays of high energy and extremely short wavelengths are classified as hard radiation.
19. Ionizing radiation is energy that is capable of producing ions.
20. Electromagnetic radiation is propelled through space as both a particle and a wave.
Short Answer
1. What is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass?
2. What are the positively charged particles in the nucleus of an atom called?
3. What is the term for atoms that have gained or lost electrons and electrical neutrality?
4. What is the name of the process in which unstable elements undergo spontaneous decay in
order to become stable?
5. What is the term for bundles of energy that travel through space at the speed of light?
6. What is the speed of a wave called?
7. When radiation has great penetrating power it is called what?
8. Should you wait 30 seconds after making an exposure before entering the room?
9. People living on the Colorado plateau receive a higher dose of what type of radiation than
people living in Philadelphia?
10. One gray equals how many rads?
Chapter 3
Multiple Choice

1. Dental x-ray machines contain each of the following components EXCEPT one. Which one is the
EXCEPTION?
2. Control panel
3. Extension arm
4. Radioactive material
5. Tube head
6. Which regulating device on the control panel measures the amount of current passing through the
wires of the circuit?
7. The timer
8. The line switch
9. The kVp selector
10. The mA selector
11. Each of the following conditions must exist for x-rays to be produced EXCEPT one. Which one is
the EXCEPTION?
12. A target capable of stopping the electrons
13. An air-filled glass tube
14. High voltage to impart speed to the electrons
15. A source of free electrons
16. Which of the following is NOT a function of the tube head?
17. It allows all radiation to exit.
18. It provides grounding for the electrical components.
19. It protects the x-ray tube from accidental damage.
20. It prevents overheating of the x-ray tube.
21. The anode is composed of the focusing cup and the filament, and must be charged negative
during x-ray production.
22. The first part of the statement is correct, the second part of the statement is NOT correct.

23. The first part of the statement is NOT correct, the second part of the statement is correct.
24. Both parts of the statement are correct.
25. Both parts of the statement are NOT correct.
26. How many electrical circuits are used in a dental x-ray machine?
27. One
28. Two
29. Three
30. Four
31. Sixty (60) impulses is equivalent to:
32. 1/6 second.
33. 1/10 second.
34. ½ second.
35. 1 second.
36. The intensity of the x-ray beam is afected by each of the following EXCEPT one. Which one is the
EXCEPTION?
37. Targetsize
38. Kilovoltage
39. Exposure time
40. Milliamperage
41. A 1/10-second exposure equals how many impulses?
42. 4
43. 6
44. 10
45. 60

46. Which of these statements is FALSE?
47. The positive anode and negative cathode are sealed within the x-ray tube.
48. The control panel may be integrated with the x-ray machine tube head support.
49. The exposure button should be on the end of a 3-foot timer cord.
50. The x-ray tube contains a target capable of stopping the electrons.
51. The duration of an x-ray exposure is determined by which control?
52. The timer
53. The line switch
54. The kVp selector
55. The mA selector
56. The filament and target are made out of tungsten because it:
57. produces fewer electrons.
58. prevents electrons from being liberated.
59. withstands high temperatures.
60. ensures that x-rays are projected in one direction.
61. Which transformer corrects minor fluctuations in the current flowing through the wires?
62. The step-up transformer
63. The step-down transformer
64. The autotransformer
65. X-rays originate at the:
66. cathode.
67. port.
68. focusing cup.
69. focal spot.

70. Amperage measures the electric potential or force that moves electrons along a conductor.
Increasing the force with which the electrons move increases the penetrating potential of the x-
ray beam.
5. Which of the following best describes how x-rays are actually produced in the dental x-ray tube?
6. Radioactive particulate matter undergoes controlled disintegration.
7. Electrical current passes through an oil mixture, creating minute explosions.
8. Low milliamperage current is transformed to high kilovoltage current.
9. High-speed electrons collide with target material electrons.
10. What percent of the kinetic energy inside the x-ray tube is actually converted to x-radiation?
11. 99 percent
12. 50 percent
13. 25 percent
14. 1 percent
15. Increasing which of the following would best increase the number of electrons flowing through the
dental x-ray electrical circuit?
1. Impulses
2. Kilovoltage
3. Milliamperage
4. PID length
5. Which of the following removes the soft x-rays for the <</KT>x-ray beam as it exits the port?

