Tea, coffee, and cocoa are the primary non-alcoholic beverages consumed globally, with tea being the most significant due to its health benefits and affordability. India leads in tea production and export, while tea cultivation plays a crucial role in the economies of major tea-growing countries, providing employment and contributing to GDP. The document further discusses the historical discovery of tea, its medicinal values, current production statistics, and challenges in tea production in Ethiopia.

1. Chapter one
Introduction
People drink three non-alcoholic beverages from nature’s resources, namely, tea, coffee and
cocoa. Among these, tea is the most important drink for two-thirds of the world population due
to its attractive aroma, taste and health benefits. It is a safe and easily affordable drink for all
sections of the society. It has evoked great interest in the medical community in the last few
decades as it shows with scientific evidence to prevent a number of human ailments.
Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) of family Theaceae is a woody, perennial plantation crop with an
economic life span of more than 60 years. Tea has become one of the most important agro-based,
eco-friendly, labour intensive, employment generating, export-oriented industries in all the tea-
growing countries. Tea occupies 2.7 million hectares of land all over the world with an annual
global production of about 3.0 million tons. Despite occupying only 16.4% of the total tea
growing area of the world, India ranks first as a producer, consumer and exporter of black tea.
However, because of its ever-increasing domestic consumption, India is still incapable of
exporting more than 15.4% of the total production to the world tea market. Commercially, it
contributes around 5.27% share on Indian gross national product and provides direct
employment to about one million and indirect employment to about two million people. While
India registered 835,200 tons of tea in 2004, China being the second largest producer accounts
820,000 tons in 2004 (Yajun et al).
1.1 Discovery
Tea plants are believed to have been discovered accidentally by the Chinese legendary Buddhist
Emperor Sheng Nang around 2737 B.C. He was skilled ruler creative scientist and patron of arts.
His far sighted edicts required, among others, that all drinking water be boiled as hygienic
precaution. One summer day while visiting a distance region of his realm, he and his court
stopped to rest. In accordance with his ruling, the servant began to boil water for the court to
drink. Dried leaves from the nearby bush fell in to the boiling water, and brown liquid was
infused in to the water. As a scientist, the emperor was interested in the new liquid, drank some
and found it very refreshing. And so, according to legend tea was discovered. So it is assumed
that tea was being used as a drink for nearly 5,000 years. As soon as the medicinal value began
to be attributed to tea by the Chinese, a demand for supplies sprang up that resulted in the
cultivation of tea in Sichuan province about 3,000 years ago.
Subsequently, the knowledge of tea cultivation spread everywhere by the Buddhist pilgrimage
with fine arts of Buddhism. Although in India wild tea plant was discovered by Major Robert
Bruce in Assam in 1823, seeds were also brought by G.J. Gordon from China during 1834 for
establishing a commercial garden. Later, C.A. Bruce, superintendent of the governmental tea
plantation, took active interest in the cultivation of indigenous tea plant. Soon commercial
interests moved in and the world’s first privately owned Tea Company – the Assam Tea
Company – was established at Jorhat, Assam on 12 February 1839 with the directives from
British Parliament. This was the beginning of the present day Tea Industry in India.
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2. 1.2 Origin and Distribution
South-east Asia is the original home for tea. According toWight (1959), the primary centre of
origin of tea is considered to be around the point of intersection of latitude 29◦N and longitude
98◦E near the source of the river of Irrawaddy, the point of confluence where lands of Assam,
North Myanmar, southwest China and Tibet meet. Secondary centres of origin are considered to
be located in southeast China, Mizoram and Meghalaya (Kingdon-Ward 1950). The above areas
are, therefore, considered to be the zone of origin and dispersion of the genus Camellia as a
whole (Sealy 1958). However, presently tea cultivation is spread within the latitudinal range of
45◦N–34◦S. Tea was introduced to Japan from China in the early part of the eighth century. From
Japan, tea cultivation extended to Indonesia during the seventeenth century. In Sri Lanka, tea
was first planted in 1839 when seeds were brought from India (Calcutta). In USSR, tea
cultivation started when seeds were imported from China towards the end of last century. Later,
from USSR, seeds were exported to Turkey during 1939–1940. In Europe, tea was introduced in
1740 by the East India Company’s Captain Goff, but those planted in the Royal Botanic Garden
at Kew in England could not survive (Sealy 1958). The first successful introduction was 1830).
From there tea cultivation spread to the African countries at the end of the 19th century.
Presently, more than 52 countries produce tea.
In Africa tea was being grown at Durban botanical garden in 1850 and developed in to local
plantation industry of small extent in natal. Tea was first successfully introduced in to Malawi in
1886 and the first estate was planted in 1891in mulanje. Its introduction to east Africa at the
beginning if 20th
century, led to commercial production in the 1920s and 1930s in lemur of
Kenya, Armani of Tanzania and Entebbe of Uganda.
1.3 Importance
1.3.1 Economic Importance
The economic importance of the genus Camellia is primarily due to tea. Apart from being used
as a beverage, leaves of tea are also used as vegetables like the ‘leppet tea’ in Burma and ‘meing
tea’ in Thailand. While C. oleracea produces oil, used in the cosmetic industry, C sasanqua, C.
japonica and C reticulata have great importance due to their ornamental values. Tea seeds yield
about 17.3% of oil compared to C. sasanqua (58%) and C. japonica (66%). The oil is of non-
drying class and resembles that of C. sasanqua. Although the oil is used as a lubricant, extraction
of oil from tea seed is not economically viable (Wealth of India 1950).
Moreover, tea seed cakes also contain saponins. Although it has a poor value as a fertilizer and is
unfit for animal feed on account of its low nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents, yet it is
being successfully utilised in the manufacture of a nematocide (Wealth of India 1950). Though
tea is mainly consumed in the form of ‘fermented tea’ or ‘black tea’, yet ‘non-fermented’ or
‘green tea’ and lesser known ‘semi-fermented’ or ‘oolong tea’ are also available. These types
vary in their method of manufacture, chemical constituent, appearance and organoleptic taste.
While black tea is widely used in India and other European countries, green tea is popular in
China, Japan, Indonesia and Taiwan. Oolong tea is mainly consumed in some parts of China as
well as Taiwan. Worldwide 80% black tea, 18% green tea and 2% oolong tea are being
produced.
