Techniques in plant protection

Practical File
On
Techniques in Plant Protection (ENT-518)
Submitted to: Dr. M. K. Mishra
(Assistant Professor)
Department of Entomology
Submitted by: Arun Kumar
Id. No. : 1364
M.Sc. (Ag.) Entomology
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
BANDA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND
TECHNOLOGY, BANDA (U.P) 210001

S.N. Experiments/Objectives Page no.
1. To study about the definition, concepts and tools of IPM. 03- 05
2. To study about the Equipments use in Pest control. 06- 08
3. To study about the different types of pesticide applicators. 09- 11
4. To study about the different types of pesticide formulations. 12- 14
5. To study about the precautions in handling and storage of
pesticides.
15- 19
6. To study about the Microscope and their importance in
Entomological laboratory.
20- 22
7. To study about the detection & prediction of pests using deep
learning technology.
23- 25
8. To study about the Remote sensing as pest forecasting model in
agriculture.
26- 28
9. To study about the Artificial rearing of Insects. 29- 31
10. To study about the Specimen preservation. 32- 33

Experiment- 01
01. To study about the definition, concepts and tools of IPM. :
Definition of IPM- (FAO- 1967)
‘‘Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a system that, in the context of associated environment
and population dynamics of pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as
compatible a manner as possible and maintains pest population at levels below those causing
economic injury.’’
Concepts of Integrated Pest Management-
1. Understanding of agricultural ecosystem
2. Planning of agricultural ecosystem
3. Cost-benefit ratio
4. Tolerance of Pest damage
5. Leaving Pest residue
6. Time of treatment
7. Public understanding and acceptance
Tools of Integrated Pest Management-
(i) Cultural control
(ii) Mechanical control
(iii) Physical control
(iv) Legal control
(v) Biological control
(vi) Chemical control
(vii) Genetic control

(i) Cultural control-
• Deep ploughing
• Clean cultivation
• Crop rotation
• Use of resistant varieties
• Pruning and thinning
• Early sowing/ variation in time of sowing
• Water management
• Nutrient management
• Use of Trap crops
• Crop refuse destruction
(ii) Mechanical control-
• Hand picking and destruction
• Exclusion by screens, barriers
• Trapping, suction devices, collecting machine
• Crushing and grinding
• Sound making devices
• Sieving and winnowing
(iii) Physical control-
❖ Manipulation of temperature
a. Heat
b. Cold
❖ Manipulation of moisture
❖ Modified atmospheric package
❖ Energy
a. Light traps

b. Light regulation
c. Irradiation
(iv) Legal control-
Restriction in the movement of certain commodity inside or outside the country and within
different places of a country by making certain rules and regulations.
Destructive insects and Pest act- 1914
(v) Biological control-
Research on nature’s own methods of pest control is yielding new products and methods that can
be used in IPM programs. Many of these require similar technical expertise as crop protection
products in relation to formulation, field application and resistance management. These controls
include introducing beneficial insects or predators; applying micro-organisms such as viruses,
fungi and bacteria; and using pheromones to lure, trap and kill or interfere with insects’ mating
habits.
(vi) Chemical control-
1. Chemical crop protection products (pesticides) are biologically active chemicals that control a
range of insect and vertebrate pests, diseases and weeds. They are often the most cost-effective
way of controlling infestations as part of an IPM strategy. Today’s crop protection products are
the result of more than 50 years of research, development and field experience around the world
by the plant science industry.
2. Before crop protection products are released in the market, they are thoroughly tested for their
safety, usefulness and effectiveness. When sold, they are labeled with explicit use instructions.
3. To get the most out of these products, they must be applied correctly. Responsible use and
good handling practices limit potential pesticide residues in crops and the environment as well as
help avoid pest resurgence and resistance.

Experiment- 02
02. To study about the Equipments use in Pest control. :
Traps
Since a trap is defined as anything that impedes or stops the progress of an organism, this subject
is extensive, including devices used with or without baits, lures, or other attractants. Besides its
construction, the performance of a trap depends on such factors as its location, time of year or
day, weather, temperature, and kind of attractant used, if any. A little ingenuity coupled with
knowledge of the habits of the insects or mites sought will suggest modifications or
improvements in nearly any trap or may even suggest new traps.
Effects of Elevation
One of the external factors affecting the performance of traps, especially light traps, has been
specially studied, namely the effect of the elevation (above sea or ground level) at which the trap
is placed when in use. The subject is complex, with many variables related to kinds of insects,
locality, and so forth.
Windowpane Traps
One of the simplest and cheapest traps is a barrier consisting of a windowpane held upright by
stakes in the ground or suspended by a line from a tree or from a horizontal line. A trough filled
with a liquid killing agent is so placed that insects flying into the pane drop into the trough and
drown. They are removed from the liquid, washed with alcohol or other solvent, then preserved
in alcohol or dried and pinned. The trap is not recommended for adult Lepidoptera or other
insects that may be ruined if collected in fluid.
Interceptions Nets and Barriers
A piece of netting, 1.8 meters or more in height, can be stretched between three trees or poles to
form a V shaped trap with the wide end of the V open. A triangular roof should be adjusted to
slope gently downward to the broad open side of the V. A device of this type will intercept many
kinds of flying insects, particularly if the trap is situated with the point of the V toward the side
of maximum light and in the direction of air movement.
Malaise Traps
One of the most widely used insect traps was developed by the Swedish entomologist René
Malaise and that now bears his name. Several modifications of his original design have been
published, and at least one is available commercially. The trap, as originally designed, consists of
a vertical net serving as a baffle, end nets, and a sloping canopy leading up to a collecting device

