This document discusses drag force values for sedan vehicle profiles. It analyzes drag forces on different sedan dimensions and front end areas through computational fluid dynamics simulations. The simulations analyzed 72 sedan models with varying geometry and dimensions. The results showed designs with more airfoil-like shapes had lower drag forces and coefficients, between 0.135-0.186 N. However, these designs may not optimize pedestrian safety. The best designs balanced low drag with acceptable head injury criteria values of less than 300 for adult and child pedestrians.
Design modification on Indian Road Vehicles to Reduce Aerodynamic DragIJAEMSJORNAL
Reducing vehicle fuel consumption has become one of the most important issues in recent years. Aerodynamic drag contributes to 50-60% of fuel consumption in trucks on highways. Vehicle aerodynamic performance is mainly determined by drag coefficient, which directly affects engine requirements and fuel consumption. It’s well known that drag changes in a crosswind compared with a condition without a crosswind, and that the change depends on the vehicle shape. Pressure drag, a major drag for trucks as they run at lower speeds is produced by the shape of the object. Therefore, addition of some components can suffice the need. The vehicle has been designed by using Catia and then analysed with CFD. The values are compared and the resultant drag reduction is calculated.
This document summarizes an aerodynamic analysis of a car model conducted using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software to reduce drag force. The original Swift Dzire car model and two modified models - a "fastback" design with a sloped rear and a model with a rear spoiler - were simulated at 144 km/hr. The original model had a drag coefficient of 0.375. The fastback design had a lower drag coefficient of 0.335 due to delayed flow separation at the rear. The spoiler model had an even lower drag coefficient of 0.35, as the inverted wing spoiler produced downward force to increase traction at high speeds. CFD analysis provided insight into pressure and velocity contours to understand
This document summarizes a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of flow around an Ahmed body, which is a simplified vehicle model used to study automotive aerodynamics. The simulation varied the rear slant angle of the Ahmed body from 0 to 40 degrees and analyzed the effects on drag and lift coefficients to determine the optimal angle for minimum drag. Pressure-based solver and k-Epsilon turbulence model were used in the simulation conducted in ANSYS Fluent. The study aimed to better understand drag and lift mechanisms and flow patterns like wake regions behind the vehicle body.
Design and Fabrication of a Recreational Human-Powered Vehicleinventionjournals
This document summarizes the design and fabrication of a human-powered recreational vehicle. The vehicle was designed with a recumbent seat, 1.5m wheelbase, and 1m track width. CAD software was used to design the frame, drivetrain, and fairing. Finite element analysis showed a safety factor above 1.5. Standard parts like the seat, pedals, wheels and tires were used, with custom parts like the frame and hub fabricated from mild steel. Testing showed the vehicle functioned well and safely for human power. The goal of designing and fabricating a functional prototype using available off-the-shelf parts was achieved.
Drag Reduction of Front Wing of an F1 Car using Adjoint Optimisationyasirmaliq
The Project Poster summarizes the aims and objectives of the Final Year Dissertation. The project starts with a detailed study on the parameters that tend to affect the performance of front wings of an F1 car and goes through designing the front wings(3) with endplates and wheel, meshing it, solving/analysing the flow and finally optimising the selected geometry using Fluent Adjoint Solver for efficient performance.
Adjoint optimisation technique is used to achieve optimal performance from the front wings. It's the most successful shape optimisation method as it's independent of the number of design variables exponentially reducing computational time and cost. The emphasis has been put on optimising the shape of the front wings using the Adjoint method as it’s the most efficient and computationally inexpensive method for design optimisation. The approach towards shape optimisation is downforce constrained drag minimization as it would result in keeping a constraint on downforce and reducing the drag at the same time, thus producing optima for a given downforce/drag value.
Design of Rear wing for high performance cars and Simulation using Computatio...IJTET Journal
The performance of a sports car is not only limited to its engine power but also to aerodynamic properties of the car. By decreasing the drag force it is possible to reduce the engine power required to achieve same top speed thus decreasing the fuel requirement. The stability of a sports car is considerably important at high speed. The provision of a rear wing increases the downforce thus reducing the rear axle lift and provides increased traction. In this study an optimum rear wing is designed for the high performance car so as to decrease drag and increase downforce. The CAD designed baseline model with or without rear wing is being analyzed in computational fluid dynamics software. The lift and drag coefficient are calculated for all the design thus an optimum rear wing is designed for the considered baseline model.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Design of a Formula One Front Wing for the 2014 Season (with regulations)Josh Stevens
This document presents the design of a Formula One front wing for the 2014 season in accordance with FIA regulations. It begins with background on Formula One aerodynamics and the importance of downforce. It then outlines the project aims, methodology, and relevant FIA regulations. The initial design is modeled in CAD software and tested using CFD simulations. Several redesigns are analyzed and elements are tested. The final design is intended to produce downforce while reducing drag. In conclusion, future development could include further optimization and testing beyond the limitations of student software.
Design modification on Indian Road Vehicles to Reduce Aerodynamic DragIJAEMSJORNAL
Reducing vehicle fuel consumption has become one of the most important issues in recent years. Aerodynamic drag contributes to 50-60% of fuel consumption in trucks on highways. Vehicle aerodynamic performance is mainly determined by drag coefficient, which directly affects engine requirements and fuel consumption. It’s well known that drag changes in a crosswind compared with a condition without a crosswind, and that the change depends on the vehicle shape. Pressure drag, a major drag for trucks as they run at lower speeds is produced by the shape of the object. Therefore, addition of some components can suffice the need. The vehicle has been designed by using Catia and then analysed with CFD. The values are compared and the resultant drag reduction is calculated.
This document summarizes an aerodynamic analysis of a car model conducted using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software to reduce drag force. The original Swift Dzire car model and two modified models - a "fastback" design with a sloped rear and a model with a rear spoiler - were simulated at 144 km/hr. The original model had a drag coefficient of 0.375. The fastback design had a lower drag coefficient of 0.335 due to delayed flow separation at the rear. The spoiler model had an even lower drag coefficient of 0.35, as the inverted wing spoiler produced downward force to increase traction at high speeds. CFD analysis provided insight into pressure and velocity contours to understand
This document summarizes a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of flow around an Ahmed body, which is a simplified vehicle model used to study automotive aerodynamics. The simulation varied the rear slant angle of the Ahmed body from 0 to 40 degrees and analyzed the effects on drag and lift coefficients to determine the optimal angle for minimum drag. Pressure-based solver and k-Epsilon turbulence model were used in the simulation conducted in ANSYS Fluent. The study aimed to better understand drag and lift mechanisms and flow patterns like wake regions behind the vehicle body.