6. The positioning indicating device (PID)
7. The collimator
8. The filter
9. The transformer
10. How does the radiographer know when the x-ray exposure cycle is complete?
11. When the deadman switch cannot be depressed
12. When the audible beep stops
13. When the timer dial completes the rotation
14. When the indicator light illuminates
True/False
1. Electricity is defined as electrons in motion.
2. The metal housing of the tube head increases the safety of the x-ray machine.
3. Direct current flows in pulses and changes direction.
4. Voltage is the measurement of the number of electrons moving through a wire conductor.
5. If the tube head is properly sealed, the port is the only place through which x-rays can escape.
6. The x-ray beam formed at the focal spot is monochromatic.
7. The intensity of the beam refers to the quantity and quality of the x-rays.
8. The filament is on the negative side of the vacuum tube in the dental x-ray machine.
9. Dental x-ray machines may have controls for manual adjustment of kVp and mA, or these
controls may be preset by the manufacturer.
10. In the ON position, the line switch on the control panel energizes the low- and high-voltage
circuits.
11. Increasing the amperage will result in a production of more x-rays.

12. That part of the cathode designed to direct the free electrons toward the tungsten target of the
anode is called the “focal spot.”
13. The tungsten anode is embedded in a core of copper to conduct heat away to a radiator.
14. A small area on the tungsten target of the anode toward which the electron beam is directed is
called the “focal spot.”
15. The step-down transformer corrects fluctuations in the current flowing through the x-ray
machine.
16. The anode is the negative electrode (terminal) in the x-ray tube.
17. The collimator is a lead diaphragm that restricts the dimensions of the useful beam.
18. Thermionic emission refers to the release of electrons from the target material during the
process of incandescence.
19. Primary beam refers to a high-energy, short wavelength x-ray beam.
20. An x-ray beam composed of many diferent wavelengths is called “polychromatic.”
Short Answer
1. What does adjusting the kilovolt peak (kVp) do?
2. What is the name of the device that allows the amount of current passing through the wires of the
circuit to be changed?
3. Why are the extension arm and yoke of the x-ray machine insulated?
4. What is the term for the measurement of the number of electrons moving through a wire
conductor?
5. Inside the dental x-ray machine, what does the speed of the electrons determine?
6. Who is responsible for the radiation dose incurred by the patient during x-ray exposure?
7. What does kVp measure?
8. What is the purpose of a “deadman” exposure switch?

9. What is the term for the process by which electrons are created at the filament wire of the
cathode?
10. In the cathode, the wire filament is recessed into what?
Chapter 4
Multiple Choice
2. Structures should be magnified to enhance interpretation.
3. An area of interest must be recorded completely with sufficient surrounding structures for a
frame of reference.
4. A radiograph should be of proper density, contrast, and definition.
5. An image should be free of errors.
6. Each of the following is a term used to describe visual image characteristics EXCEPT one. Which
7. Sharpness
8. Contrast
9. Milliamperage
10. Density
11. Which of these statements regarding radiographic contrast is FALSE?
12. There are few shades of gray in a radiograph with short-scale contrast.
13. Short-scale contrast describes a radiograph in which the density diferences between adjacent areas
are large.
14. There are many shades of gray in a radiograph with long-scale contrast.
15. Long-scale contrast describes a radiograph in which the density diferences between adjacent areas
are large.

16. The degree of overall blackness of a radiographic image is termed:
17. sharpness.
18. density.
19. resolution.
20. contrast.
21. The diference in densities between adjacent areas on the radiograph is termed:
22. sharpness.
23. density.
24. resolution.
25. contrast.
26. Which of these is NOT a shadow-casting principle?
27. A large focal spot
28. Long target–image receptor distance
29. Short object–image receptor distance
30. Parallel object–image receptor relationship
31. Which of the following statements about dental radiographic exposure variables is true?
32. Increasing the mA darkens the radiograph.
33. Decreasing exposure time darkens the radiograph.
34. Exposure time is difficult to change on most machines.
35. Milliamperage afects radiographic contrast.
36. An original radiograph is exposed at 8 mA for 1.0 seconds. If the mA is increased to 10, which of
the following exposure times would be correct to maintain radiographic density?
37. 0.4
38. 0.6

39. 0.8
40. 1.0
42. Increasing the target–image receptor distance reduces penumbra.
43. Radiation intensity is directly proportional to the square of the distance from the source.
44. A long PID increases image sharpness.
45. A recessed tube increases the target–image receptor distance.
46. Which of the following is recommended for increasing radiographic contrast while maintaining
radiographic density?
47. Increase kVp and increase exposure time.
48. Decrease kVp and decrease exposure time.
49. Increase kVp and decrease exposure time.
50. Decrease kVp and increase exposure time.
51. Radiolucent images appear dark or black because:
52. hard radiation was allowed to reach the image receptor.
53. dense structures stopped x-rays from reaching the image receptor.
54. soft radiation was stopped before reaching the image receptor.
55. less dense structures permitted more x-rays to reach the image receptor.
56. Each of the following appear radiopaque EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?
57. Bone
58. Dentin
59. Pulp
60. Enamel
61. Which kVp setting produces long-scale image contrast?