(fig. 9). The collecting device may be a jar with either a solid or evaporating killing agent or a
liquid in which the insects drown.
Pitfall and Dish Traps
Another simple but very effective and useful type of interception trap consists of a jar, can, or
dish sunk in the earth (fig. 10). A cover must be placed over the open top of the jar to exclude
rain and small vertebrates while allowing insects and mites to enter. A piece of bark, wood, or
flat stone will serve this purpose. Pitfall traps may be baited with various substances, depending
on the kind of insects or mites the collector hopes to capture. Although most that fall into the trap
will remain there, it should be inspected daily, if possible, and desired specimens removed and
placed in alcohol or in a killing bottle while they are in their best condition.
Emergence and Rearing Traps
An emergence trap is any device that prevents adult insects from dispersing when they emerge
from their immature stages in any substrate, such as soil, plant tissue, or water. A simple canopy
over an area of soil, over a plant infested with larvae, or over a section of stream or other water
area containing immature stages of midges, mayflies, and other arthropods will secure the
emerging adults. If it is equipped with a retaining device, as in the Malaise trap, the adults can be
killed and preserved shortly after emergence.
Light Traps
With light traps, advantage is taken of the attraction of many insects to a light source. Using
various wavelengths as the attractant, a great variety of traps can be devised, a few of which are
described here. Many traps can be constructed easily from materials generally available around
the home. All wiring and electrical connections should be approved for outdoor use. Funnels can
be made of metal, plastic, or heavy paper. Traps can be used with or without a cover, but if they
are to be operated for several nights, covers should be installed to keep out rain.
Light Sheets
Another highly effective method of using light to attract moths and other nocturnal insects is
with a light sheet (fig. 15). This is simply a cloth sheet, usually a white bed sheet, hung outdoors
at night with an appropriate light source or combination of sources such as ultraviolet fluorescent
tubes, gasoline lanterns, or automobile headlights placed a few feet in front of it. As insects are
attracted and alight on the sheet, they are easily captured in cyanide bottles or jars by the
collector who stands in attendance or at least checks the sheet frequently.
Sticky Traps
In this type of trap, a board, piece of tape, pane of glass, piece of wire net, cylinder, or other
object, often painted yellow, is coated with a sticky substance and suspended from a tree branch
or other convenient object. Insects landing on the sticky surface are unable to extricate
themselves. The sticky material is later dissolved with a suitable solvent, usually toluene, xylem,
ethyl acetate, or various combinations of these, and the insects are washed first in Cellosolve and
then in xylem. This type of trap should not be used to collect certain specimens, such as

Lepidoptera, which are ruined by the sticky substance and cannot be removed without being
destroyed.
Snap Traps
Two kinds of traps designed for quantitative sampling may be termed “snap traps.” One of them
(see Menzies & Hagley 1977) consists of a pair of wooden or plastic discs, slotted to the centre
so as to fit on a tree branch and connected to each other by a pair of rods. A cloth cylinder is
affixed at one end to one of the discs and at the other end to a ring sliding on the rods. After the
cloth cylinder has been pulled to one end and has been secured in place, the ring is held by a pair
of latches. When insects have settled on the branch, its leaves, or flowers, the latches are released
by pulling on a string from a distance, and the trap is snapped shut by a pair of springs on the
rods, capturing any insects present.
Electrical Grid Traps
In recent years, electrocuting pest insects has been used extensively in control work. The insects
are attracted to a device by a pheromone or other lure placed in a chamber protected by a
strongly charged electrical grid. The method deserves study for other purposes, such as
surveying the arthropod fauna of an area.

Experiment- 03
03. To study about the different types of pesticide applicators. :
The sprayer is a piece of apparatus designed to apply either a mixture (pesticide product mixed
with a carrier liquid) in order to combat a pest, or a liquid nutrient formulation intended as a
fertiliser. In the most commonly used equipment, the liquid under pressure is divided into
droplets by its passage through a calibrated nozzle.
Sprayers
The most common type of pesticide application equipment is the sprayer: nearly 90% of all
pesticides are formulated for spraying. A hydraulic (liquid) sprayer uses water or other liquid
carrier for the pesticide. However, in the case of ultra-low-volume spraying, the pesticide is
either applied directly as formulated or with dramatically reduced carrier volumes. Hydraulic
sprayers range from large agricultural sprayers with multiple-nozzle booms and power sprayers
to small Most small growers use apparatus under pressure maintained by manual pumping,
carried on the back to treat their crops. The way in which this functions and is adjusted is very
simple
Dusters
Granular applicators are available for either band or broadcast application. They may be
operated as separate units. However, they are often attached to other equipment (such as planters
or cultivating equipment) to combine two or more operations. Granular applicators usually
operate by gravity feed and have an adjustable opening to regulate the flow. Band applicators use
hoses or tubes with deflectors on the bottom. B
Fumigators
Other Equipments
SPRAYERS (Hydraulic energy)
Manually operated Powered operated
1. Syringes, slide pump
2. Stirrup pumps
1. High pressure sprayer (hand carried type)
2. High pressure trolley/ Barrow mounted