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3. For black tea, the young tender leaves are completely fermented after withering. The
fermentation results in oxidation and polymerisation of polyphenols, changing the nature of the
chemicals constituents of tea leaves and forming theaflavin and thearubigin. These polyphenols
are responsible for the briskness, strength, colour, taste, aroma and pungency associated with
black tea. The infusion of black tea has a bright red or copper colour, astringent taste and
characteristic aroma. On the other hand, green tea is unfermented and is the least processed
among the three types. The plucked leaves are harvested and steamed immediately to inactivate
the enzymes to prevent oxidation and polymerisation of primary polyphenols, which results in
retaining of green colour in the finish product. Green tea infusion has a leafy taste with a smell of
fresh vegetables and low caffeine content. In oolong tea, primary polyphenols are allowed to
partly oxidize.
Oolong tea is not common and is intermediate in characteristic between green and black tea.
Immediately after plucking, the tea leaves are partially fermented for about half the time of black
tea. It has the color of black tea and flavor of green tea.
1.3.2 Medicinal values
Tea is a kind of crop, which is used by 2/3rd
of the world population, the fact that consumption
has increased from year to year also increase the demand for tea in the market. As an investment
venture tea development is a long time project that is transferable to prosperity. It is also cost
effective. Generally the price of tea is stable in the world market. Even though it is second to
coffee in the world market, it is believed to be more profitable than coffee.
Tea was used initially as medicine, later as beverage and has a proven future potential of
becoming an important industrial and pharmaceutical raw material. Scientific reports in the last
two decades have validated many beneficial claims of tea. Majority of the beneficial effects have
been attributed to the polyphenolic constituents. Several studies suggest that phenolics may be of
importance in reducing the incidence of degenerative diseases, such as cancer and
arteriosclerosis. The most relevant compounds in dietary regime are cinamic acid derivatives and
flavonoids.
Tantithenic acid, caffeine and theophylline present in tea stimulates nerve and also good for
heart. Polyphenoles reduce blood cgiklesrerol abd cures hepatitis , hypertension, stone
formation , etc. high fluoride content (50-200ppm) of tea leaves prevents tooth decay . Tea is
antdiabetic and has anti-oxidant qualities. Black tea being rich in vitamin B, complex and folic
acid, is anti-ulcer and anti-carcinogenic in nature. Green tea contains vitamin K, which arrests
internal haemorrhages, rheumatic inflammation and myocardial infarction.
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4. 1.4 Tea production and consumption in the world
Tea occupies about 2.3 million hectares of cultivable land of the world with annual production of
2.6 million tones. World tea production has increased greatly since the 2nd
world war. The rate of
increase of production has been much greater than the rate of increase of consumption by
importing countries. On the other hand, the world tea supply and demands have remained
approximately in balance. This is because the producing countries have absorbed the difference
for their own use to an increase in their consumption. Evidently, 45% of the 2.6 million metric
tons of tea harvested across the world is used for export while 55 % is used for local
consumption.
Currently, there are more than 30 tea-growing countries, but 15 countries are important
producers. These include India, china, Kenya, sirlanka, Indonesia, turkey, Japan, Iran,
Bangladesh, Vietnam, Argentina, Malawi, Georgia, Tanzania, and Uganda. The important tea
producing countries in Africa are Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, and Zimbabwe.
The major importing countries in the world include UK from western Europe, Russia federation
from eastern Europe, USA from north America, Chile from Latin America, Pakistan and Japan
from Asia , Egypt from Africa. Uk imports the highest quantity of tea in the world next to Russia
in the year 1991, 1.6 times USA and 6 times Germany. The 3rd
highest importing country in the
world was Pakistan. World black tea exports in 2010 are projected at 1.12 million tones,
reflecting an average annual increase of 1.5 percent. Britain is a great consumer in average an
individual uses 4.4kg of tea annually.
1.5 tea production and consumption in Ethiopia
Tea is an exotic plant to Ethiopia. It is an evergreen shrub native to south East Asia, which has
been introduced for the first time to Ethiopia by father George Holland, a Canadian catholic
missionary in 1927. He brought tea seed from Kenya and planted around bonga leading
establishment of wush-wush tea plantation. The second introduction was in 1928 by British
general councelor who stationed at gore .He brought tea seed from India and planted around gore
that paves a venue for establishment of gumaro tea plantation. Trial plantation of tea was first
started in Ethiopia on 1930s and only since 1978 that has been planted on significant scale.
There are currently 2109 hectars of tea growing in Ethiopia, almost exlusively on two large
private owned plantations at wush-wush and gumaro. Total annual tea production of these estates
has reached 5000 tons . Recently, east Africa group started the chewaka utto tea plantation
around masha on 570 hectares of land.
Gumero tea plantation is located in Illu- Aba-Bora zone of oromia region, ale-didu district and
637 km away from finfine and is the oldest tea plantation in Ethiopia. Currently, it has about 860
ha of land covered with tea plants and produces yearly an average of over 1750 tons of made tea.
About 761 ha of land are covered by eucalyptus trees which are used as source of fuel and as
windbreak.
The wush-wush tea plantation is situated in kafa zone, and 460 km away from finfine. It has
about 1249 ha land covered by tea bushes. The factory capacity of wush-wush is about 350
kg/ha. It provides 1650tons, made of tea yearly; eucalyptus trees cover about 977 ha of land.
4

5. The chewaka Utto tea estate is located in southern nation and nationalities and peoples region,
sheka zone, and 660 km away from finfine. It has about 570 ha land covered by tea bushes and
eucalyptus trees cover about 250 ha of land.
Until 1989, Ethiopia imported tea from Kenya, china, and Djibouti. As a result, a substantial
amount of foreign exchange used to be spent for the tea products import. However, the increased
domestic production of tea at gumero and wush-wush has enabled Ethiopia to be self sufficient
in tea. The major trading partners are Pakistan, UK, Djibouti, Canada, USA, and Yemen.
Consumption of tea in Ethiopia is estimated at about 3500 tons per year and over 85%
consumption is in urban area.
1.6 Favorable production factors in Ethiopia
The production and related factors favoring the promotion of tea production in Ethiopia include
Ideal ecological condition: Ethiopia has about 6 million ha of land highly suitable for tea
production in south-western parts of the country.
An increase in demand: tea doesn’t grow everywhere while the demand for tea growing
across the globe. The demand for tea is increasing from time to time due to the
population growth. Moreover, the demand for Ethiopian black tea produced in highlands
of the country is increasing because of its quality, is increasing.