Design and Fabrication of a Recreational Human-Powered Vehicleinventionjournals
This document summarizes the design and fabrication of a human-powered recreational vehicle. The vehicle was designed with a recumbent seat, 1.5m wheelbase, and 1m track width. CAD software was used to design the frame, drivetrain, and fairing. Finite element analysis showed a safety factor above 1.5. Standard parts like the seat, pedals, wheels and tires were used, with custom parts like the frame and hub fabricated from mild steel. Testing showed the vehicle functioned well and safely for human power. The goal of designing and fabricating a functional prototype using available off-the-shelf parts was achieved.
Drag Reduction of Front Wing of an F1 Car using Adjoint Optimisationyasirmaliq
The Project Poster summarizes the aims and objectives of the Final Year Dissertation. The project starts with a detailed study on the parameters that tend to affect the performance of front wings of an F1 car and goes through designing the front wings(3) with endplates and wheel, meshing it, solving/analysing the flow and finally optimising the selected geometry using Fluent Adjoint Solver for efficient performance.
Adjoint optimisation technique is used to achieve optimal performance from the front wings. It's the most successful shape optimisation method as it's independent of the number of design variables exponentially reducing computational time and cost. The emphasis has been put on optimising the shape of the front wings using the Adjoint method as it’s the most efficient and computationally inexpensive method for design optimisation. The approach towards shape optimisation is downforce constrained drag minimization as it would result in keeping a constraint on downforce and reducing the drag at the same time, thus producing optima for a given downforce/drag value.
Design of Rear wing for high performance cars and Simulation using Computatio...IJTET Journal
The performance of a sports car is not only limited to its engine power but also to aerodynamic properties of the car. By decreasing the drag force it is possible to reduce the engine power required to achieve same top speed thus decreasing the fuel requirement. The stability of a sports car is considerably important at high speed. The provision of a rear wing increases the downforce thus reducing the rear axle lift and provides increased traction. In this study an optimum rear wing is designed for the high performance car so as to decrease drag and increase downforce. The CAD designed baseline model with or without rear wing is being analyzed in computational fluid dynamics software. The lift and drag coefficient are calculated for all the design thus an optimum rear wing is designed for the considered baseline model.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Design of a Formula One Front Wing for the 2014 Season (with regulations)Josh Stevens
This document presents the design of a Formula One front wing for the 2014 season in accordance with FIA regulations. It begins with background on Formula One aerodynamics and the importance of downforce. It then outlines the project aims, methodology, and relevant FIA regulations. The initial design is modeled in CAD software and tested using CFD simulations. Several redesigns are analyzed and elements are tested. The final design is intended to produce downforce while reducing drag. In conclusion, future development could include further optimization and testing beyond the limitations of student software.
La literatura española del Siglo de Oro o Barroco, especialmente el Siglo XVII, se caracterizó por una complejidad en los recursos formales y una preocupación por temas trascendentes. Géneros como la poesía lírica alcanzaron la cima con autores como Góngora, quien cultivó poemas metafísicos y morales profundos, y Quevedo, conocido por sus escritos satíricos y de asuntos populares que atraían la atención del público amplio.
Since 1983, Marble Slab Creamery® has been serving chef created, super-premium, hand-mixed ice cream. Every batch of Marble Slab Creamery ice cream is fresh made in small batches in the store using ingredients from around the world and dairy from local farms. Today, Marble Slab Creamery is enjoyed by consumers across the globe with locations in the Bahrain, Canada, Guam, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mexico, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, and the United States.
As the innovator and the first to develop the now famous "frozen slab" technique for ice cream preparation, Marble Slab Creamery has set the bar for the ice cream industry.
In 2011, Marble Slab Creamery and MaggieMoo’s Ice Cream and Treatery merged into one combined ice cream concept … taking the best of both worlds to create a playful, crave-able taste experience. Marble Slab Creamery brings a rich history of super-premium ice cream using fresh dairy from around the corner and the finest ingredients from around the world. Mix in MaggieMoo’s celebrated history of innovation – award-winning flavors, first to introduce ice cream cupcakes and ice cream pizza, first to utilize online ordering – and you have a combination that can’t be beat!
El documento presenta un mapa conceptual sobre comparativos y superlativos en inglés creado por el estudiante Robert Davila para su carrera de Ingeniería Agronómica en el Instituto Universitario Politécnico "Santiago Mariño" en Mérida, Venezuela.
SearchLeeds, Dixon Jones 'How to score the web (without being Google). The ps...Branded3
Dixon Jones became the Marketing Director of the world’s largest link analysis engine, Majestic, in 2009, transforming the SE industry by providing link intelligence on a scale not previously open to the industry.
El documento presenta un resumen de un curso de doctorado en educación sobre innovación y tecnología educativa en la Universidad Nacional Experimental "Rafael María Baralt" en Santa Ana de Coro, Venezuela en junio de 2014. El curso fue facilitado por la Dra. Celimar Rodríguez e incluyó a los innovadores Adames Bueno Siria, Méndez Jonny y Sánchez Yelitza. Finalmente, cita a Nelson Mandela sobre el poder de la educación para cambiar el mundo.
The document discusses different burial traditions from various cultures around the world. It focuses on two burial traditions - the pit burial tradition of the Haida people in the Pacific Northwest, and the spirit offering tradition in Southeast Asia. For the Haida people, important individuals like chiefs and shamans would be placed in wooden boxes on totem poles. Others would be thrown into open burial pits. In Southeast Asia, it is common for burial monuments and stones to be placed in the fields where people previously worked, and the Vietnamese leave money as offerings so the deceased can buy things in the afterlife.
El poema expresa gratitud hacia el padre por su paciencia y espera para conocer al hijo. Describe cómo el padre nunca perdió la fe a pesar de los años de espera, y cómo su alegría fue inmensa cuando finalmente llegó el hijo. Resalta que el padre cambió su vida para dedicarse al cuidado del hijo y ser su guía y modelo a seguir.