3. Knap sack or shoulder-slung:
• Lever operated K.S. sprayer
• Piston pump type
• Diaphragm pump type
4. Compression sprayer
• Hand compression sprayer
• Conventional type
• Pressure retaining type
5. Stationary type
• Foot operated sprayer
• Rocker sprayer
3. Tractor mounted/ trailed sprayer
4. High pressure knap sack sprayer
5. Air craft, aerial spraying (Fixed wing,
helicopter)
SPRAYERS (Gaseous energy)
1. Hand held type 1. Knap sack, motorized type
2. Hand/ Stretcher carried type
3. Tractor mounted

DUSTING EQUIPMENTS
1. Plunger duster
2. Bellow duster
3. Rotary duster:
• Belly mounted model
• Shoulder-slung model
1. Knapsack motorized duster
2. High pressure trolley/ Barrow mounted
3. Tractor mounted/trailed duster
4. Aircraft

Experiment- 04
04. To study about the different types of pesticide formulations. :
Formulations are classified as solids or liquids on the basis of their physical state in the container
at the time of purchase. A formulation can contain more than one active ingredient and many
have to be further diluted with an appropriate carrier (e.g., water) prior to use.
A. Solid Formulations
Solid formulations can be divided into two types: ready-to-use; and concentrates, which must be
mixed with water to be applied as a spray. The properties of six solid formulations are described
in this publication. Three of the solid formulations (dusts, granules, and pellets) are ready-to-use,
and three (wettable powders, dry flowables, and soluble powders) are intended to be mixed with
water.
a. Dusts
b. Granules
c. Pellets
d. Wettable Powders
e. Dry Flowables
f. Soluble Powders
a. Dusts- Dusts are manufactured by the sorption of an active ingredient onto a finely-ground,
solid inert such as talc, clay, or chalk. They are relatively easy to use because no mixing is
required and the application equipment (e.g., hand bellows and bulb dusters) is lightweight and
simple. Dusts can provide excellent coverage, but the small particle size that allows for this
advantage also creates an inhalation and drift hazard. Dusts are generally applied as spot
treatments for insect and disease control outside. Commercial pest control operators use dusts
effectively in residential and institutional settings for control of various insect pests.
b. Granules- The manufacture of granular formulations is similar to that of dusts except that the
active ingredient is sorbet onto a larger particle. The inert solid may be clay, sand, or plant
materials. A granule is defined by size: Granule-sized products will pass through a 4-mesh
(number of wires per inch) sieve and be retained on an 80-mesh sieve. Granules are applied dry
and usually are intended for soil applications where they have the advantage of weight to carry

them through foliage to the ground below. The larger particle size of granules, relative to dusts,
minimizes the potential for drift. There is also a reduced inhalation hazard, but some fine
particles are associated with the formulation.
c. Pellets- Pellets are very similar to granules, but their manufacture is different. The active
ingredient is combined with inert materials to form slurry (a thick liquid mixture). This slurry is
then extruded under pressure through a die and cut at desired Dusts Pellets Granules 7lengths to
produce a particle that is relatively uniform in size and shape. Pellets are typically used in spot
applications. Pelleted formulations provide a high degree of safety to the applicator. They do
have the potential to roll on steep slopes and thereby harm non-target vegetation or contaminate
surface water.
d. Wettable Powders- Wettable powders are finely divided solids, typically mineral clays, to
which an active ingredient is sorbet. This formulation is diluted with water and applied as a
liquid spray. The mixture forms a suspension in the spray tank. Wettable powders will likely
contain wetting and dispersing agents as part of the formulation. These are chemicals used to
help wet the powder and disperse it throughout the tank. Wettable powders are a very common
type of formulation. They provide an ideal way to apply (in spray form) an active ingredient that
is not readily soluble in water. Wettable powders tend to pose a lower dermal hazard in
comparison to liquid formulations, and they do not burn vegetation as readily as oil-based
formulations.
e. Dry Flowables- Dry flowables or water dispersible granules, as they are sometimes called-are
manufactured in the same way as wettable powders except that the powder is aggregated into
granular particles. They are diluted with water and applied in a spray exactly as if they were a
wettable powder. Dry flowables form a suspension in the spray tank; they have basically the
same advantages and disadvantages as wettable powders, with several important exceptions.
f. Soluble Powders- Soluble powders, although not particularly common, are worth mentioning
in contrast with the wettable powders and dry flowables. Their lack of availability is due to the
fact that not many solid active ingredients are soluble in water; those that do exist (formulated as
soluble powders) are mixed with water in the spray tank, where they dissolve and form a true
solution prior to spraying. Soluble powders provide most of the same benefits as wettable
powders, without the need for agitation once dissolved in the tank.