Availability of ample labour: ample and relatively cheap labour is available for
production and processing of tea.
High consumption by neighboring countries: neighboring countries of Ethiopia and
others. Which have geographical proximity to the country, are known for their high
consumption of tea thereby creating market opportunities for Ethiopia.
Favorable investment policy: the government’s incentives in agricultural investment have
significant contribution to expand the development of tea in the country.
1.7 major constraints of tea in Ethiopia
The major factors that limit tea production in Ethiopia include:
 Lack of research activities : generally research is lacking in Ethiopia on the tea plant to
study the adaptability , characteristics , diseases and insect pests, productivity etc
 Limited tea germplasm for variability: due to the exotic nature of the crop and difficulty
of getting additional germplasm there from abroad, there is difficulty to broaden the
genetic base that can be utilized for hybridization and selection.
 Absence of research facility to promote tea research: tea research in Ethiopia is almost
non-existent and hence research facilities ate lacking due to the poor attention given to it.
 Lack of improved varieties: since research in the country is lacking, the Ethiopian tea
estates are short supply of improved varieties. As a result, they select best performing
clones from those introduced from abroad.
 Shortage of agricultural imputs: tea depends on imported inputs and these makes cost of
production very high which adversely affect the return.
 Limited processing factories: the processing factories ate few in number and they are
situated the three plantations; wush-wush, gumaro and chewaka utto.
 Lack of skilled human power: there is no training center or institution that offers courses
on tea production and processing industry.
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6. Chapter 2
Botany of Tea
2.1 Classification
Tea is a commercial crop, which includes several species within the genus camellia in the family
Theaceae. The family comprises about 20 genera of which the most economically important
genus is the genus “camellia”. The genus camellia consists of 2002 among which one is sinensis.
The name camellia was preferred to thea in naming the genus and hence camellia sinensis is the
commonly accepted name. tea therefore botanically called camellia sinensis(L). tea is a diploid
plant with chromosome number of 2n=30. But a number of tri, tetra and even polyploids have
been found or created because of ease of hybridization.
However, tea could be grouped in to varieties using the word ‘jat’ which simply indicates the
district or plantation from which the planting material has been derived and to separate the plants
based on their foliar characteristics. The cultivated taxa comprises of three main natural hybrids.
They are : china jat( camellia sinensis var. sinensis), assam jat( camellia sinensis var assamica)
cambod or the southern type(camellia sinensis var.assamica sub spp lasiocalys).
China type( jat)
C. sinensis var.sinensis: This is a shrub (1–3m tall) with many stems arising from the base and
struggling. The relatively small, thick and leathery leaves have stomata that appear to be sunken
in the lamina dark-green in color, markedly serrated and pointed up-ward. The flowers are borne
singly. This ‘jat’ is resistant to cold and adverse conditions, relatively low yielder. Its production
is confined to east and south east china and Japan.
Assam type
C. sinensis var.assamica : It is a 10–15m high tree with a trunk and robust branching system.
The relatively large, thin, glossy leaves with more or less wider and less serrated pointed
horizontally and have light-green in color. The flowers are born in clusters of 2-4. This ‘jat’ is
less resistant to cold and adverse condition but relatively high yielder. It is adapted to tropical
conditions and widely grown in Ethiopia (wush-wush plantation site).
Cambod type
C. assamica sub sp. lasiocalyx. (Planch. exWatt.): This is an upright tree (6–10m tall), with
several, almost equally developed branches and more or less erect, glossy, light green to
coppery-yellow or pinkish red leaves, the size of which is intermediate between C. sinensis and
C. assamica. Although, the flowers are more or less similar to the Assam type.
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7. 2.2 Morphology
2.2.1 Root
Tea produces several deep roots, some of which have been traced as deep as 6m below the soil
surface most of which however, are found in the upper 90 cm of soil. Those planting material
starting from seed, develop tap root system: where as those which started from cuttings develop
fibrous root system.
Tape rooted system develop lateral roots which give rise to surface mat feeding roots (root hairs)
which are used for absorbing water and nutrients. Roots are also serving as storage of reserve
starch that will serve the plant after pruning. Therefore, root growth and / or root distribution are
a function of the planting material and clone used.
2.2.2 Stem
Seedlings produce a single main stem. Branches grow from leaf axils; single leaf cuttings
therefore produce one stem from the leaf axil. Under natural conditions the stems of a tea plant
(depending on the variety) grows to as high as 15m;i.e it grows in to small tree. When pruned,
both the varieties branch profusely and form a dense bush, flat top or plucking table. When it
grows under isolation or at wide planting distance, the bush will become conical in shape. The
stem has a rather struggling (in sinensis) or straight (in assamica) habit.
2.2.3 Leaves
New leaves develop from buds in the axils of mature leaves. The leaves are generally simple,
alternate, and evergreen and acuminate (not complete sharp). Leathery and glossy on the upper
surface and sparsely hairy on the lower surface, color varies from light green to dark green
according to the varaities. Stomata with prominent guard cells are on the lower surface. Lamina
is elliptical to lanceolate (not complete oval). Degree of serration varies from variety to variety
but, there is no leaf without serration.
2.2.4 Flowers
Globular flower buds formed in scale leaf axils either in solitary (in china jat) or in cluster of 2-4
(in assam jat) , are 4 cm diameter. They are axilary with short pedicel, white or tinged pink and
slightly sweet-smelling. The calyx is leathery, persistent and glossy consisting of 5-7 sepals and
5-7 petals. Petals are white smooth waxy appearance at their base they are fused to each other
and to the stamens. Ovary is hairy and has single style in to 3-5 arms.
2.2.5 Fruits
Fruits are thick-walled capsules with brownish-green colour, and have 1-4 lobes (cells).These
fruits take nearly 12 month to mature.
2.2.5 Seeds
Seeds are 1-3 per cell, globose or flattened on surface, with thin light-brown testa, straight
embryo, and thick cotyledons rich in oil and without endosperm. Seed diameter is 1-1.5 cm.
7

8. Chapter 3
Growth and Physiology of Tea plant
3.1 physiology of tea plant
Physiology deals with the vital phenomena in plant system. It is concerned with the processes
that take place within the plant. It also deals with different functions of each plant part. Different
plant part have their own their own specific role.