62. 65 kVp
63. 75 kVp
64. 85 kVp
65. 95 kVp
66. Each of the following results in image unsharpness EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?
67. Patient movement during exposure
68. Image receptor positioned close to the teeth
69. A short PID
70. The use of intensifying screens
71. A radiographic film with a small crystal size
72. creates sharpness.
73. causes magnification.
74. decreases exposure time.
75. increases contrast.
76. Image magnification can be decreased by:
77. increasing the target-object distance.
78. increasing the object–image receptor distance.
79. decreasing the target-surface distance.
80. increasing the focal spot size.
81. When changing the PID length from 8 inches (20.5 cm) to 16 inches (41 cm), what corresponding
change must be made to maintain image density?
82. Decrease exposure time.
83. Increase exposure time.
84. Decrease kilovoltage.

85. Increase kilovoltage.
86. The inverse square law states that the intensity of the radiation:
87. increases as the distance from its source increases because the beam of radiation converges.
88. decreases as the distance away from its source increases because the beam of radiation
diverges.
89. increases as the distance away from its source increases because the beam of radiation diverges.
90. decreases as the distance away from its source increases because the beam of radiation
converges.
91. Which of the following refers to a radiographic image that is black and white with many shades of
gray in between?
92. Low contrast
93. High contrast
94. Low density
95. High density
96. Which of the following indicates a radiographic image that is black and white with few shades of gray
in between?
97. Short resolution
98. Long resolution
99. Short scale
100. Long scale
True/False
1. White areas on a radiographic image are termed radiolucent.
2. Radiographic density (film darkening) is decreased when the milliamperage or exposure time is
increased.

3. The term “short-scale contrast” describes a radiograph in which density diferences between
adjacent areas are small.
4. Increasing the kVP results in a more penetrating x-ray beam.
5. Sharpness/definition refers to the detail and clarity of the structures on a radiograph.
6. A small focal spot reduces penumbra.
7. Grids absorb scattered x-rays.
8. Theoretically, the ideal focal spot would be a point source.
9. The target–image receptor distance should be short to create radiographs with the best
definition.
10. The film should be in close physical contact with the intensifying screens.
11. A radiographic image with many shades of gray is said to have low contrast.
12. That portion of the radiographic image that appears light is called “radiolucent.”
13. Penumbra is a device used in extraoral radiography to prevent scatter radiation from fogging the
image receptor.
14. Some clinicians prefer a radiographic image that is of low contrast, and others prefer a
radiographic image that is of high contrast.
15. Radiographic image unsharpness is generally caused by movement of the patient, image
receptor, or tube head during exposure.
16. Digital imaging sharpness can be afected by pixel size and distribution.
17. Thicker intensifying screens increase the sharpness of extraoral radiographs.
18. The target-object distance is the distance between the focal spot on the target and the skin
surface of the patient.
19. 1 Only one film should be placed in contact with the intensifying screens used for extraoral
radiography.
20. Slight movement of the tube head during exposure of a radiograph efectively increases the size of
the focal spot on the target within the tube head.
Short Answer

1. What types of tissues or structures appear radiolucent on radiographs?
2. What types of tissues or structures appear radiopaque on radiographs?
3. What is radiographic density?
4. What is short-scale contrast?
5. What is the relationship between kVp and contrast?
6. Why should the x-ray film be placed parallel to the long axis of the tooth?
7. The quality of the beam of radiation is determined by which exposure factor?
8. What is radiographic contrast?
9. What is long-scale contrast?
10. What is penumbra?
Chapter 5
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following statements regarding the biological efect mechanisms of the direct
theory is FALSE?
2. Most dental x-ray photons pass through the cell, causing no damage.
3. X-ray photons may collide with important cell chemicals and break them apart.
4. Ionization can cause critical damage to large molecules.
5. Irradiated cells cannot be repaired.
6. Which of the following statements regarding the biological efect mechanisms of the indirect
efect is FALSE?
7. Ionization dissociates water into hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals.
8. Ions have a strong tendency to seek out new combinations.

9. New chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide, can form from hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals.
10. Radiation must be massive to destroy entire body tissues that result in death.
11. Which of the following is most sensitive to damage from radiation?
12. Bone cells
13. Epithelial cells
14. White blood cells
15. Muscle cells
16. Which of the following statements about radiation repair is FALSE?
17. Somatic cells cannot repair radiation damage.
18. Scientists believe that some radiation efects are cumulative.
19. Ions have a strong tendency to recombine immediately to form water again.
20. The quantity, duration, and body area irradiated determine the amount of damage inflicted by the
radiation.
21. Which of the following statements regarding the theory established by a threshold dose-
response curve is true?
22. There is a dose below which no biological response would be expected.
23. It predicts the efects of very low levels of radiation exposure.
24. It indicates that any amount of radiation has the potential to cause a biological response.
25. It has been adopted by the radiation protection community as the conservative approach to
radiation exposure.
26. Each of the following is a potential efect of a low dose of radiation EXCEPT one. Which one is
the EXCEPTION?
27. No cell response.
28. Cell repairs itself and functions at pre-exposure levels.
29. Cell repairs itself abnormally.
30. Cell becomes radioactive.