B. Liquid Formulations-
Descriptions of four common liquid formulations that are mixed with a carrier follow. The
carrier generally will be water, but in some instances labels may permit the use of crop oil, or
some other light fuel oil as a carrier.
a. Liquid Flowables
b. Microencapsulates
c. Emulsifiable Concentrates
d. water-soluble concentrates
a. Liquid Flowables- The manufacture of liquid flowables (also called flowables or suspension
concentrates) mirrors that of wettable powders—with the exception that the powder, dispersing
agents, wetting agents, etc., are mixed with water before packaging.
b. Microencapsulates- Microencapsulates consist of a solid or liquid inert (containing an active
ingredient) surrounded by a plastic or starch coating. The resulting capsules can be sold as
dispersible granules (dry flowables), or as a liquid formulation. Encapsulation enhances
applicator safety while providing timed release of the active ingredient.
c. Emulsifiable Concentrates- Emulsifiable concentrates consist of an oil-soluble active
ingredient dissolved in an appropriate oil-based solvent to which an emulsifying agent is added.
Emulsifiable concentrates are mixed with water and applied as a spray. As their name implies,
they form an emulsion in the spray tank.
d. water-soluble concentrates- Solutions (water-soluble concentrates) consist of water-soluble
active ingredients dissolved in water, for sale to the applicator for further dilution prior to field
application. They will obviously form a true solution in the spray tank and require no agitation
after they are thoroughly dissolved.
C. Aerosols and Fumigants-
Aerosols and fumigants are frequently confused, yet they have very different properties and uses.
Aerosols really refer to a delivery system that moves the active ingredient to the target site in the
form of a mist of very small particles: solids or liquid drops.

Experiment- 05
05. To study about the precautions in handling and storage of
pesticides. :
When storing, transporting, mixing, loading, or applying pesticides, or cleaning pesticide spills,
it is good practice to treat all pesticides as though they are toxic. Read all pesticide labels before
use, and train all employees or pesticide handlers on personal protection procedures. Always
keep unauthorized people, especially children, away from pesticide mixing, handling, and
storage areas. Following are additional suggestions to use while storing and handling pesticides.
STORAGE:
Proper storage of pesticides can greatly reduce the risk of unauthorized personnel, especially
children, from contacting, spilling, or ingesting pesticide material.
▪ Keep the storage area locked. Pesticides can be very harmful when in the wrong hands.
▪ Post storage areas and buildings with signs reading "Danger - Pesticides." The signs will
also inform fire fighters that pesticides are present.
▪ Always keep children, animals, and unauthorized persons away from pesticides.
▪ Store pesticides in well ventilated, dry areas.
▪ Don't keep large amounts of pesticides on hand; only purchase the amount you need.
▪ Keep an inventory of pesticides and other chemicals, and their respective locations.
▪ Keep pesticides in their original containers. Never put them in unmarked or food
containers. ¾ Never store pesticides with food products, livestock feed, or fertilizer.
▪ Store personal protective equipment in a clean area away from pesticides.
▪ Periodically check pesticide containers for leaks or corrosion; some pesticides are caustic.
TRANSPORT:
Use caution when loading and transporting pesticides. Make sure handlers know how to properly
load and secure pesticide containers, and know how to react to pesticide accidents.

▪ Inspect the vehicle being used to transport the pesticides. Make sure it is functioning
properly.
▪ Transport the pesticides in the back of the truck bed or in locations away from
passengers.
▪ Secure pesticide containers to ensure that they will not roll around or fall out. Prevent the
containers from moving by tying down, blocking, and bracing them.
▪ During loading, check the containers for leaks, make sure caps are secure, read the labels,
and inventory the number and type of containers being transported.
▪ Never transport pesticides with food or feed.
▪ Never allow anyone to ride with the pesticides.
▪ Never carry pesticides in the passenger seating area.
▪ Be prepared for a spill during transportation.
▪ Carry a safety kit for use during clean up. The kit should contain an index card with
emergency numbers, duct tape, shovel, respirator, goggles, rubber gloves, protective
clothing, soap, and wooden dowels to plug leaks. Also carry kitty litter or sand as an
absorbent material.
▪ If a spill happens, control and contain it. Put on safety equipment, and dike off the area.
Contact the proper authorities for help.
MIXING:
Only authorized and trained personnel should be allowed to mix pesticides. Treat all pesticides
as if they are potentially dangerous.
▪ Mix pesticides carefully and accurately, using only the recommended amount specified
on the label.
▪ Read the label carefully, and follow the directions exactly.
▪ Utilize appropriate personal protective equipment including gloves, splash-proof goggles
or face shield, and protective clothing.
▪ Keep hands away from the face, head, and neck when mixing.
▪ Open liquids on a level surface and below eye-level to avoid spilling and splashing.

▪ Pour liquids below eye-level and as close to the ground as possible.
▪ Do not try to pour from a container that is too heavy.
▪ Open pesticide powders with scissors to avoid dusts.
▪ Use proper measuring tools when mixing pesticides.
▪ Mix pesticides outside or in a well lit and ventilated area.
LOADING AND MIXING INTO LARGE TANKS:
Most loading and mixing of pesticides into large tanks such as agricultural machinery sprayers
requires special caution due to the effect of wind drift and the potential for contamination into
clean water supplies.
▪ Recognize weather conditions when loading and mixing pesticides, especially the
direction the wind is blowing.
▪ Stand with your back to the wind so the pesticide will be blown away from you, not on
you.
▪ Keep your head well above the tank opening to prevent pesticides from splashing in your
face.
▪ Do not use your hands to stir pesticides or retrieve something that has fallen into the tank.
▪ Close all containers as you finish with them.
▪ Select the right equipment; use and maintain equipment properly.
▪ Install an approved anti-siphoning device to prevent back siphoning into the water
supply.
▪ Fill the spray tank with water and add the pesticide last, preventing the fill hose from
becoming contaminated.
▪ Add pesticides to the water-filled tank away from the water source. If possible, add
pesticides to tanks while the sprayer is in the field.
▪ Avoid run-over’s. Never leave filling operations unattended.
▪ Protect well heads; never store chemicals near wells.