Gini and Jony is a leading kidswear brand in India that was established in 1980. [1] The brand is known for its high quality, latest fashion trends, and comfortable fits. [2] Over the decades, Gini and Jony has established itself as the dominant player in the kidswear market through strong branding strategies such as expanding into new product categories like footwear and eyewear. [3] However, to maintain its leadership position, the brand will need to increase awareness of its extensions and improve certain aspects of its stores, merchandise, and services.
Computational Aerodynamics Research and Vehicle Engineering Development (CAR-...inventionjournals
Many Persons, both from industry and also private individuals have performed research in regards to this new issue. Many have performed research on aerodynamics on certain portions of the vehicle and also on effects of shape of the body and other technologies used such as Computational Fluid Dynamics and Wind tunnel Testing.The effects of these studies is seen in the industry today. Not so long ago,the vehicles were having shapes lose to boxes and today beautiful curves dominate the vehicles bodies. These curves not only help in the beauty of the vehicle but also help the vehicle in terms of aerodynamics and fuel efficiency. In this paper we would like to highlight some important topics related with aerodynamics and how they affect the drag of the vehicles. We shall also discuss on methods used in the industry today to calculate the aerodynamic efficiency of the vehicles and their effects.
IRJET- Aerodynamics of High Performance VehiclesIRJET Journal
This document discusses the aerodynamics of high performance vehicles like racing cars. It explains that racing cars are designed to reduce drag and enhance downforce through careful aerodynamic design. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used to analyze fluid flows and optimize aerodynamic design. Key forces on vehicles in aerodynamics are discussed, including lift, thrust, drag, downforce, and weight. Downforce is important for racing cars as it increases grip and stability, allowing higher cornering speeds. The document provides details on drag coefficient, downforce generation, and the importance of balancing aerodynamic forces across the vehicle.
Vehicle aerodynamics and refinements ppt.pptxkathitnaik96
This document discusses vehicle aerodynamics and refinements. It covers topics such as aerodynamic forces like drag, drag reduction techniques, stability in crosswinds, noise reduction, underhood ventilation, and cabin ventilation. It provides details on each topic with sections on things like the sources of drag, techniques to reduce drag, the impact of crosswinds on stability, the main sources of aerodynamic noise, optimizing underhood airflow, and designing effective cabin ventilation systems.
This document provides an overview of a project report on the aerodynamics analysis of automobiles. The report was submitted by G. Srikar in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree. The report includes declarations, certificates of approval, acknowledgments, and outlines the objectives, scope, and methodology of analyzing the effects of adding aerodynamic components like diffusers, vortex generators, spoilers, tire covers, and air ducts on a vehicle model using computational fluid dynamics software. The goals are to estimate the percent reductions in drag coefficient and lift coefficient, and to improve vehicle fuel efficiency, acceleration, and handling.
IRJET- Aerodynamic Analysis on a Car to Reduce Drag Force using Vertex GeneratorIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to analyze aerodynamic drag on a car model and evaluate methods for reducing drag through the addition of vortex generators. Seven different vertex generator designs were modeled and their effects on drag reduction were evaluated using CFD software. The goal was to improve fuel efficiency and vehicle performance by reducing aerodynamic drag through optimized vortex generator placement on the rear of the vehicle.
Modification of airflow around a FSAE Race car using sidepods to increase the...EditorIJAERD
Aerodynamics pertaining to vehicles focuses on improving the drive-ability of the vehicle while also reducing
losses due to air drag. This paper focuses on maximizing the cornering performance of the formula student race car with
slight modifications to the airflow around the vehicle and meagre addition of weight. The undertray produces downloads
by altering the velocity of air flowing underneath it. The sidepods act to reduce flow velocity above the undertray, thus
increasing the pressure above it. This leads to an increased pressure difference over the surface of the undertray which
translates to increase in downforce. The car is able to have a 10% decrease in lap times on a 500m racetrack.
IRJET- Design and Simulation of Aerodynamic Wings of Formula One Racing CarIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and simulation of aerodynamic wings for a Formula One racing car. It begins with introductions to aerodynamics concepts and how they apply specifically to automotive design. The document then details the design of airfoils used for the wings in Solidworks software. Simulations are run on the front and rear wing designs to analyze forces, pressures, temperatures, velocities and other parameters to evaluate wing performance in producing downforce and drag. The simulations indicate the front wing design produces over 1600N of downforce and around 600N of drag, while meeting other analysis criteria.
IRJET- Experimentally and CFD Analysis on Spoiler in Wind Tunnel ExperimentIRJET Journal
1. Researchers experimentally tested a fabricated spoiler in a wind tunnel at different wind velocities and analyzed the results using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software.
2. Both the wind tunnel experiments and CFD analysis yielded similar results for lift and drag coefficients, with a small percentage error between the two methods.
3. While CFD simulations are cheaper and easier than physical experiments, wind tunnel tests are still needed to validate CFD results, especially for turbulent flows.
This document summarizes a study that uses computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations to investigate ways to reduce aerodynamic drag and increase stability of the Land Rover Discovery vehicle. The study validates CFD simulations of the baseline vehicle model against experimental data. It then analyzes modifications like adding a longitudinal ventilation duct or ditch on the roof to reduce drag. Simulations were run at various velocities and mesh refinements to optimize the analysis. Results show modifications can lower drag compared to the baseline model.
Cfd analysis of car body aerodynamics including effect of passive flow device...eSAT Journals
Abstract With the emphasis lying on increasing fuel efficiency of vehicles in order to combat rising fuel prices and environmental
challenges the manufacturers are thinking beyond the conventional vehicle systems by focusing on its aerodynamics. Aerodynamic
drag exceeds 50 per cent of the total resistance to motion at speeds above 70km/hr, and above 100 km/hr it is the most important
factor. The review is done to identify the various shortcomings of the automotive designers when it is in regards to flow
separation of air at the rear of the vehicle which causes most of the losses. This paper focuses on the work already done in the
field of aerodynamics starting with Ahmed Body. It is a bluff body with adjustable rear slant angle and the basis upon which the
aerodynamicists test their models. And then, moving onto passive aerodynamic enhancements for automobiles like vortex
generators and diffusers whose various dimensional modulations were discussed with several steps leading to its advancement in
vehicle body design. This brings to the simulation, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and its role in this analysis was
covered. CFD has been modified a lot from the beginning to increase the accuracy of its predictions. So the paper lists various
simulation techniques studied by the previous researchers in order to understand the wake region behind the car which has been
notoriously difficult to predict till date. Several aspects of aerodynamic drag that need further analysis to improve the
aerodynamic were highlighted.