31. Which of the following statements regarding radiation injury is FALSE?
32. The smaller the area of tissue exposure, the greater damage to the individual.
33. The greater the dose, the more severe the probable biological event.
34. The rate at which the radiation is absorbed may determine which biological efects occur.
35. A given dose may produce fewer biologic efects if the cells have a chance to recover.
36. Which of the following statements regarding radiation injury is FALSE?
37. The amount of injury to an individual depends on the volume of tissue radiated.
38. The lethal dose (LD 50/30) for humans is 1.5 grays.
39. Younger, more rapidly dividing cells are more likely to incur damage.
40. Individuals vary in radiation sensitivity within the same species.
41. The lethal dose (LD 50/30) of radiation for humans is estimated to be:
42. 4,500 grays.
43. 450 grays.
44. 45 grays.
45. 4.5 grays.
46. Which of these is NOT a symptom of acute radiation syndrome.
47. Constipation
48. Nausea
49. Hemorrhage
50. Hair loss
51. Which of the following is NOT a component of the Law of Bergonié and Tribondeau?
52. Actively dividing cells are less sensitive.
53. Immature cells are more sensitive.
54. More specialized cells are more radioresistant.

55. Cells are most susceptible to injury during cell division.
56. Which of the following groups of cells are correctly ranked in order of radiosensitivity beginning
with the most sensitive?
57. Muscle, brain, red blood, white blood
58. Reproductive, bone, nerve, muscle
59. Brain, bone, connective tissue, white blood
60. Red blood, bone, muscle, epithelial
61. Continued exposure to radiation over prolonged periods may result in each of the following
EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?
62. It may alter the ability of genetic cells to reproduce normally.
63. It may afect the ability of genetic cells to repair damage.
64. It may produce ofspring with increased resistance to radiation exposure.
65. It may result in cumulative chromosome damage.
66. What is the approximate surface (skin) dose of radiation from a full mouth series of 18 F-speed
films, exposed at 90 kVp with a 16-inch (41-cm)-length PID?
67. 30 mSv
68. 50 mSv
69. 75 mSv
70. 100 mSv
71. Which of these periods immediately follows radiation exposure?
72. The period of injury
73. The latent period
74. The reparable damage period
75. The recovery period
76. When the severity of change is dependent on the radiation dose, the efect is called a/an:

77. stochasticefect.
78. deterministic efect.
79. acute radiation efect.
80. lethal dose efect.
81. At what dose of whole-body radiation would an observable short-term efect of acute radiation
syndrome result?
82. 0.01 Gy
83. 0.25 Gy
84. 0.50 Gy
85. 1.0 Gy
86. Tissues have the capacity to repair radiation damage to a certain degree. However, some damage
cannot be repaired and remains weakened, especially with repeated exposures. This is called:
1. a long-term efect.
2. radioresistant tissue.
3. a cumulative efect.
4. a stochastic efect.
5. What theory of radiation damage to cells results from free radicals combining to form toxins
such as hydrogen peroxide?
6. Primary
7. Secondary
8. Indirect
9. Direct
10. A threshold dose-response relationship indicates that any dose, regardless of amount, can be
expected
to produce a biologic response.

A linear dose-response relationship indicates that the biologic response is directly proportional to
the
dose.
True/False
1. Scientists do not know whether low levels of radiation exposure carry health risks.
2. A less specialized cell is more radioresistant.
3. A nonthreshold dose-response curve indicates that there is a certain level of radiation below
which no biological response should be anticipated.
4. The ALARA concept means “As Low As Reasonably Achievable.”
5. The efects of irradiation depend on the type of energy and duration of the exposure.
6. All humans have the same sensitivity to radiation.
7. All cells in the human body have the same sensitivity to radiation.
8. X-rays have been shown to have carcinogenic efects.
9. The structures of the oral and facial regions are relatively radioresistant.
10. The Law of Bergonié and Tribondeau states that cells are most sensitive to radiation injury during
mitosis (cell division).
11. The biological efects of very low levels of radiation cannot be predicted.
1 2. Radioresistant refers to those tissues that are protected by the lead apron and thyroid
collar during a dental x-ray exposure.
1 3. The latent period refers to the time between exposure to radiation and the ionization of
molecules.