APPLYING:
It is unlawful to apply pesticides in a manner inconsistent with label instructions. For agricultural
producers, strict re-entry restrictions have been established for fields that have been recently
sprayed with pesticides. Applicators should understand the risks and take proper measures to
avoid them.
▪ Set application equipment for the correct delivery rate, and operate equipment at the
recommended speed for proper coverage.
▪ Check the sprayer for any loose connections or worn hoses.
▪ Know and maintain the proper pressure and speed to avoid damage.
▪ Check weather conditions when applying pesticides. It is against the law to apply
pesticides on windy days when they might drift on to nearby fields.
▪ Turn the sprayer off when turning around at the end of rows.
▪ Turn the sprayer off when you are moving from field to field.
▪ Don't apply pesticides when heavy rain is likely. Rain may wash pesticide residue into
non-target areas.
▪ Should the equipment become clogged or not work properly when spraying, take the
necessary precautions when fixing it.
▪ Wear appropriate personal protective equipment including gloves, eye protection,
respirators, and special clothing.
▪ Use a brush or soft copper wire to clean out clogged nozzles. Never use your mouth.
CLEANING:
In the event of a pesticide spill, use proper cleaning practices to avoid contaminating workers,
animals, equipment, tools, and other objects. Make sure the appropriate cleaning materials are
available near storage and handling facilities.
▪ Pressure wash or triple rinse all empty containers and flush hoses.
▪ Put the rinse water into a tank for use on a labeled crop.
▪ Know the laws for disposing of pesticide containers. Never dump them where they could
pollute groundwater, wells, or streams, or could contact people and animals.
▪ Clean up all spills and leaks immediately. Some pesticides are caustic and could cause
damage to floors and other structures.

▪ Keep others away from the spill area, and make sure it does not move off-site.
▪ Keep clean-up supplies such as a containment drum, kitty litter, sand, sawdust, shovel,
broom, and dustpan in your storage facility and ready to use.
▪ Clean up spills with soil, sand, rags, or paper towels.
▪ Scoop up dry, contaminated material, place it into a leak-proof container, and properly
dispose of it.
▪ Rinse the area, but do not let the rinse water flow into ponds or streams.
▪ Clean all equipment and protective clothing when finished.
▪ Wash hands and face before eating, drinking, smoking, or chewing gum or tobacco.
▪ Make sure you wash your hands before using the toilet at work.
POISONING :
Despite all efforts to store and handle pesticides safely, accidents can and do happen. Knowing
how to react to pesticide poisoning is essential. Be prepared for pesticide accidents. Have a
written plan-of-action to respond quickly. The life you save may be your own.
▪ Know the signs and symptoms of pesticide poisoning for all materials you use.
▪ Make sure your employees and family members know how to recognize signs of
overexposure.
▪ Post the telephone number of the Poison Control Center, your physician, and the nearest
hospital in close proximity to pesticide handling and storage areas. When you call, have
the label handy.
▪ If you go to the physician or hospital for a poisoning emergency, take an original
container or label with you.
▪ Check the pesticide’s Materials Safety Data Sheet for more detail on first aid procedures.

Experiment- 06
06. To study about the Microscope and their importance in
Entomological laboratory. :
Parts of Microscope
Eyepiece Lens:
The lens at the top that you look through. They are usually 10X or 15X power.
Tube:
Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.
Arm:
Supports the tube and connects it to the base. It is used along with the base to carry the microsco
pe
Base:

The bottom of the microscope, used for support
Illuminator:
A steady light source (110 volts) used in place of a mirror.
Stage:
The flat platform where you place your slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place.Revolving Nos
epiece or
Turret:
This is the part that holds two or more objective lenses and can be rotated to easily power
change.
Objective Lenses:
Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. They almost always consist of 4X,
10X, 40X and 100X powers. When coupled with a 10X (most common) eyepiece lens, we get tot
al magnifications of 40X (4X times 10X), 100X , 400X and 1000X.
Rack Stop:
This is an adjustment that determines how close the objective lens can get to the slide. It is set at
the factory and keeps students from cranking the high power objective lens down into the slide a
nd breaking things.
Diaphragm or Iris:
Many microscopes have a rotating disk under the stage. This diaphragm has different sized
holes and is used to vary the intensity and size of the cone of light that is projected upward into
the slide. There is no set rule regarding which settings to use for a particular power.
Rather, the setting is a function of the transparency of the specimen.
Coarse adjustment:
This is used to focus the microscope.
Fine adjustment:
This is used to focus the microscope. It is used with the high power objective to bring the
specimen into better focus.

Uses of Microscope in Laboratory
▪ Studying Anatomical Structure of Insects
▪ Studying Fine appendages of Insects
▪ Tissue analysis
▪ Examining Forensic Evidence
▪ Determining the health of an Ecosystem
▪ Studying the Role of a protein within a Cell
▪ Studying atomic structure