Keywords: Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, Ahmed Body, CFD Simulation, Vehicle Aerodynamics, Passive Flow
Devices
La literatura española del Siglo de Oro o Barroco, especialmente el Siglo XVII, se caracterizó por una complejidad en los recursos formales y una preocupación por temas trascendentes. Géneros como la poesía lírica alcanzaron la cima con autores como Góngora, quien cultivó poemas metafísicos y morales profundos, y Quevedo, conocido por sus escritos satíricos y de asuntos populares que atraían la atención del público amplio.
Since 1983, Marble Slab Creamery® has been serving chef created, super-premium, hand-mixed ice cream. Every batch of Marble Slab Creamery ice cream is fresh made in small batches in the store using ingredients from around the world and dairy from local farms. Today, Marble Slab Creamery is enjoyed by consumers across the globe with locations in the Bahrain, Canada, Guam, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mexico, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, and the United States.
As the innovator and the first to develop the now famous "frozen slab" technique for ice cream preparation, Marble Slab Creamery has set the bar for the ice cream industry.
In 2011, Marble Slab Creamery and MaggieMoo’s Ice Cream and Treatery merged into one combined ice cream concept … taking the best of both worlds to create a playful, crave-able taste experience. Marble Slab Creamery brings a rich history of super-premium ice cream using fresh dairy from around the corner and the finest ingredients from around the world. Mix in MaggieMoo’s celebrated history of innovation – award-winning flavors, first to introduce ice cream cupcakes and ice cream pizza, first to utilize online ordering – and you have a combination that can’t be beat!
El documento presenta un mapa conceptual sobre comparativos y superlativos en inglés creado por el estudiante Robert Davila para su carrera de Ingeniería Agronómica en el Instituto Universitario Politécnico "Santiago Mariño" en Mérida, Venezuela.
SearchLeeds, Dixon Jones 'How to score the web (without being Google). The ps...Branded3
Dixon Jones became the Marketing Director of the world’s largest link analysis engine, Majestic, in 2009, transforming the SE industry by providing link intelligence on a scale not previously open to the industry.
El documento presenta un resumen de un curso de doctorado en educación sobre innovación y tecnología educativa en la Universidad Nacional Experimental "Rafael María Baralt" en Santa Ana de Coro, Venezuela en junio de 2014. El curso fue facilitado por la Dra. Celimar Rodríguez e incluyó a los innovadores Adames Bueno Siria, Méndez Jonny y Sánchez Yelitza. Finalmente, cita a Nelson Mandela sobre el poder de la educación para cambiar el mundo.
The document discusses different burial traditions from various cultures around the world. It focuses on two burial traditions - the pit burial tradition of the Haida people in the Pacific Northwest, and the spirit offering tradition in Southeast Asia. For the Haida people, important individuals like chiefs and shamans would be placed in wooden boxes on totem poles. Others would be thrown into open burial pits. In Southeast Asia, it is common for burial monuments and stones to be placed in the fields where people previously worked, and the Vietnamese leave money as offerings so the deceased can buy things in the afterlife.
El poema expresa gratitud hacia el padre por su paciencia y espera para conocer al hijo. Describe cómo el padre nunca perdió la fe a pesar de los años de espera, y cómo su alegría fue inmensa cuando finalmente llegó el hijo. Resalta que el padre cambió su vida para dedicarse al cuidado del hijo y ser su guía y modelo a seguir.
Gini and Jony is a leading kidswear brand in India that was established in 1980. [1] The brand is known for its high quality, latest fashion trends, and comfortable fits. [2] Over the decades, Gini and Jony has established itself as the dominant player in the kidswear market through strong branding strategies such as expanding into new product categories like footwear and eyewear. [3] However, to maintain its leadership position, the brand will need to increase awareness of its extensions and improve certain aspects of its stores, merchandise, and services.
Computational Aerodynamics Research and Vehicle Engineering Development (CAR-...inventionjournals
Many Persons, both from industry and also private individuals have performed research in regards to this new issue. Many have performed research on aerodynamics on certain portions of the vehicle and also on effects of shape of the body and other technologies used such as Computational Fluid Dynamics and Wind tunnel Testing.The effects of these studies is seen in the industry today. Not so long ago,the vehicles were having shapes lose to boxes and today beautiful curves dominate the vehicles bodies. These curves not only help in the beauty of the vehicle but also help the vehicle in terms of aerodynamics and fuel efficiency. In this paper we would like to highlight some important topics related with aerodynamics and how they affect the drag of the vehicles. We shall also discuss on methods used in the industry today to calculate the aerodynamic efficiency of the vehicles and their effects.
IRJET- Aerodynamics of High Performance VehiclesIRJET Journal
This document discusses the aerodynamics of high performance vehicles like racing cars. It explains that racing cars are designed to reduce drag and enhance downforce through careful aerodynamic design. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used to analyze fluid flows and optimize aerodynamic design. Key forces on vehicles in aerodynamics are discussed, including lift, thrust, drag, downforce, and weight. Downforce is important for racing cars as it increases grip and stability, allowing higher cornering speeds. The document provides details on drag coefficient, downforce generation, and the importance of balancing aerodynamic forces across the vehicle.
Vehicle aerodynamics and refinements ppt.pptxkathitnaik96
This document discusses vehicle aerodynamics and refinements. It covers topics such as aerodynamic forces like drag, drag reduction techniques, stability in crosswinds, noise reduction, underhood ventilation, and cabin ventilation. It provides details on each topic with sections on things like the sources of drag, techniques to reduce drag, the impact of crosswinds on stability, the main sources of aerodynamic noise, optimizing underhood airflow, and designing effective cabin ventilation systems.
This document provides an overview of a project report on the aerodynamics analysis of automobiles. The report was submitted by G. Srikar in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree. The report includes declarations, certificates of approval, acknowledgments, and outlines the objectives, scope, and methodology of analyzing the effects of adding aerodynamic components like diffusers, vortex generators, spoilers, tire covers, and air ducts on a vehicle model using computational fluid dynamics software. The goals are to estimate the percent reductions in drag coefficient and lift coefficient, and to improve vehicle fuel efficiency, acceleration, and handling.