1 4. When radiation affects any cells of the body except the reproductive cells, the effect is
called indirect.
15. A stochastic efect is when a biological response is based on the probability of occurrence rather than
the severity of the change..
1 6. Cancer is a stochastic effect of exposure to radiation.
1 7. Erythema is a stochastic effect of exposure to radiation.
18. Because they do not divide and are very specialized, reproductive cells are radioresistant.
1 9. White blood cells (lymphocytes) and reproductive cells (oocytes) are two exceptions to the
Law of Bergonié and Tribondeau, which states cells that do not divide and are very specialized are
radioresistant.
20. The average efective dose equivalent from naturally occuring background radiation to the
population of the United States is approximately 8 µSv (microsieverts) per day.
Short Answer
1. What is the diference between the efects of irradiation to somatic cells compared to
reproductive cells?
2. What do scientists believe about radiation damage to somatic cells from repetitive exposures?
3. Do scientists believe that radiation damage to reproductive cells is cumulative?
4. What is the LD 50/30 for humans?
5. Why are children more susceptible to radiation than adults?
6. When do the efects of irradiation occur?
7. When the dose of radiation is increased, does the severity of a stochastic efect increase?
8. When is the developing fetus most susceptible to the damaging efects of radiation, and why?
9. Can dental x-rays cause cataracts in the lens of the eye?
10. In addition to x-radiation, list other causes of changes to the genetic material of cells.
Chapter 6

Multiple Choice
1. Each of the following statements regarding radiation protection measures for the patient is
correct EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?
2. The oral health care team should embrace the ALARA concept.
3. Radiographs must be taken on all new patients.
4. Evidence-based selection criteria should be used when determining which patients need
radiographs.
5. The radiographer should possess a working knowledge of appropriate exposure factors.
6. Each of the following statements regarding the technical ability of radiographers is correct
EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?
7. They have the ability to communicate clear and concise instructions to the patient.
8. They possess a thorough understanding of how to produce quality images
9. They understand how to perform dental x-ray machine inspections
10. They participate in continuing education
11. The federal performance standard for diagnostic x-ray equipment requires that all x-ray equipment
meet each of the following radiation safety requirements EXCEPT one. Which one is the
EXCEPTION?
12. Collimators may be round or rectangular.
13. Both inherent and added filtration is usually required.
14. Aluminum filters are required to remove long wavelength x-rays from the beam.
15. A pointed, closed-end PID is acceptable.
16. Which of the following statements regarding x-ray equipment is FALSE?
17. A short (8 in/20.5 cm) PID delivers less radiation to the patient.
18. Total filtration is the sum of inherent and added filtration.
19. A filter placed in the path of the x-ray beam reduces patient radiation exposure.

20. An external collimator can be attached to the PID to achieve rectangular collimation.
21. Which of the following statements about the position indicating device (PID) is correct?
22. The shorter the PID, the less divergent the beam.
23. The longer the PID, the greater the radiation dose to the patient.
24. Pointed, closed-end plastic cone PIDs should no longer be used.
25. A recessed PID creates a shorter target-surface distance.
26. Which of the following statements regarding lead aprons is FALSE?
27. They are fabricated of 0.25-mm lead or lead-equivalent materials.
28. They should be folded and stored when not in use.
29. They provide a protective barrier against scatter radiation.
30. Their use is in keeping with the ALARA concept.
31. Which film speed requires the least amount of radiation exposure to produce a diagnostic-
quality image?
32. D
33. E
34. F
35. G
8. Which of the following statements is FALSE?
9. Processing errors increase patient radiation exposure by resulting in retake radiographs.
10. Following the time-temperature method of processing radiographs produces images of ideal
quality.
11. Careful attention to chemical replenishment avoids retakes.
12. It is acceptable to increase the dose while underdeveloping the film if time is short.

13. Which of the following statements regarding protection measures for the operator during
exposure is FALSE?
14. The ideal angle to stand from the path of the exiting x-ray beam is 180 degrees.
15. A drifting tube head should not be held in place by the radiographer or the patient.
16. The radiographer should stand at least 6 feet from the head of the patient.
17. A structural barrier provides adequate protection during exposure.
18. Which of the following statements regarding radiation monitoring is FALSE?
19. Area monitoring measures output of the x-ray machine.
20. A radiation monitoring service provides a reliable record of occupational radiation exposure.
21. Personnel monitoring devices protect the wearers from scatter radiation.
22. TLDs and OSLs are examples of personnel monitoring devices.
23. Dental radiation exposure to the patient can be reduced by each of the following EXCEPT one.
Which one is the EXCEPTION?
24. Using the fastest speed film currently available
25. Prescribing exams based on evidence-based selection criteria
26. Holding the image receptor in the patient’s mouth
27. Restricting the size and shape of the x-ray beam
28. The ALARA concept implies that:
29. any radiation dose that can be reduced without major difficulty, great expense, or
inconvenience, should be reduced or eliminated.
30. if a radiation dose cannot be reduced without major difficulty, great expense, or inconvenience,
then no radiographs should be exposed.
31. radiation dosages slightly above the acceptable level of risk are acceptable only in emergency
treatment situations.
32. fewer radiographs should be taken only if a radiation dose cannot be reduced due to major
difficulty, inconvenience, and great expense.
33. The best way to reduce patient radiation exposure is to:

34. expose routine radiographs.
35. determine the risk/benefit ratio prior to exposure.
36. develop office policy for the maximum number of exposures permissible per patient.
37. use evidence-based selection criteria for prescribing radiographs.
38. Guidelines for prescribing radiographs are based on:
39. medical and dental histories.
40. clinical examination.
41. signs and symptoms.
42. All of the above.
43. The function of the collimator in the dental x-ray machine is to:
44. eliminate secondary sources of radiation.
45. reduce the size of the x-ray beam.
46. eliminate primary sources of radiation.
47. allow for faster exposure times.
48. The purpose of aluminum filtration is to:
49. absorb the penetrating short wavelengths that fog films unnecessarily.
50. reduce the radiation to the patient by reducing the volume of tissue exposed.
51. eliminate the sources of scatter or secondary radiation to the patient.
52. absorb the less penetrating long wavelengths to reduce radiation exposure.
53. A less divergent x-ray beam will:
54. increase the radiation dose to the patient.
55. result in lower-quality radiographic images.
56. create a smaller diameter of exposure.
57. require added filtration.

58. Which of the following will reduce radiation to the patient the most?
59. Fast film speeds.
60. Thyroid collars.
61. Image receptor holders.
62. Rectangular PIDs.
63. Each of the following protects the radiographer from radiation EXCEPT one. Which one is the
EXCEPTION?
64. Wearing a personnel-monitoring device
65. Increased distance from the source of radiation
66. Standing behind protective shielding during exposure
67. Spending less time near radiation-producing equipment
68. A personnel monitoring device can NOT:
69. record the amount of radiation received.
70. measure the amount of radiation received.
71. protect the operator from receiving radiation.
72. indicate the type of radiation received.
True/False
1. The best way to reduce patient risk from radiation exposure is to keep exposures ALARA.
2. Guidance for deciding when, what type, and how many radiographs to expose on a patient have
been developed and should be followed.
3. A rectangular PID requires a larger dose of radiation to produce a diagnostic-quality radiograph
than a circular PID.

4. Pure aluminum will not hinder the passage of high-energy x-rays.
5. Fast film requires less radiation for exposure and is essential for reducing radiation to the
patient.
6. Increasing the dose of radiation is a recommended method to compensate for weak processing
solutions.
7. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) contain crystals that absorb energy when exposed to
radiation.
8. The maximum permissible dose (MPD) for oral health care professionals is 50 mSv/year.
9. Medical, dental, and therapeutic radiation is included in the MPD.
10. Regulations governing the use of radiation-producing equipment include federal, state, and
some local laws.
11. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission has developed dose limits for radiographers
and patients.
12. The National Committee on Radiation Protection principle to keep exposure down, based on the
idea
that all radiation, no matter how small the dose, may cause adverse biological effects, is called
“ALARA.”
13. Federal regulations require that the intraoral x-ray beam be collimated to a diameter of 3.75
inches
at the patient’s skin.
14. If the tube head support arm drifts from its appropriate position when taking a radiograph, the
radiographer should ask the patient to hold the PID stable during the exposure.
15. If the area of interest is imaged correctly on an adjacent radiograph, it is possible that an
undiagnostic radiograph may not need to be retaken.
16. The bisecting technique should be the radiographer’s first choice in exposing periapical
radiographs.
17. Based on evidence-based selection criteria for keeping radiation exposure ALARA, an adult recall
patient with no risk factors for caries would most likely be assessed for bitewing radiographs
annually.

18. Based on evidence-based selection criteria for keeping radiation exposure ALARA, a child recall
patient with several risk factors for caries would most likely be assessed for bitewing radiographs
every 6 to 12 months.
19. Based on evidence-based selection criteria for keeping radiation exposure ALARA, a high level of
caries experience or demineralization increases a patient’s risk for future caries.
20. High-energy x-rays are the most harmful to the patient because they easily penetrate to the deep
tissues of the body.
Short Answer
1. Which intraoral technique should be the radiographer’s first choice when exposing periapical
radiographs?
2. What undesirable efect does collimation reduce?
3. Absorption of the long wavelength, less penetrating x-rays of the polychromatic beam occurs by
passage of the beam through a sheet of aluminum called a .
4. The sum of inherent and added filtration is called .
5. What is the term given to the walls or partitions around the dental x-ray machine that protect the
radiographer against scatter radiation?
6. What are the three categories of methods for protecting oral health care personnel from
radiation exposure?
7. Some dental x-ray machines appear to have a short PID when in fact the target surface distance is
long. Why?
8. Should the patient wear a thyroid collar during panoramic radiography?
9. Currently, what film speed is recommended to reduce radiation exposure?
10. Should image receptor holding devices be recommended to reduce radiation exposure?
Chapter 7
Multiple Choice