Experiment- 07
07. To study about the detection & prediction of pests using deep learning
technology. :
Deep Learning technology can accurately detect presence of pests and disease in the farms. Upon
this Machine learning algorithm CART can even predict accurately the chance of any disease
and pest attacks in future. A normal human monitoring cannot accurately predict the amount and
intense of pests and disease attacked in farm for spraying correct and enough
fertilizers/pesticides to eliminate the host. Therefore, and artificial Perception tells the accurate
value and give corrective measure of amount of pesticides/fertilizers to be sprayed at specified
target areas.
LITERATURE SURVEY:
In India, there is a drastic change in Agri-Tech. Not most of the farmers are using latest tech
gadgets in their farms. We often see IoT related agriculture in several journals but none of them
are properly adopted in Indian farms. There is a huge gap between technology and farmers in
India. Many start-ups have emerged to bridge this gap between the technology and the farmers.
Now, even many MNCs are investing in Agri-Tech in India. Food demand is exponentially
increasing due to rise in population. People talking about tractors and heavy machinery in farms
era is now replaced by smart technology such as Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence and
Machine Learning. Smart sensors are replaced by heavy machinery in American farms. Farmers
are using technology such as temperature and moisture sensors, drones, smart irrigation, terrain
contour mapping, self-driving and GPS enabled tractors/rovers - to produce food more
sustainably. According to “The Economist”, farmers are being “teched up” when it comes to
growing crops/food more sustainable and profitable. It is often heard that pests and diseases
attack crops and therefore food gradually reduces due to these attacks. By 2050, earth’s
population is expected to grow 9.7 billion. Therefore, a clear graph of rise in food demand is
visible.
Automation technology is the most focussed technology by the Indian start-ups.
Automated Drones and Bots are deployed in farms for monitoring and serving the crop. Day by
day the technology used is also swapping from normal spraying to specified target spraying of
pesticides and fertilizers in the farms. Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Deep
Learning algorithms are adopted to monitor the crops precisely and detect the faulty areas in the
farms, hence spray corrective solution in that specific target area. Several Start-Ups in India have
put up their product in automates technology in agricultural sector. Mostly drones and digital

apps are designed to have better crop yield. Drones are deployed and use RADAR to spray the
entire field.
HARDWARE and SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS:
As of now, we are vigorously focussing on only software algorithms. We are using MATLAB
2017b tool for developing algorithms. In future, we will be using Tensor Flow and Python IDE
for transforming this algorithm into a complete product.
MATLAB:
Coming to the currently used software, MATLAB abbreviated as “Matrix Laboratory” is a multi-
paradigm numerical computing environment and proprietary programming language developed
by Math Works. MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data,
implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written
in other languages, including C, C++, C#, Java, Fortran and Python.
Neural Network Toolbox:
Neural Network Toolbox™ provides algorithms, pertained models, and apps to create, train,
visualize, and simulate both shallow and deep neural networks. You can perform classification,
regression, clustering, dimensionality reduction, time-series forecasting, and dynamic system
modelling and control.
Statistics and Machine Learning Toolbox:
Statistics and Machine Learning Toolbox™ provides functions and apps to describe, analyze,
and model data. You can use descriptive statistics and plots for exploratory data analysis, fit
probability distributions to data, generate random numbers for Monte Carlo simulations, and
perform hypothesis tests. Regression and classification algorithms let you draw inferences from
data and build predictive models.
Bio Informatics Toolbox:
Bioinformatics Toolbox™ provides algorithms and apps for Next Generation Sequencing (NGS),
microarray analysis, mass spectrometry, and gene ontology.
Image Processing Toolbox:
Image Processing Toolbox™ provides a comprehensive set of reference-standard algorithms and
workflow apps for image processing, analysis, visualization, and algorithm development. You
can perform image segmentation, image enhancement, noise reduction, geometric
transformations, image registration, and 3D image processing.

Environment Safety:
As we are purely using images for processing the plants without disturbing their environmental
decorum, there is no environment hazard issue with this proposed project. Therefore, it is
completely safe and in fact helps the plants to grow more effectively with absolute Zero cost.
Future Scope :
Further we are planning to transform the project from prototype to a complete end use product.
This can be done using Tensor Flow library function in Python IDE with high processors
(recommended using NVIDIA). The end product would be accurately predicting disease/pest
attacks along with identifying them. Larger set of data would be provided for training network.
The whole algorithm would be developed using Tensor Flow for better processing. Open CV is
used for Image analytics similar to Image Processing Toolbox in MATLAB.

Experiment- 08
08. To study about the remote sensing as pest forecasting model in
agriculture. :
Technologies based on plant protection research for major pests are of utmost important to attain
sustainability in agriculture (Pratap et al., 2000). The yield losses due to pest population can be
suppressed to be greater extent if their incidence/occurrence is known well in advance so that
timely adoption of remedial measures is possible.
Remote sensing is the science of deriving information about an object or phenomena
through analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object or phenomena
under investigation. Remote sensing is the examination or the gathering of information about a
place from a distance. Such examination can occur with devices (e.g. cameras) based on the
ground, and/or sensors or cameras based on ships, aircraft, satellites or other spacecraft
(Prabhakar et al., 2012).
Principle of remote sensing:
Every object reflects/scatters a portion of electromagnetic energy incident on it depending on its
physical properties. In addition, objects emit radiation depending on their temperature and
emissivity. The reflectance/emittance of any object at different wavelengths follow a pattern
which is characteristic of that object, known as spectral signature (Plate 1).
In general the healthy plants give a higher reflectance in the near infrared region and a lower one
in the visible region and opposite is the situation with the infected plants (Plate 2). The plant
stress usually results in an increase in visible reflectance due to decrease in chlorophyll and
resulting decrease in absorption of visible light.
Types of remote sensing platforms:
Three types of remote sensing platforms are basically involved to predict the plant biotic
stresses.