3.1.1 Leaves physiology
The leaves breath in air, breath out water, makes sugar from sunlight. Leaves are the areas for
water removal in the form of water vapour because on the bottom of each leaf stomata’s are
found and when these stomata’s are opened leaves breath in carbon dioxide and water and
oxygen could be removed out. The removal of one droplet of water from the leaf creates a
negative water balance in the plant system. As a result, root absorbs water from the soil. And as
water is absorbed from the soil it carries fertilizer to the upper parts of the plant.
Another job of leaves is the use of carbon dioxide to make sugar. Green plants include tea
capture solar energy and convert is in to chemical energy (simper sugar). The sugar is
transported down from leaves to the stem and to the roots through phloem.
3.1.2 Bud physiology
Buds are areas from which new tissues developed to leaves and other shoot parts. For
Buds to carry out their normal function there should be sufficient amount of energy that could be
geared to the buds. To get energy for this work, the dividing zone of the active bud uses sugar
that was stored in the roots.
3.1.3 Physiology of twigs and branches
There are tubes for the transportation of water and minerals (xylem) and for translocation of
photo-assimilates (phloem) in twigs and branches. The upper part of the plant should get water
and fertilizers from the soil and lower parts should also get sufficient photo assimilates for the
proper growth of the plant.
However, sometimes symptoms are observed on the leaves. This is not necessarily due to
mineral deficiency because sometimes borers block the tubes within the plants. Therefore, there
will be blockage of the transport of water and minerals to the upper parts.
3.1.4 Physiology of root
The roots store starch and absorb fertilizer and water. The planting material used determines root
growth system of the tea plant. Whatever the case may be the root hairs are those root parts that
are responsible minerals and water from the soil. They are highly permeable so that water
absorption takes place in this particular area. Water is absorbed by root hair due to concentration
gradient.
8

9. Another important activity of the root is that roots store sugar in the form of starch. The more
starch is stored in the root the mere energy will be sent to the active bud so that new shoots will
be developed. This starch will rescue the plant immediately after pruning and plucking. Roots do
not withstand water logging condition.
3.2 Growth of the tea plant
3.1 growth periods
Like many tropical crops, tea exhibits periods of intensive leaf growth alternating with periods of
dormancy. The amount of growth made between two states of dormancy is called as “flush”. Tea
shoot has two has active and dormant growth periods.
 Active growth period
Active growth period is the active stage of the tea plant at which plants are built from cells,
which are tiny rectangular blocks. New cells are produced in the ‘dividing zone’ or merstematic
part of an active bud. When the bud becomes active, cells at the top of the bud divide in half to
make new cells. Those new cells swell up to become elongated. The production and elongation
of these cells push the dividing zone upwards. The dividing zone is now sitting on a layer of new
cells. Then the newly produced shoots and new leaves could be left below the active bud.
Whenever a bud builds new shoots, not all the leaves are alike. The terminal leaf, which has
attended its fullest size, develops a young bud, which is just about 5 mm long. This young bud
swells and results in the breakage of the outer appendage. This process is said to be wake-up
from dormancy. This active bud is called shrimp bud (a bud from which new shoots are
produced).
The first leaf that will be developed after the bud is activated is called cataphyll or janam(tiny
leaf with entire margin). The shoot grows taller, with the bud and its dividing zone always on the
top. Cataphyll often drop off from the shoot, leaving behind scars. After cataphyll the bud again
builds the second scale leaf called fish leaf. It is smaller than normal leaf and a bit larger than
cataphyll, and even very active in photosynthesis than the normal leaf. After the fish has been
developed, the shoot grows taller and normal leaves develop one after the other.
 Dormant growth period
Shoots are usually plucked just the apical bud with 2-3 leaf immediately below it before enough
time to complete their growth. But if there is no plucking or harvesting at this stage, the bud
eventually enters in to dormancy stage. The last leaf develops small sleeping bud called “banjhi”
bud (much smaller than a growing bud). There are also other kinds of sleeping buds at the sides
of the shoots. This is so because of the growing buds in the top of the shoots produces much
concentration of Auxin, which has direct influence on the activities of the side buds.
Plucking removes the growing buds, which allows the side buds to wake up and start growing
shoots; this is why plucking or tipping (light pruning) makes bushes denser. Therefore, if there is
no plucking or tipping, the bud again enters in to dormancy. Through continuous plucking, it is
possible to extend the active period, but it is impossible to jump the first active period to next
without entering in to period of dormancy. This is because even though there is plucking, if there
is shortage of starch in the roots no energy is geared to these strong sinks and plant enters in to
period of dormancy
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10. 3.3 Growth stages
 Shoot growth stages
As long as the plant is alive it experiences four growth stages. These are seedling stage, branch
formation stage, commercial stage, and degraded stage.
 Seedling stages
Seedling stage is the first stage in tea shoot growth. It begins when seed or cutting is planted, and
ends when the young plant is pruned for the first time. This stage takes 2-3 years for plants
grown from seeds and about one year for plants grown from cuttings. At this stages most of the
energy for the young seedling comes from ‘burning’ starch and oil that are stored in the seed. For
this reason it doesn’t need much fertilizer. But young plants that grow from cutting needs careful
tending because they do not have seed to provide them energy. Whether the seedling or cutting,
the young plant uses its energy to grow both roots and leaves.
 Branch formation stages
Branch formation stage begins at the first pruning and ends at the last ‘formation’ pruning (the
last pruning made to shape the frame of the tea bushes). Tea yield and quality is best when the
bushes ate broad and have many strong, healthy branches. To get so, good tending is required
during the branch formation stages.
Tending (which is pruning) removes the growing of buds at the tips of the shoots. This lets the
buds on the sides of the shoots wake up and start growing. During branch formation stage, the
purpose of pruning is to shape the way that the main frame of large branches are growing, so that
the bush develops strong frame of big branches. The plucking table should be stabilizing at a
height of 70cm above the ground.
 Commercial stage
This stage begins after the last formation pruning, and continues for as long as the tea is growing
vigorously. It is the stage when the tea produces the biggest yields, and is the most profitable
stage of tea shoot growth. The most important practice at this stage is plucking. At this stage the
main frame of the tea bush has already been formed, therefore, energy is used to produces flush
of green tender. Plucking removes the leaves and the top buds, which wakes up the side buds.