IRJET- Aerodynamic Analysis on a Car to Reduce Drag Force using Vertex GeneratorIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to analyze aerodynamic drag on a car model and evaluate methods for reducing drag through the addition of vortex generators. Seven different vertex generator designs were modeled and their effects on drag reduction were evaluated using CFD software. The goal was to improve fuel efficiency and vehicle performance by reducing aerodynamic drag through optimized vortex generator placement on the rear of the vehicle.
Modification of airflow around a FSAE Race car using sidepods to increase the...EditorIJAERD
Aerodynamics pertaining to vehicles focuses on improving the drive-ability of the vehicle while also reducing
losses due to air drag. This paper focuses on maximizing the cornering performance of the formula student race car with
slight modifications to the airflow around the vehicle and meagre addition of weight. The undertray produces downloads
by altering the velocity of air flowing underneath it. The sidepods act to reduce flow velocity above the undertray, thus
increasing the pressure above it. This leads to an increased pressure difference over the surface of the undertray which
translates to increase in downforce. The car is able to have a 10% decrease in lap times on a 500m racetrack.
IRJET- Design and Simulation of Aerodynamic Wings of Formula One Racing CarIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and simulation of aerodynamic wings for a Formula One racing car. It begins with introductions to aerodynamics concepts and how they apply specifically to automotive design. The document then details the design of airfoils used for the wings in Solidworks software. Simulations are run on the front and rear wing designs to analyze forces, pressures, temperatures, velocities and other parameters to evaluate wing performance in producing downforce and drag. The simulations indicate the front wing design produces over 1600N of downforce and around 600N of drag, while meeting other analysis criteria.
IRJET- Experimentally and CFD Analysis on Spoiler in Wind Tunnel ExperimentIRJET Journal
1. Researchers experimentally tested a fabricated spoiler in a wind tunnel at different wind velocities and analyzed the results using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software.
2. Both the wind tunnel experiments and CFD analysis yielded similar results for lift and drag coefficients, with a small percentage error between the two methods.
3. While CFD simulations are cheaper and easier than physical experiments, wind tunnel tests are still needed to validate CFD results, especially for turbulent flows.
This document summarizes a study that uses computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations to investigate ways to reduce aerodynamic drag and increase stability of the Land Rover Discovery vehicle. The study validates CFD simulations of the baseline vehicle model against experimental data. It then analyzes modifications like adding a longitudinal ventilation duct or ditch on the roof to reduce drag. Simulations were run at various velocities and mesh refinements to optimize the analysis. Results show modifications can lower drag compared to the baseline model.
Cfd analysis of car body aerodynamics including effect of passive flow device...eSAT Journals
Abstract With the emphasis lying on increasing fuel efficiency of vehicles in order to combat rising fuel prices and environmental
challenges the manufacturers are thinking beyond the conventional vehicle systems by focusing on its aerodynamics. Aerodynamic
drag exceeds 50 per cent of the total resistance to motion at speeds above 70km/hr, and above 100 km/hr it is the most important
factor. The review is done to identify the various shortcomings of the automotive designers when it is in regards to flow
separation of air at the rear of the vehicle which causes most of the losses. This paper focuses on the work already done in the
field of aerodynamics starting with Ahmed Body. It is a bluff body with adjustable rear slant angle and the basis upon which the
aerodynamicists test their models. And then, moving onto passive aerodynamic enhancements for automobiles like vortex
generators and diffusers whose various dimensional modulations were discussed with several steps leading to its advancement in
vehicle body design. This brings to the simulation, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and its role in this analysis was
covered. CFD has been modified a lot from the beginning to increase the accuracy of its predictions. So the paper lists various
simulation techniques studied by the previous researchers in order to understand the wake region behind the car which has been
notoriously difficult to predict till date. Several aspects of aerodynamic drag that need further analysis to improve the
aerodynamic were highlighted.
Keywords: Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, Ahmed Body, CFD Simulation, Vehicle Aerodynamics, Passive Flow
Devices
Review on Design and Analysis of Front BumperYogeshIJTSRD
Proper design of front bumper is essential in safeguarding engine bay during low impact collisions. The energy absorption characteristics of bumpers should be good enough to absorb impact energy without causing any damage to internal parts. The current research studies the various analysis conducted on front bumper using numerical and experimental techniques to determine the effect of various composite materials, high strength sheet moulding compounds and reinforced rib on improving energy absorption characteristics of bumper. J Chakravarthi | Dr. Alok Sharma "Review on Design & Analysis of Front Bumper" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd39989.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/39989/review-on-design-and-analysis-of-front-bumper/j-chakravarthi
IRJET- Fluid Dynamics Simulation of a Car Spoiler for Drag Reduction and to I...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software to simulate different car spoiler designs. The goal was to reduce aerodynamic drag and increase downforce. Various NACA airfoil profiles were tested at different angles of attack to select the most efficient design. Spoiler heights were also varied to determine the optimal dimension. The CFD simulations were then used to analyze pressure and velocity distributions for the different spoiler configurations. The most effective design minimized low pressure areas on the top surface while maximizing under-spoiler vacuum to increase downforce without excessive drag.
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In the field of commercial goods transport, trucks have an important place. One of the main problems faced by truck manufacturers is the Air resistance associated with the highway running. Since trucks have a large frontal area and the presence of a trailer also leads to the truck experiencing significant resistance which has to be overcome. This can be reduced through the use of wind deflectors. A well-designed wind deflector can reduce wind resistance to a certain extent. Optimizing the angle of the wind deflector also causes reduced drag force acting on the vehicle, thereby reducing the fuel intake. Here the initial drag of 2050 N is reduced to 1688.453 N using a 1.75 m wind deflector at 45 degree angle resulting in the reduction of drag by 17.6%.
The document discusses aerodynamics in cars. It defines key aerodynamic terms like drag, lift, and downforce. It explains how aerodynamic principles like frontal area and drag coefficient affect a car's performance. The document also discusses how car designers use computational fluid dynamics software and aerodynamic devices to reduce drag and optimize airflow over different parts of the vehicle. The goal is to achieve maximum fuel efficiency through improved aerodynamics.