1. Which of these is NOT a component of dental x-ray film?
2. Protective layer
3. Base
4. Phosphor crystals
5. Emulsion
6. Which of these is NOT a component of the dental x-ray film packet?
7. Black paper wrapping
8. One or two films
9. Moisture-resistant outer wrapping
10. Aluminum foil
11. Each of the following statements regarding dental x-ray film speed is true EXCEPT one. Which
12. E-speed film is the fastest film speed currently available.
13. Film speed is printed on the back side of each individual film packet.
14. Trademark names like “Super” or “Ultra” are not film speeds.
15. Film speeds slower than D are no longer used.
16. Which of the following radiographs gets its name from the Greek word that means around and the
Latin word for apex that refers to the root tip?
17. Bitewing
18. Periapical
19. Occlusal
20. Panoramic
21. Which of these intraoral dental films is 2.25 inches × 3 inches?
22. Size #1
23. Size #2

24. Size #3
25. Size #4
26. Each of the following statements regarding duplication of radiographs is correct EXCEPT one.
27. The emulsion side of duplicating film contains an antihalation coating.
28. The solarized emulsion records the copy of the image.
29. The emulsion side of duplicating film is placed against the original radiograph.
30. The antihalation coating prevents back-scattered light from re-exposing the film.
31. Which of the following statements regarding extraoral film is FALSE?
32. It is used outside the mouth.
33. It comes individually wrapped in protective paper.
34. It is called a “screen film.”
35. It uses intensifying screens.
36. Which of the following statements regarding film storage and protection is FALSE?
37. It is light-sensitive.
38. It has a shelf life.
39. It is afected by high heat and humidity.
40. It should be stored in the darkroom.
41. Extraoral film is used for ALL of the following projections EXCEPTone. Which one is this
EXCEPTION?
42. Lateral jaw radiographs
43. Occlusal radiographs
44. Cephalometric radiographs
45. Panoramic radiographs
46. Each of the following statements is true EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?

47. During exposure, the x-rays strike and ionize all silver halide crystals on the film.
48. The invisible image on an x-ray film is called the “latent image.”
49. The function of the gelatin in film emulsion is to keep the silver halide crystals evenly suspended
over the base.
50. Silver halide in the emulsion is primarily silver bromide.
51. Dental film has a polyester base for the purpose of:
52. increasing the contrast and image quality.
53. providing support for the emulsion.
54. producing the latent (invisible) image.
55. preventing scatter radiation from exposing the film.
56. Which portion of the dental film retains the latent image?
57. The protective layer
58. The gelatin
59. The silver halide crystals
60. The adhesive
61. Which structure is most likely to absorb or stop more of the x-rays from reaching the film?
62. The enamel
63. The bone
64. The pulp
65. The soft tissue (cheek)
66. Which of these protects the film from white-light exposure?
67. Antihalation coating
68. Solarized emulsion
69. Lead foil

70. Black paper
71. The purpose of the embossed dot on the film packet is to:
72. identify which side of the film contains the emulsion.
73. determine if the film packet contains one or two films.
74. distinguish the patient’s right from left on the developed radiograph.
75. locate the edge of the packet that should be positioned toward the apices.
76. Which of the following indicates the correct placement of an intraoral film?
77. The back side faces the buccal surfaces of the teeth and away from the source of radiation.
78. The back side faces the lingual surfaces of the teeth and is facing the source of radiation.
79. The tube side faces the buccal surfaces of the teeth and faces the source of radiation.
80. The tube side faces the lingual surfaces of the teeth and faces the source of radiation.
17. Each of the following afects film speed EXCEPT one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?
18. Emulsion thickness
19. Crystal size
20. Film packet size
21. Special dyes
22. Graininess of a radiographic image results from:
23. large silver halide crystals.
24. the addition of radiosensitive dyes.
25. a decrease in film speed.
26. film packets that contain two films.
27. Which of the following is NOT an intraoral projection?
28. Periapical

29. Occlusal
30. Panoramic
31. Bitewing
32. Which film size is ideal for positioning a periapical radiograph in the narrow canine region on an
adult patient?
33. Size #0
34. Size #1
35. Size #2
36. Size #3
True/False
1. Film used for dental radiography is very similar to photographic film.
2. Intraoral films are designed for use outside the oral cavity.
3. Dental x-ray film is surrounded by a sheet of white paper inside the film packet.
4. Film packets may contain one or two films.
5. The tab for opening the film packet is on the tube side of the packet.
6. During periapical radiograph film packet placement, the embossed dot should be positioned
toward the apices of the teeth.
7. Bitewing radiographs image the entire tooth, from crown to root tip.
8. Pedodontic films are usually size #2 films.
9. The radiation exposure needed for extraoral film projections is higher than that needed for
intraoral projections.
10. The same film type used for exposing dental radiographs can be used to duplicate them.
11. A fast speed film requires more radiation exposure to record a diagnostic image.