 Degraded stage
Some old fields start to show the following problems
 Low yield and increase number of empty spots due to death of weak bushes
 Branches become thin and diseased; increasing rate of diseases of the top of the roots
 Buds are small and scarce
All the combination of these problems can impart the name for the tea as “degraded tea or
ageing tea”. However, the problem is probably caused more by poor management than by
actual age. But most of the tea fields will probably start becoming degraded after 30-40
years. At this stage it is often best to rejuvenate the plant by heavy pruning called ‘collar
pruning’ to the ground so that they grow a completely new frame of young branches.
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11.  Root growth
‘Feeder roots’ are thin, white in color and have many branches. Most of them are located in the
top few centimeter of the soil. As they get older feeder roots become thicker, and their colour
changes from white to cream and finally to red. The older, red colored roots do not have much
ability to absorb water and fertilizers. Finally, they cease their growth and rot away.
Most of the starch is stored in the central carrot root, but the starch is stored in the larger red root.
The starch stored in the root provides the energy for bud development. So the better the root
system, the better the bud and shoot development will be. The deep the carrot root is important
for seedling, because it helps to anchor the plant and helps the plant to absorb water from deeper
volume of soil. Plants from cutting lack this and have adventitious roots. A deep root can help a
tea plant to resist drought.
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12. Chapter 4
Ecological requirements of tea
4.1 climatic requirements
Tea cultivation is confined mainly to the sub-tropics and mountainous regions of the tropics. The
commercial tea belt of the world ranges from latitude of 430
N 270
S. In the sub-tropics tea grows
at elevations near sea level to above 100masl.the tea plant requires warmth, light, sufficient
moisture and minimum rainfall not less than 1200 mm annually.
4.1.1 Rainfall
Rainfall is considered to be the main climatic requirement for tea growth and productivity. The
plant thrives best high and evenly distributed rainfall throughout the growing season.
Distribution of rainfall over the year is a vital as the total annual rainfall. Tea needs at least 1500
mm of water per annum, and within tropics a dry season of not more than three months. The
accepted optimum maximum would appear to be around 3000mm per annum, but since tea
growing areas have an annual rainfall of 4000mm and more. The ideal amount is an average
monthly rain fall of 130 to 150mm. above 200mm and below 100mm the yield of tea plant falls.
In regions where the rainfall is less than 1500mm per annum, with a long and hot dry season, it
will be necessary to irrigate the plantations.
Water is removed from the soil by tea roots and lost from the leaves by evapo-transpiration at a
rate which varies from 120mm to 150mm per month. Ideally water should be available to the
roots at least in amounts which are equal to the water lost through evapo-transpiration. The more
even the rainfall distribution, the less likely is the tea to be adversely affected by drought. The
amount of water lost by evapo-transpiration will be increased by wind and hot weather and
reduced by low temperature and long periods of mist or cloudy weather. When considering the
tea growing areas in Ethiopia, the average rainfall over a period of 21 years has been 1999mm
per annum for wush- wush and 1956mm for gumero over period of 14 years, which in both cases
are much above the minimum requirement. The distribution however is, less ideal in both areas.
4.1.2 Hail
Hail, by its mechanical action on the leaves and on the branches (particularly on the young tea
plants), slows down growth and results in a considerable loss of productivity by damaging the
harvestable leaves. The severity of damages ranges from shattering of leaves to felling of bark in
trunks, young stems break and bushes are defoliated. It can be particularly harmful when the
bushes are recovering from the effects of a severe drought and are refoliating after pruning.
Despite destruction of current crop it damage stems which lead to disease and pest problems.
12

13. 4.1.3 Humidity
A tea plant needs a high amount of humidity and soil moisture. Atmospheric humidity must be
high, usually between 70 and 90%. Relative humidity of 80-90 % is favorable during the growth
period of tea plants. The average optimum relative humidity of atmosphere must not be less than
70-75% and 75-80%during vegetative period. Very low relative humidity of atmosphere has a
negative influence on shoot growth. Below 50% shoot growth is inhibited and below 40%
growth is adversely affected.
Lack of soil and atmospheric moisture decreases the growth of lower branches and leaves
become very hard and tend to produce numbers of ‘banjihi’. In consequence, yield and quality
will be decreased. High atmospheric humidity is particularly valuable when the annual rainfall is
low, as well as during the dry season.
4.1.4 Temperature
Whether the other climatic factors are favorable or not, tea like any other plants does not grow
when temperatures are either too low or too high. It needs a minimum and maximum temperature
of 140
c and 280
c, respectively. In general, mean minimum temperatures below 130
c are likely to
bring about damage to the foliage and a cessation of growth. In many instance soil temperature is
of greater importance to plant life than air temperature and soil temperature influences the
growth and yields of tea. Soil temperature is an important variable with lower limit of about
200
c, at 0.3m under short grass surface (or 160
c beneath a canopy tea), below which shoot
extension rate will be reduced. The corresponding upper levels are 290
c and 250
c, respectively.
The minimum and maximum air temperatures are 120
c and 250
c for gumero and 120
c and 240
c
for wush-wush respectively. Since the temperature at the two places does not fall to the level that
causes frost damage, no significant frost hazard is recorded in these areas.
4.1.5 Light
Light is another important factor for tea production because light increases the quality of tea
leaves by initiating the chemical responsible for flavor. Relatively intensive light improves the
quality of tea leaves. In the case of full light, leaf content of tannin and extract alkaloid substance
increase. The tea plant requires an average of five hours of sunshine per a day. In cloudy
conditions and with heavy and continuous rainfall the yield drops as it does when the weather is
hot, dry and sunny.
4.1.6 Wind
Wind can damage the tea plant when it lowers atmospheric humidity. Excessive wind has
negative influence on tea plants. Dry and hot winds decrease the relative humidity of the
atmosphere and increase the evapotranspiration rate on the surface of the leaves. This cause lack
of moisture in the plant especially in the lower branches and brings about disturbance of
physiological process. Windbreaks therefore are essential to prevent the high evapotranspiration
and water stress, which can occur in unprotected area.
13

14. The recommended plants for windbreaks are Hakea sakigua and tea itself. Tea is comparatively
slow growing but if one row is left unprunned, it will eventually grow up to a satisfactory barrier.
Some pine species must be avoided because their needles can drop on the crip and taint the
leaves. Eucalyptus species compete so strongly for water that no tea should be grown near them;
their leaves can also taint tea.