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Road transport is the key factor as it is the major method to connect places through land. Along with wide use of internal combustion engines for this purpose comes the massive consumption of fossil fuels by vehicles. Most of the research today is toward making efficient machines. This paper mainly deals with providing attachments to existing models of vehicle to make it more efficient. An assessment of the impact of aerodynamic drag and its relationship to energy consumption presented. A few models are designed and analysed for reducing drag with the help of Attachments. Solid works is used to model and ANSYS Fluent is used for CFD analysis. The results of Cd of various configuration is analysed, 0.427 being the Cd for conventional Van is reduced to 0.234 for van with front and rear attachment
Performance Study of Wind Friction Reduction Attachments for Van Using Comput...IJERA Editor
This document summarizes a study that used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to analyze the impact of different wind friction reduction attachments on the aerodynamic drag of a van. Six attachment models were designed and their coefficients of drag were calculated and compared to a baseline van without attachments. Model E, with front and truncated rear attachments, performed best with a coefficient of drag of 0.230, a 46% reduction from the baseline van. Analytical calculations estimated the potential fuel economy improvements from the reduced drag, with Model E achieving a mileage increase of up to 38% compared to the baseline van. The results suggest attaching aerodynamic devices can significantly improve the efficiency of commercial vehicles.
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CFD Analysis on Aerodynamic Effects on a Passenger CarIRJET Journal
This document discusses computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of aerodynamic effects on a passenger car with and without spoilers. It first provides background on spoilers and their purpose in improving vehicle stability at high speeds. It then details the CFD modeling process using CAD software to model a baseline car model and variations with rear and roof spoilers. CFD analysis was performed to determine total pressure and velocity contours and estimate drag and lift forces. Results showed that a roof spoiler provided the most drag reduction and increased negative lift, improving stability at high speeds, while a rear spoiler primarily increased negative lift with less drag reduction.
CFD Analysis on Aerodynamic Effects on a Passenger Car
Technical Report STOM
1. DRAG FORCE AND COEFFICIENT
VALUES
FOR SEDAN RANGE VEHICLE
PROFILES
Muhammad Firdaus bin Kosnan
(2013262704)
Dr. Kausalyah a/p Venkatason
ABSTRACT
Nowadays demand of a high speed car is increasing in which vehicle
stability is of major concern. Forces like drag, lift, weight, side forces and
thrust acts on a vehicle when moving on road which significantly affect the
vehicle performance and safeness of traffic users. The drag force is produced
by relative motion between air and vehicle and about 40% of total drag is
produced at the front-end. Around 84% of all pedestrian fatalities involve
frontal impacts and it is found that the vehicle front-end structure plays a key
role in the determination of severity of injuries. Reduction of drag force at
the front-end improves the capabilities of car also to decrease the fatality
risk. This work aims to reduce the drag force which improves vehicle
performance and protects pedestrians as well. In the stage of work a sedan
car with different types of dimensions are used to reduce the aerodynamic
drag force. The design of sedan car has been done on Solidworks and the
optimization front end vehicles protection data is taken from previous
research. The analysis is done for finding out drag forces at different
dimensions on frontal area and compares it with the safety values
requirement.
Keywords: Drag force, front end vehicles
Introduction
Drag is force acting opposite to the relative motion or any moving object,
particle and substance with respect to a fluid or air. It acts parallel and same
direction as the airflow. Drag force always decrease fluid velocity relative to
the solid object. When objects move, they quickly build up forces in the
opposite direction; these are usually air resistance (drag) and friction forces.
2. 2
Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow and the squared
velocity for a turbulent flow. Even though the ultimate cause of a drag is
viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity.
In vehicle aerodynamics, drag is comprised fundamentally of two
forces. Frontal pressure is caused by the air aiming to flow around the front
of the car. The front grill of the car having a millions of air molecules
approaching, they begin to compress, and due to this the air pressure in front
of the car will raise. Simultaneously, the air molecules moving along the
sides of the car are at atmospheric pressure, a lower pressure compared to the
molecules at the front of the car.
Figure 1: Air pressure increases in front side of car
Drag is caused at the nose of the car by air molecules hitting the
front bumper, and at the rear of the car as air coming off the wing creates a
partial vacuum that literally sucks the car backward. Unfortunately, there is
no aerodynamic force that pushes the car forward. All of that force has to
come from the engine. Note that the air usually exerts a force at an angle, so
that, for example, the force on the hood is made up of some drag and some
down force.
The drag equation is a formula used to calculate the force
of drag experienced by an object due to movement through a fully
enclosing fluid. The formula is accurate only under certain conditions: the
objects must have a blunt form factor and the fluid must have a large
enough Reynolds number to produce turbulence behind the object. The
equation is
where is the density of the air and is the exposed area of the operating
object; or else, is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of
motion. The direction of velocity is always opposite to the direction of the
3. 3
drag force. stand for flow velocity in the direction normal to the plane.
Drag coefficient, is a dimensionless quantity that is used to specify the
drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water [1].
Literature Review
Aerodynamic in Automobile
As automobile technology develops, the speed of automobiles is increasing.
Thus, the aerodynamic performance becomes crucial because aerodynamic
drag is proportional to the square of the speed. Additionally, a reduction of
the aerodynamic drag is achievable at a relatively low cost compared with
developing a more efficient power train system [1]
Many attempts have been made since the early years in the
automotive industry to reduce aerodynamic drag in order to improve
performance and fuel economy. A theoretical method had established to
determine the shape of passenger car body for minimum drag by imposing
the condition that the total lift be zero. With this condition and a gradual
variation in the area and shape of transverse cross sections of the body, a
basic shape was achieved with a drag coefficient of 0.23. This research
proved that the aerodynamic drag can be minimized substantially with an
improved body shape without any additional devices [2]
Table 1: Basic criteria for automotive aerodynamic design [2]
If the power of the engine wants to be fully played to enhance the
dynamic performance of the vehicle, for most of the time, down-force
generated by aerodynamics package is necessary to provide enough adhesion
force. The wind-averaged drag coefficient CD is a variable that depends on
crosswind effects and vehicle speed and requires detailed data of regional
wind statistics [3].