12. The latent image is an image that is slow in its formation, especially when using slow speed film.
13. The purpose of the lead foil in the film packet is to absorb back-scattered x-rays to reduce film fog.
14. Dental film emulsion is about 90 to 99 percent silver bromide and 1 to 10 percent silver iodide.
15. The appearance of clear/white or radiopaque structures on the radiograph is a result of the
developer step during film processing.
16. Intraoral film emulsion is composed of a gelatin and silver halide crystals.
17. The white, unprinted side of an intraoral film packet is the back side.
18. A pedodontic film is any film used to radiograph a child’s teeth.
19. Duplicating film gets lighter the longer the exposure to light.
20. Film should be stored in its original packaging in an area shielded from radiation.
Short Answer
1. The invisible image present on a dental x-ray film that does not become visible until after
processing is called what?
2. What is placed in the film packet by the manufacturer to absorb scattered radiation?
3. What is the color of the tube side of the film packet?
4. What number is given to occlusal film to indicate its size?
5. What type of film is needed to copy a dental radiograph?
6. Silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin form which part of dental x-ray film?
7. For what is the embossed dot in one corner of intraoral dental x-ray film used?
8. Which side of the film packet faces the source of radiation?

9. The sensitivity of a given type of dental x-ray film is known as its what?
10. Extraoral radiographs require the use of a cassette and what else?
Chapter 8
Multiple Choice
1. Which of these is NOT part of the developer solution?
2. Reducing agent
3. Clearing agent
4. Activator
5. Restrainer
6. Which of the following statements regarding developer chemistry is FALSE?
7. Sodium sulfite slows down the oxidation rate.
8. Sodium carbonate provides the alkaline medium.
9. Potassium bromide restrains development of unexposed silver halide crystals.
10. Potassium alum swells the gelatin.
11. Each of the following statements is true regarding the darkroom EXCEPT one. Which one is the
EXCEPTION?
12. It should be located near where radiographs will be exposed.
13. It should be well ventilated.
14. It should have adequate space to store unexposed film.
15. It should be equipped with safelighting.
16. Which of these is NOT a component of fixer?
17. Sodium thiosulfate

18. Preservative
19. Activator
20. Acidifier
21. Each of the following statements regarding darkroom safelighting is true EXCEPT one. Which one is
the EXCEPTION?
22. Walls should be painted black.
23. You should allow longer wavelength red-orange light to pass through the safelight filter.
24. Shorter wavelength blue-green light is removed by the safelight filter.
25. Four feet is the minimum distance between the safelight and the countertop.
26. Which of the following statements regarding manual film processing is FALSE?
27. A visual inspection of the image will determine the length of time the film stays in the developer.
28. A film holder clip is used to transport films to and from each of the processing solutions.
29. The optimum temperature for manual processing is 68 degrees F.
30. Cleansing powders should not be used to clean processing tank inserts.
31. Each of the following statements regarding automatic film processing is correct EXCEPT one.
32. It requires diligent care for optimal performance.
33. Chemical solutions are heated to match the temperature used in manual processing.
34. If processor rollers are not kept clean, films can emerge streaked.
35. It uses a roller transport system to move the film through the processing cycle.
36. Which of the following statements regarding automatic processors is FALSE?
37. Depending on the workload, cleaning must be done approximately every 6 months.
38. The roller assembly should be cleaned in warm running water with special cleansers.
39. Chemistry should be replenished or changed as necessary.
40. Roller transports squeeze excess solution from film surfaces.

41. Which of the following statements regarding rapid processing of dental radiographs is FALSE?
42. It can be accomplished in 30 seconds with special, fast-acting chemicals.
43. It provides archival, permanent quality radiographs.
44. Four cups are set up inside the box containing developer, rinse water, fixer, and wash water.
45. A light-tight countertop box contains two openings that allow light-tight access of the
radiographer’s hands.
46. Which of the following statements regarding automatic processing is correct?
47. No water is required.
48. Processing is accomplished under normal white-light conditions.
49. The chemistry in automatic processors is heated to 68 degrees F.
50. Unwrapped film is fed into the film feed slot on the outside of the processor.
51. The purpose of the developing step is to:
52. remove unexposed silver halide crystals from the film emulsion.
53. neutralize the alkalinity prior to the film progressing to the fixer.
54. reduce exposed silver halide crystals to black metallic silver.
55. prevent the rapid buildup of image contrast.
56. Which ingredient slows down the oxidation rate of the developing solution?
57. Sodium sulfite
58. Sodium carbonate
59. Potassium bromide
60. Hydroquinone
61. Potassium alum in the fixer serves to:
62. neutralize the alkali of the developer.
63. act as a preservative.

IF YOU WANT THIS TEST BANK OR
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IF YOU WANT THIS TEST BANK OR
SOLUTION MANUAL EMAIL ME
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ALL CHAPTERS IN PDF FORMAT

TEST BANK Essentials of dental radiography 9th edition by Evelyn Thomson, Orlen Johnson.pdf

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