Windbreaks must be planted in straight lines; otherwise the wind is funneled towards certain
points, causing great turbulence on the other side. Gaps in windbreaks cause a similar funneling
effect. Windbreaks must be planted at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind. The
protection afforded by a windbreak extends approximately as far as ten times its height. Thus,
Hakea saligna, which grows to a height of 6-7.5m, should be planted in rows 60-75 m apart.
4.2 soil requirement
Tea grows on wide range of soil types. Good tea soils, however, are those of volcanic (igneous)
origins, sandstone (sedentary), archaic rock, and organic (peat) soil. It thrives best on well-
drained, permeable, deep and fertile soils with a minimum of 2 m depths. Sometimes tea can be
grown on marginal soils. In east Africa tea soils are described as tropical red earths which
derived from granite and recent volcanic deposits. Such tropical red earth is found on higher
altitudes ranging from 900-2000 masl. In Ethiopia, the soils are red which are slightly acidic in
nature. Soils of gumaro and wush-wush are basically similar, having originated from volcanic
source. They vary in fertility contents but both sites are fertile and they are generally suitable for
tea production.
4.2.1 Soil depth
Tea soils must have good depth to accommodate sufficient moisture, which determines activity
of root hairs. Tea grows best on soil that is 1.5m deep or deeper. But, soil for tea should be at
least 60cm deep with subsoil at least 1m deep. Hard pans, rocks and other obstructions restrict
root growth and should be avoided.
4.2.2 Soil nutrient content
Tea soils should have sufficient nutrients that support proper growth of the plant. A well
balanced amount of available nutrients results in healthy plants. A healthy plant can resist
disease and insect pests better. A major nutrient required by the tea plant includes nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium. These are nutrients that all plants needs in relatively large amounts.
Micronutrients are just as essential for plant growth, but required in smaller quantities. They
include nutrients such as calcium, sulphur, magnesium, boron, copper, iron, manganese,
molybdenum, zinc and chlorine. The ability of the soil to store nutrient is also vitally important.
Clay particles and humus store nutrients because they have many negative charged ‘parking
places’ in which the positive charged nutrients (Mg++, Zn+,NH4,Ca+ ) can be parked.
4.2.3 Soil Acidity (pH)
Tea requires soil that is more acidic than is suitable for many other crops. The best pH for tea is
between 4.5 and 5.5. In general soil pH affects the availability of the soul to release nutrients. If
the pH level is too high or too low, nutrients can get ‘locked up’ in the soul and become
unavailable to plants. The soil pH can also influence plant growth by its effect on activity of
beneficial microorganisms.
14

15. Beneficial fungi can tolerate slightly acidic soils, but bacteria that decompose soil organic matter
are hindered in strong acid soils. This prevents organic matter from breaking down, resulting in
nutrients being ‘locked up’ in undecomposed organic matter.
A strongly acidic soil also causes the rapid loss of soil nutrients. The reason is clay particles and
humus stores positively charged nutrients in negatively charged places. If the soil water is highly
acidic, then the H+ ends up filling up many if the parking spaces. If that happens, some of the
nutrients that would normally be stored in the surface if the clay particles are los. Ethiopian tea
estates have soil pH of between 4.8 and 6.8. as soil pH decreases below 5.8, deficiency of the
basic nutrients (K, Mg, Ca) and phosphates are likely to become significant.
4.2.4 Soil water holding capacity
A good soil can be compared with a new sponge; water enters easily, and remains stored inside
for later use. The ease with which water enters the soil, and stored in the soil, is determined by
soil texture and structure. The best soil texture for tea is loam, which has about equal amounts of
sand, silt, and clay. This texture has enough sand to allow water to enter and move easily in the
soil. And it also has enough clay to retain and store large amounts of water.
The term ‘structure’ refers to the arrangement of the soil particles in to aggregates. These
aggregates are formed when clay and silt particles stick together. This improves the soil, because
it creates pores between the aggregates. In the pores between the aggregates the soil air is found,
which is an important source of oxygen for root respiration. Also, these pores hold water.
Therefore, a good soil structure permits the movement of air and water through the soil, helping
the development of a good root system.
4.2.5 Soil organic matter and microorganisms
The presence of soil microorganisms indicates that there is a tendency for soil fertility. A
microorganism in the soil also promotes soil health. Many different microorganisms either
complete with pathogens with nutrients and /or produce certain substances (called antibiotics)
that reduce pathogen survival (general suppression). Specific suppression, on the other hand, is
usually the result of only one or few beneficial organisms which either parasitize the pathogen,
or induce systematic resistance in the plant specific pathogens.
Soil organic matter content is a key factor for the growth and development of the tea plants.
Some of the benefits of organic matter include:
 Increase the biological activity of the soil.
 Stores and slowly releases nutrients
 Improves water movement, aeration, and ease of working the soil
 Promotes soil health
15

16. Chapter five
Tea improvement
5.1 Hybridization
5.1.1 Natural hybridization
In natural hybridization, based on better performance of yield, quality or disease resistance
capability, two parents are planted side by side in an isolated place and allowed to bear fruits.
Subsequently seeds (F1) are harvested, raised and planted. If average performance of these plants
is found to be better than either parent, then seeds (F1) are released as hybrid seed or Bi-clonal
seed. However, some of the outstanding performers among the progenies are marked and
verified for multi-locational trial and still if found suitable released as clone. Sometimes more
than two parents are used and known as polyclonal seeds. The idea is to introduce more
variability among the F1 seeds.
5.1.2 Hand pollination
Alternatively, pollination or control cross, despite being an important approach has made a
limited success in tea breeding. However, few clones have been released in Kenya and Malawi
using this technique.
5.2 selection
Selection is the most popular, age-old practice in tea breeding. Since commercial tea gardens
were established with seeds, hence lots of variability exists among them. The vegetative
characteristics of tea plants vary over wide ranges. It is therefore not surprising that the yield of
leaf from individual plants and the quality of the tea produced vary widely. Plantation of tea
grown from seed produce a heterogeneous material because of the allogamy of the species. This
heterogeneity results in a great variation in production, quality and suitability for fermentation.
The first step in improving overall yield of and quality was to select individual plants which gave
high yields and high quality tea. Selection can be carried out in several ways, i.e generative and
vegetative means and also by a combination of the two methods.