The aerodynamics of the vehicle seems less important compared to
its dynamic performance; however, the aerodynamic performance of a race
4. 4
car will have an effect on the overall performance of the vehicle. With the
increased tendency in the automotive market to high powered and compact
engines, the necessary underhood air flow for engine cooling has been
accompanied by an increase in drag and lift values. It is commonly known
that resulting changes are due not only to the resistance of the internal flow
but to several other effects as well. The contribution of single vehicle
components to the change in integral coefficients is not fully understood [4].
There are several contrasts in automotive aerodynamics and aircraft
aerodynamics. First, the shape of a road vehicle’s element is slighter
streamlined compared to an aircraft. Second, the vehicle controls above the
ground rather than in free air. Third, the driving speeds are slower than flying
in surrounded air and aerodynamic drag varies as the square of speed. Fourth,
a ground vehicle has a small number of degrees of freedom than the aircraft,
and its motion is less influenced by aerodynamic forces. Fifth, road vehicle
and automotive have very specific design constraints such as their intended
purpose, high safety standards, for example, more 'dead' structural space to
act as crumple zones and certain regulations.
Crash safety value
Pedestrians are exceedingly unsafe road users who are at high injury riskiness
in road traffic accidents with motor vehicles. These pedestrian afflictions
pose a serious problem throughout the world. These averages to one crash-
related pedestrian death had been determined according to National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). By the increasing number of traffic
accidents, every 2 hours foot traffic died and a pedestrian injury in every 8
minutes [5]
Literature shows that about 84% of all pedestrian fatalities involve
frontal impacts and it is found that the vehicle front-end structure plays a key
role in the determination of severity of injuries [6]. Furthermore data
compiled from the Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research indicate that
40% of all pedestrian motor vehicle crash casualties involve children aged
between 6 and 10 years old [7].
Advances have been made by vehicle manufacturers to address this
issue with respect to the design of the vehicle, but the complex nature of the
pedestrian accident scenario has resulted in difficulties in optimizing the
design. The shape of the vehicle front end has shown to contribute as the
leading factor in determining the pedestrian kinematics, which in turn affects
the injury outcome, primarily that of the head [8]. The shape of a vehicle’s
front-end, traditionally designed according to style, aerodynamics,
manufacturability, engine packaging and occupant safety, has been shown to
be the most important vehicle design-related factor in determining pedestrian
kinematics, which in turn, determines the impact speed, impact angle and
location of head impact, ultimately affecting the injury outcome [9].
5. 5
Methodology
Figure below shows the parameter which been used to estimate the range of
vehicle to make it various and performed as a frontal-end area of car. A
sample of a vehicle front-end geometry for which there exists a set of
validation test data, is adopted from literature [10]. Figure 2 shows the front-
end geometry profile and dimensions. These, as well as the weight, centre of
gravity and material properties are maintained as closely as possible, based
on the Ford Taurus detailed FE model, developed by EASi Engineering for
the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) [11]
Figure 2: Vehicle front-end design parameters and profile shape [11]
Table below shows a few plans of experiments for the central
composite design for the front-end geometry of sedan car. The experiment
consists of 72 models with different values of geometry and dimension.
Table 2: Design matrix (Orthogonal, Faced)
The process of modelling the vehicle profile be made of several
steps. Sketching is the first step of the drawing the model. Sketching in
6. 6
Solidworks is uncomplicated and simple cause they provide with quite a lot
of necessary steps which is lines, perimeter circle, corner rectangular, tangent
arc and straight slot. Beside they got rapid sketch features which allow the
two dimension sketch plane to change dynamically
Figure 3: Full drawing of the model with the dimension
Figure 4: Three dimension shape using extrude boss features
The model fabricated from Solidworks then being tested for the
airflow and the force value generated. The setup has been made before
7. 7
running the simulation. This analysis only uses external flow only.
Solidworks Flow Simulation automatically considers all closed cavities
within the model as filled with the fluid. Exclude cavities without flow and
exclude internal space option will remove the fluid regions not relevant for
the problems from the analysis.
Figure 5: Analysis type and reference axis selection menu
In a wind tunnel testing, the car is assumed to be at stationary while
air is moving. This condition is applied similarly in Solidworks Flow
Simulation where it is highly regarded as a virtual wind tunnel. Therefore,
positive value of 22.22m/s in Z direction is appropriately represented the flow
boundary
Figure 6: Wizard-Initial Conditions system box with 22.22m/s velocity in
Z direction
After run that wizard’s setup, Solidworks Flow Simulation has
calculated the goals for this experiment. By adjusting the Flow Trajectory,
the flow become visible to be shown and total calculation has been tabulated.
8. 8
Graph represents the Force (N) over Iterations which can be modified
according to the experiment purpose.
Figure 7: Flow Trajectory and calculated data represent after simulation
is done
Figure 8: Graph plotted with Force (N) versus Iteration
Result and Discussion
Optimal result of force
Based on the analysis that had been performed, the best rate of force produce
is classified in form of the smallest to the largest value. Later, the
9. 9
classification the data is narrowed down until it reach a best 5 out of 79 runs
of the flow simulation.
NO
DRAG
FORCE (N)
DRAG
COEFFICIENT (N)
15 120.789 0.135
27 115.512 0.143
5 132.088 0.141
23 140.405 0.150
9 118.135 0.186
Table 3: Best 5 out of 79 runs of the simulation
Comparison between final combined optimised model
From the multiple optimisation of front end vehicle, an adult and child
pedestrian friendly vehicle shape is obtained. The design has an abilities to
avoid run-over scene plus improved protection for adult and child pedestrian.
The tabulated data of physical design parameters of vehicle are presented in
Table 4. Meanwhile the vehicle front-end profile shape is illustrated and it
can be seen that run over scenario is terminated. In addition, the HIC values
for both the adult and child are 209.34 and 195.47.
Table 4: Design parametes of final combined optimized design with Run-
over event consideration
10. 10
Figure 9: Vehicle front-end profile geometry of final combined optimized
design with Run-over consideration
In the meantime the design parameter value is redesigned and
simulate it into flow simulation process to identify the force acting on the
surface area of the object. In addition to the crash kinematics analysis with
run-over consideration, the aerodynamic of the car need to be examine as
well to ensure the stability while on the road and the fuel consumption of the
design.
The average of the design parameter state at design 37 according to
the final combined optimisation result. The result of the analysis is tabulated
on Table 5.