Types of spectral scanner scan:
Depending on the band width the number of bands and contiguous nature of recording spectral
scanner scan be of two types (Fig. 1).
Kinds of resolution:
The data the RS sensors capture is often characterized by four kinds of resolutions Spatial (the
smallest resolvable unit on the ground, also called the pixel)
Spectral (how sensitive is the sampled spectra) Temporal (how often the data can be captured)
and Radiometric (the ability to discriminate very slight differences in reflected or emitted energy
(Kelly and Guo, 2007)
Concept of spectral vegetation index:
A vegetation index (VI) can be defined as a dimensionless, radiation based measurement
computed from the spectral combination of remotely sensed data.
Applications of remote sensing in pest management:
Photography and video-graphy from aircraft and from the ground Satellite-borne multispectral
scanning (MSS) Thermal imaging Ground based and airborne radar methods (Riley, 1989).
Remote Sensing (RS) techniques in pest management:
The observation of insect themselves The detection of the effects that insects produce
(Symptoms) The monitoring of environmental factors likely to influence insect occurrence/
abundance, potential damage.
The pest damage can be predicted with:
Spectral indices based on leaf pigments Optical and video imaging in near infrared and
microwave regions Multi Spectral Remote Sensing (MRS) Areas identification with help of
portable GPS equipment
Studies on incidence of insects through RS:
The effect of Russian Wheat aphid and green bugs on leaf reflectance by wheat seedlings is due
lower chlorophyll concentrations and displayed wavelengths of 500-525, 625-635 and 685-695
nm (Riedell and Blackmer, 1999).

Studies on distribution of insects through RS:
Aerial photography was used to study distribution of host plants of tropical fruit flies in Hawaii,
El Salvador and Mexico (Hart et al., 1978). The map areas of milkweed (Asclepias spp.), a major
host of monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) (Malcom et al., 1993).
The migration of grasshoppers in the Niger flood plain in West Africa and in the SahelI.
In both cases evidence was found for flights over 100 km per night. With 10 cm radar, detected
concentrations of airborne aphids’ upto 1200 m above ground (Riley and Reynolds, 1979).
Remote sensing of insect movements through radars:
Radars transmit from their antennas a narrow, conical beam of short (typically 0.1 to 0.05 us)
pulses of electromagnetic waves (Plate 8). Any object illuminated by a pulse reflects or scatters
some of the pulse energy and a part of the scattered energy (the echo) is returned in the direction
of the radar.
Geographic Information System (GIS) :
GIS is a system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating and displaying the geographically
referred information. It consists of spatial information of coordinates; data base of attributes and
someway link to both.

Experiment- 09
09. To study about the Artificial rearing of Insects. :
Collectors should take every opportunity to rear insects and mites. Not only are reared specimens
generally in the best possible condition, but rearing provides life stages that otherwise might be
collected only rarely or with great difficulty. By preserving one or more specimens from each of
the stages as they are reared, if sufficient material is available, the collector can obtain series of
immature stages along with associated adults. Such series are extremely desirable, especially for
species in which the adult is known but the immature stages are unknown or difficult to identify.
The converse often is true also—some species of insects, such as stem-mining flies, are fairly
abundant in the larval stage but have never been reared to the adult stage; consequently, one does
not know whether they are stages of a species that has been described and named from an adult
but whose life history is unknown. Since adults of these flies are seldom found, the easiest way
to obtain the stage necessary for specific determination is to rear the larvae or pupa.
If only a few specimens are reared, the shed skins and papal cases or puparia should be
preserved, as they are of value if properly associated with the reared adult. Do not preserve a
pupa or puparium with an adult unless you are positive that the association is correct. It is best to
put pupae in separate containers so that adults or parasites that emerge are associated with
certainty. If at all feasible, the parasite’s host should be preserved for identification. Keep careful
notes throughout the rearing so that all data relative to the biology of the species are properly
correlated.
A. Containers for Rearing:
To rear specimens successfully, simulate as closely as possible in the rearing cages the natural
conditions under which the immature were found. Almost any container will serve as a
temporary cage for living insects or mites. One simple temporary cage that is very handy on field
trips is a paper bag. Plant material or a soil sample containing insects or mites is placed in the
paper bag, which is then sealed. A paper bag also can be placed over the top of a plant on which
insects or mites are found.

Rearing Conditions and Problems:
1. Moisture:
The moisture requirements of insects and mites are varied. Examination of the habitat from
which specimens were collected should provide clues about their moisture requirements in
captivity. Many insects in the papal stage are resistant to drought. Species that normally infest
stored23 Techniques and Tools foods also require very little moisture; in fact, many produce
their own water. Most species found outdoors require higher levels of humidity than are
generally found indoors. Additional moisture can be added to indoor rearing cages in several
ways.
2. Temperature:
Of all the environmental factors affecting the development and behaviour of insects and mites,
temperature may be the most critical. Since arthropods are cold blooded, their body temperatures
are usually close to the temperature of the surrounding environment, and their metabolism and
development are directly affected by increases and decreases in temperature.
3. Dormancy and Diapauses:
Insects and mites are unable to control the temperature of their environment; instead, they make
physiological adjustments that allow them to survive temperature extremes. In regions with
freezing winters, insects and mites have at least one stage that is resistant to low temperatures.
4. Light:
Most species of insects and mites can be reared under ordinary lighting conditions; however,
artificial manipulation of the light period will control diapauses in many species. If the light
requirements of the species being reared are known, it may be possible to adjust the period of
light so that the specimens will continue to develop and will remain active instead of entering
diapauses, for example, providing 8-10 hours of light as opposed to 16 hours.
5. Food:
The choice of food depends on the species being reared. Some species are general feeders and
will accept a wide assortment of food, including dead or decaying organic matter. Examples of
general feeders are most ants, crickets, and cockroaches. Other groups are specific feeders, with
food preferences so restricted that only a single species of plant or animal is acceptable.
6. Artificial Diets:

Some species can be maintained on an artificial diet. The development of suitable artificial diets
is complex, involving several factors besides the mere nutritional value of the dietary
ingredients. Because most species of insects and mites have very specific dietary requirements,
information regarding artificial diets is found mainly in reports of studies on specific insects or
mites.
B. Special Problems and Precautions in Rearing:
(i) Problems may arise in any rearing program. Cannibalism, for instance, is a serious problem in
rearing predaceous insects and necessitates rearing specimens in individual containers. Some
species resort to cannibalism only if their cages become badly overcrowded. Disease is also a
problem. It can be caused by introducing an unhealthy specimen into a colony, poor sanitary
conditions, lack of food, or overcrowding.
(ii) Cages should be cleaned frequently and all dead or unhealthy specimens removed. Use care
not to injure specimens when transferring them to fresh food or when cleaning the cages. Mites
and small insects can be transferred with a camel’s hair brush.
(iii) Attacks by parasites and predators also can be devastating to a rearing program. Carefully
examine the host material when it is brought indoors and before it is placed in the rearing
containers to lessen the possibility of predators and parasites being introduced accidentally. Also,
place rearing cages where they will be safe from ants, mice, the family cat, and other predators.

Experiment- 10
10. To study about the Specimen preservation. :
1. Liquid Agents for Killing and Preserving:
Insects and mites of all kinds may be killed and preserved in liquid agents, but it is first
necessary to determine the advisability of using a liquid killing agent rather than a dry gaseous
agent. Some kinds of insects are best kept dry; it may not be advisable to allow others to become
dry. Directions for the treatment of various insects are given in the last part of this publication
under the various orders.
Ethanol (grain or ethyl alcohol) mixed with water (70 to 80 percent alcohol) is usually the best
general killing and preserving agent. For some kinds of insects and mites, other preservatives or
higher or lower concentrations of alcohol may be better. Because pure ethanol is often difficult to
obtain, some collectors use isopropanol (isopropyl alcohol) with generally satisfactory results.
Isopropanol does not seem to harden specimens as much as ethanol and at least it is satisfactory
in an emergency. Although there is controversy over the relative merits of ethanol and
isopropanol, the choice of which to use is not as important as what concentration to use.
2. Temporary Storage of Specimens:
After specimens have been collected, time is often not immediately available to prepare them for
permanent storage. There are several ways to keep them in good condition until they can be
prepared properly. The method used depends largely on the length of time that the specimens
may have to be stored temporarily.
i. Refrigeration and Freezing:
Medium to large specimens may be left in tightly closed bottles for several days in a refrigerator
and still remain in good condition for pinning as will smaller specimens if left overnight. Some
moisture must be present in the containers so that the specimens do not become “freeze-dried,”
but if there is too much moisture, it will condense on the inside of the bottle as soon as it
becomes chilled. Absorbent paper placed between the jar and the insects will keep them dry.
When specimens are removed for further treatment, place them immediately on absorbent paper
to prevent moisture from condensing on them.

ii. Dry preservation
It is standard practice to place many kinds of insects in small boxes, paper tubes, triangles, or
envelopes for an indefinite period, allowing them to become dry. It is not advisable to store soft-
bodied insects by such methods because they become badly shrivelled and very subject to
breakage. Diptera should never be dried in this manner because the head, legs, and most of all
the antennae become detached very easily.
iii. Papering
Although pinning specimens when they are fresh is preferable, the storage method known as
papering has long been used successfully for larger specimens of Lepidoptera, Trichoptera,
Neuroptera, Odonata, and some other groups. It is a traditional way of storing unmounted
butterflies and is satisfactory for some moths, although moths too often will have their relatively
soft bodies flattened, legs or palpi broken, and the vestiture of the body partly rubbed off.
iv. Liquid Preservation
Preservation of insects in alcohol is a complex subject and like many things, it varies somewhat
from one group to another. For example, spiders preserve well in ethanol, but tend to become to
flaccid in isopropyl. The opposite is true for many myriapods. If one specializes in an insect
group suited to preservation in one or another kind or concentration of alcohol, consult
specialists in that group or experiment to find what yields the best results. In general, ethanol and
isopropanol mixed with water is the most widely used preservation fluids. Most commonly, a
mixture of 75% alcohol to 25% water is used. The water should be distilled to ensure a neutral
PH and the solution should be thoroughly mixed since alcohols and water do not mix easily by
themselves. Additives should be avoided.
3. Preservation for Molecular Studies
Systematises are increasing using molecular methods to study insect relationships, make
identifications, and determine species limits. Some of these techniques, such as study of cuticular
hydrocarbons, can be used on dried insects, even those stored in museum collections. However,
many others require that specimens be treated so that DNA or other molecules are preserved. In
general, specimens for molecular work should be collected in 95% or absolute (100%) ethanol
(ethyl alcohol).

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