5.2.1 Generative selection
The seed-bearers were chosen in the fields set aside for production and the bushes retained were
left to grow freely so that they produce seeds. Another method consisted of searching in nursery
for very vigorous tea plants, which were placed in seed gardens and underwent further mass
selection, eliminating the poor producers. This was the method used to obtain the ‘jat’ which had
a yield 50 to 60 percent higher than that of the original populations.
Subsequently selection became mere elaborate so as to obtain varieties well suited to the
ecological conditions of each region( high yield and superior organoleptic qualities). By means
of vegetative selection (using so-called ‘generative’ clones), polyclonal and biclonal seed-bearers
were created. Clonal seeds obtained in this way always give a very heterogeneous vegetative
plant, which can’t be compared with the selected cuttings. This type of selection is also very
long-term.
5.2.2 Vegetative selection
The tea plant is very well suited to vegetative propagation methods (layering, grafting, and
propagation by stem and root cuttings, etc), but clone production is carried out mainly by
propagation by stem cuttings, which is the simplest and most widespread method.
16

17. In general, selection is carried out in the field, but sometimes it is also done in the nursery. In the
field, plots are set aside in which the yield is higher than the average yield of the plantation. The
mother plants are selected according to well-defined criteria, notably the homogeneity of the
field, the vigour of the bush, the density and regular distribution of the shoots on the plucking
table, the weight of the young shoots, the suitability for fermentation; suitability for propagation
by stem cuttings and tolerance of dry conditions. The mother plant candidates are used in
comparative trials for 3 to 6 years and the clones retained are then planted in cutting producing
areas.
Some clones may found unsuitable during the multiplication process. Record must be kept of
important characteristics. In the nursery, the proportion of cuttings that roots easily, the growth
rate of cuttings, the proportion of cuttings that survive hardening off and the size of plants on
transfer to the field are all relevant. In the field, important criteria are the proportion that survive
planting out and the degree of branching, which controls the methods of shaping the bushes,
‘bringing to bearing’, for crop production. In due course, the time from planting to tipping at a
consistent weight of tipping, which is the first crop, will be recorded. Thereafter, regular
harvesting will give comparative yield figures. The weight of pruning at the end of a pruning
cycle gives a useful comparison, and the speed of recovery from prune can be important.
Harvesting will produce sufficient leaf for a series for comparative assessment of quality. These
tests need to be repeated at intervals throughout the year.
5.3 Markers and tea improvement
Recently development of the molecular biology has resulted in alternative DNA-based markers
for crop improvement of tea. These markers can assist the process of traditional breeding with
several efficacies. The greatest advantages of molecular markers are; they are free from the
environmental influence and enable detection of polymophisim at an early stage. The different
markers, which have been employed for improvement of tea, are discussed below.
5.3.1 Morphological markers
Tea has been classified in to different taxa by morphological characters. Morphological
parameters such as leaf architect, growth habits and floral biology are important criteria used by
tea taxonomists. While bush vigour, pruning weight period of recovery from pruning time, plant
height, root mass, root –shoot ratio, plucking point density, dry matter production and
partitioning are considered as yield indicator of tea, caffeine, volatile compounds, green leaf
pigmentation, leaf pubescence, total catechine content and total tannin content etc. have been
used as potential determinants for tea quality. Despite the several disadvantages, these are the
most adopted markers used by tea breeder globally.
5.3.2 Cytological markers
Chromosome number has been been established for the most available taxa of camellia including
tea. Generally tea chromosomes are small size and tend to clump together due to ‘stickiness’.
Tea is diploid (2n= 30), basic chromosome number,(x=15) and karayotype ranges from 1.28µ to
3.44µ. The r value (ratio of long arm to short arm) for all 15 pairs of chromosoms range from
1.00 to 1.91.this consistency in diploid chromosomes number suggests a monophyletic origin of
all camellia species
17

18. 5.3.3 Biochemical markers
Biochemical markers were widely used for characterization of different plant germplasm.
Presence of calcium oxalate crystals, and its quantity in paranchymatous tissue of leaf petioles
nomenclature as phloem index, has been suggested to be a suitable criterion for classifying tea
hybrids. The other biochemical markers include quantity and morphology of the scelerids in the
lead lamina., terene index(T.I), which expresses the ratio between linaloos and linaloos plus
geraniols ,polyphenol oxidase activity, individual polyphenils, amino acids, and total catechine
concentration.
5.3.4 Isozymes markers
Several workers for studying the genetic tendencies, cultivar identification and implication in
hybrid breeding have analyzed isozymes. Among the isozymes such as tetrazolium oxidase,
aspirate aminotransferase and alpha-amaylase were also studied among 7 different tea cultivars
along 3 different species.
5.3.5 RAPD markers
RAPD, random amplified polymorphic DNA assay is being used for a number of areas in plant
taxonomy. At present it is the most preferred DNA markers due to greater speed, easy –to-
perform and non requirement of radioactive materials etc.
5.3.6 ISSR markers
Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) marker has been used for genetic characterization of various
plant species including tea. Because of greater length of ISSR primers, they show greater
repeatability and stability of map position in the genome comparing genotypes of closely related
individual. Studies suggested that the ISSR-PCR methods can be used potentially for genetic
fingerprinting and taxonomic classification of tea genotype.
5.3.7 RFLP markers
Restriceted framgmnet length polymerism (RFLP) has been used to investigate genetic diversity
in cultivated plants and wild relatives. In tea, the techinique was used to assess the genetic
variation of the Japanese green tea using phenyalanine ammonia-lyase(PAL) as a prob. In
combination with two restriction enzymes namely Hind III or EcoRV, a 2s able to differentiate
the Japanese green tea cultivars from the Assam hybrids used in their study.
5.3.8 AFLP markers
Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) being reliable and the most robust DNA
marker can detect more number of polymorphism than RFLPs or RAPDs. Thus AFLP markers
offer an opportunity to perform detailed genetic studies in closely related population. In tea,
AFLP was employed to detect diversity and genetic differentiation of 32 tea clones comprising
Indian and Kenyan origin.
18

19. Chapter six
Tea Propagation and Nursery Management
6.1 methods of tea propagation
Basically tea can be propagated both by sexual and asexual methods, that means sexually by
seed and asexually by vegetative means. From early times seed has been the only source of
propagation until the development of vegetative propagation methods in the late thirties.
6.1.1 Propagation by seed
Tea is virtually self –incompatible and shows a high degree of cross-compatibility (allogamy).