Design
parameters
Combine
Optimised
Model
15 27 5 23 9
x1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
x2 -1 -1 +1 -1 +1 -1
x3 -1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1
x4 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1 -1
x5 -0.479 +1 +1 -1 +1 -1
x6 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1
x7 +1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1
Drag (N) 228.718
120.78
9
115.51
2
132.08
8
140.40
5
118.135
Coefficient
(N)
0.268 0.135 0.143 0.141 0.150 0.186
11. 11
Table 5: Drag and coefficient value for best 5 and C-opt model
The observed force value for both the drag force and drag coefficient
for Combine Optimised Model according to Table 5 are 228.718 N and 0.268
N, respectively. By the estimated design, the value of drag force and
coefficient is not in the best result beside the design has high amount of
forces compare to the top 9 optimal performance ranking. In spite that the
value is not achieve the requirement of the ideal drag, the final optimised
shows the great implementation of avoiding hit and run scenarios which
equally satisfied for both adult and child pedestrians.
Table 5 shows the x1 value has negative value for most of the
design. It shows the windshield angle has lower value and create an inclined
shape. For bumper lead, x2 either more or very little length while x6 and x7
mostly its recorded low value. Its means less angle are use in x6 and x7.
Literally the designs tends to have a shape of airfoil due to the low value of
drag and coefficient force. Based on fill the combination, the profile that
works towards goes inclined towards more the airfoil shape actually. The
nature of the choices of optimisation when it comes to the drag coefficient is
actually going towards as airfoil shape which can be seen in Figure 11.
Meanwhile, between 0.135 and 0.186 value, there have a similar
number as the drag coefficient of a sporty cars. Naturally sports cars have
interest to get high speed and low drag but not in pedestrian safety. So that
the cars are not for the purpose of main street but in racing course.
Therefore, what has been chosen up as optimised for the drag efficiency are
those types of cars.
Figure 10: Line graph based from coded value
12. 12
It is observed that clearly different shape of design produce a various
type of crash patterns for adult and child. This situation same goes to the
production of force regarding to the result obtained from flow simulation.
Frontal area of vehicle can be reduce by decreasing the height and width but
the consideration of effect of crashing with pedestrian need to highlight due
to a lot of accidents occurs by ran over the foot traffic causes by irresponsible
motorist. While the car travelling at speed just beyond the limit, the victims
have probability to pitch forward to the hood and it continue by the victim’s
head will strike a windshield.
Figure 11: Vehicle profiles for best 5 and C-opt model
Figure above shows the vehicle profiles of final combined optimised
model from previous research and 5 best design. In the DOE setup, 5 best
designs were chosen which has minimised Cd. It has not been confirmed
whether these designs will give low Head Injury Criterion (HIC) values.
Besides it is acceptable if the HIC rises approximate 200 values above the
optimised value for both adult and child which will mean that the injury is
still within treatable range.
13. 13
According to the previous research, when the HIC comes to the
range of 200 to 300, the victims may well produce fatal injury and suffering a
concussion while 400 to 500 value will probably having a permanent
disability, coma and fluid retention [12]. Therefore, an important
consideration that current vehicle engineers take into reminder list while
designing car is crash safety factor beside this can be further studied to
develop more HIC value, respectively.
This is natural considering the affect will bring at drag force, where
more airfoil shape will actually minimize the drag. Nevertheless the
combined optimised profiles has well recorded drag force and coefficient as
well. For those where the drag value is very low, the injury criteria is needed
to study
Conclusion
To sum things up, various vehicle front-end design parameters and profile
shape lead to the various external force act parallel and the same way of
airflow. Aerodynamics are one of the key area of improving system in
stability, performance and fuel efficiency. The main balance is to get more
drag reduction and maximize the stability of car while moving straight or
cornering in a certain speed. These profiles are taken from sample of existing
cars in Japan, US, Europe, and Korean market. This allow the drag
coefficient values fall within the permissible range. In fact that the average
of modern cars having a drag coefficient between 0.3 and 0.35 while normal
boxy shape automobile achieve a drag coefficient of Cd = 0.35-0.45. The
variation of Cd value not only depending to the frontal area, it will vary rely
on which wind tunnel it is measured in. In short if the same vehicle having a
Cd = 0.34 and tested to a different tunnel it could be in any place from Cd =
0.30 to Cd = 0.40.
For further study, there are plenty of new elements that automakers
can put into practice to bring down the drag coefficient of vehicles. New
improvements of wind tunnels and development in simulation software are
used to obtain more precise value of drag. The effects of particular vehicle
shape on the aerodynamics of a car can be estimated by using calculation of
equations to explore the fluid dynamics of air flowing around a vehicle.
Therefore further study need to be carried out following the best optimised 5
based on discussion that already made.
References
1. Howell, J. S. (2002). Aerodynamic drag of a compact SUV as
measured on-road and in the wind tunnel. (2002-01-0529).
14. 14
2. Morelli, A. F. (1976). The Body Shape of Minimum Drag.
Warrendale: SAE Technical Paper 760186.
3. Mohamed-Kassim Zulfaa, A. (2010). Fuel savings on a heavy
vehicle via aerodynamic drag reduction. Transportation Research
Part D , 275-284.
4. Mahmoud Khaled, H. E. (2012). Some innovative concepts for car
drag reduction: A parametric analysis. Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics , 36-47.
5. Howell, J. S. (2002). Aerodynamic drag of a compact SUV as
measured on-road and in the wind tunnel. (2002-01-0529).
6. Morelli, A. F. (1976). The Body Shape of Minimum Drag.
Warrendale: SAE Technical Paper 760186.
7. Mohamed-Kassim Zulfaa, A. (2010). Fuel savings on a heavy
vehicle via aerodynamic drag reduction. Transportation Research
Part D , 275-284.
8. Mahmoud Khaled, H. E. (2012). Some innovative concepts for car
drag reduction: A parametric analysis. Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics , 36-47.
9. Howell, J. S. (2002). Aerodynamic drag of a compact SUV as
measured on-road and in the wind tunnel. (2002-01-0529).
10. Teng, T. L., Le, T. K., & Ngo, V. L. (2010). Injury analysis of
pedestrians in collisions using the pedestrian defomable model.
International Journal of Automotive Technology , 187-195.
11. Wu, C. C. (2003). The analysis of occupant injury in frontal impact
of traffic accident. M.S Thesis , 187-195.
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Prev. 17(Suppl 1) (2011), pp. i10–i13.