Flowers open in the afternoon and stay open for two days. So cross pollination will be carried out
during these two days usually by insects and sometimes by wind. Though seed is the traditional
source of planting material and convenient to use, it produce a heterogenous plant having
variable yield, quality and suitability for fermentation. Besides variability, seed propagation
delays the plant to reach for plucking. If seed is to be used as a source of planting material, the
seed bearers should be of selected clones, which have been propagated by vegetative means.
These seed bearers should be selected based on good characteristics such as vigorousity,
uniformity, high bearing capacity, tolerance to pest and adverse environmental conditions.
Mature bearers should receive fertilizers, like ammonium sulphate, super phosphate and murate
of potash. The plot should be clean of weeds to facilitate the collection of dehisced seed, which
should be done daily.
6.1.1.1 methods of raising seedlings
There are three alternative methods fo raising seedlings .
Seed at stake
The seeds are planted directly in to the field at the stake marking where to plant the seed. With
ideal climatic conditions or with overhead irrigation, the method can be succesfull, nut with out
irrigation the system results in wastage of resources.
Advantages
Easy, no need to make a nursery.
Convenient, seeds can be planted as soon as they are available.
Demerits
Impossible to achieve a uniform population tea bushes due to variation in performance of
the seeds.
Requires extra planting of seeds because seeds with poor performance may not grow.
Requires frequent weeding,because young seedlings are less competent until they grow to
height of at least 50cm.
Bushes will take longer time to reach the commercial stage.
Stump seedlings
The seeds are planted directly in to the nursery beds and the seedlings are allowed to grow for
two or three years. They are then removed from the nursery with bare roots and their shoots
systems are pruned-off at a height of 10cm above the level of nursery soil.
Sleeved seedlings
The seeds are planted one per sleeve, covered with 2.5cm of soil nad the ‘eyes’ horizontal.
Sleeves of not less than 30cm in length are suitable.
Advantages
19

20. Easy to achive uniform population of strong tea in the field, because only strong healthy
seedlings are selectively transplanted.
Bushes will be alike compared to direct seeding, because seedlings that look very
different are eliminated.
Requires less weeding than planting seeds directly in to the field, because tall and strong
component seedlings are transplanted.
Bushes will reach the commercial stage faster than the direct seeded bushes.
Seedling develop a tap root(carrot root) that can grow deep.
Demerits
Requires nursery propagation.this must dedicate time(10-20 months) and work to make a
nursery and this incurs additional cost of production.
Each tea bushes will be a bit different, because each seed was different. Even though
seedlings that looks very different are eliminated, many difference will not be visible
until after transplanting the seedlings.
6.1.1.2 The seedling nersury
Nursery is a safe area where seedlings are raised with the maximum possible care until they are
ready to go out in to the field. A nursery phase is an important part of the planting opertation in
the cultivation of tea as of many tropical crops. Hence, anursery site should be selected carefully
considering the following conditions:
 Closeness to source of water
 Proximity to planting area
 Accessibility to different infrastructures.
 Slightly flat site (1-2%)
 Free-draining and friable soil with a pH range of 5 to 5.8
 As sufficient area as possible
 Well-sheltered area from prevailing wind and exposed to sun for warmth
 Availability of ample labour
After selecting the appropriate site the land should first be cleared. Especially if the land is
virgin, the vegetative material should be slashed; stumps, stones and other debris should be
removed. Later the land should be tilled thoroughly, divided in to compartment (laid out); seed
bed and /or polythene tube prepared based on the alternative methods of raising seedlings.
For stump seedlings, the soil is dug in to a depth of at least 75cm. beds having less than or equal
to 1.5m width, up to 40 m length, 40-60cm wide path between two adjacent beds should be laid
out. The soil removed from the path and placed on the beds until the beds become raised to 15cm
above the path. Fertilizer should be mixed with the soil and the top half of the bed filled with
subsoil stump rooted cuttings.
For sleeved seedlings, the soil to below the sleeve is dug and forked to a depth of 30cm. the
layout is as above. A plateform is made of 15-20cm height with light walls or wire round each
bed. Transparent polythene tubes with 25cm length and 8-10cm width are prepared. Transparent
20

21. tubes are preferred to black ones because they are not expensive, absorb less heat, dry less slowly
and enable root development to be monitored.
Soil should be prepared ( top soil and subsoil separately) which is free of stones, roots and hard
soil clumps. If the soil contains too much clay, it can be improved by adding sand in proportion
varying from 1:1 to 3:1. If the soil contains too much sand, it can be improved by adding manure
or forest soil as necessary. The bottom 2/3rd
of the polythene tueb should be filled with topsoil
and top 1/3rd
by subsoil fairly firmly (not too loose or too hard). The soil-filled polythene tubes
will be arranged on the prepared platform. Later they are covered with mulch until seeds-sown or
cutting planted, in order to avoid the surface of the soil from drying out. Shade should be
constructed with a height of 1.8 to 2m from the ground level.
6.1.1.3 Seed preparation
Establishment of seed bearers
Seed bearers could be established either by directly planting seedlings of known variety or by
converting a field of matured tea plant in to clonal seed bearer by grafting clonal scions on to the
matured tea plant. The best grafting techinique here is approaching grafting because it is simple,
convenient and cheap.
Seed collection
Tea bushes start flowering and seed production after 5-10 years depending on variety. The
selected bushes should not be pruned and plucked because pruning makes the bushes remain in
vegetative state and removes leaves which are responsible for the conversion of solar energy to
chemical energy that can be utilized for developing new seeds. The bushes should be supplied
with balanced fertilizer. This will allow the bushes to make more seeds and better-quality seeds.
Flowering of tea bushs is usually frim October to December and fruit maturation requires 9
months after flowering. When fruits mature shiny appearance is changed to rough and the fruits
starts to open, and the seeds fall on to the ground , about one year later.
Choosing seeds
Some bushes produce larger seeds, and still some other bushes produce smaller seeds. Variation
in seed size from single bush has significant effect on seedling vigorousity. The larger the seed
size the higher the stored food, whereas the smaller the seed size the lesser the stored food.
Therefore, smaller seeds that are collected from single bush should be discarded either by
floatation or by using mesh of standard size (12.5 mm)
Soak the seed in water, ensuring that they do not form a thick mass of seeds floating on the
surface and stir the seeds occasionally. Those, which sink within 24 hours, can go to the routine
germinating area. Those which still floating 24 hours should be given a further 48 hours to sink
and should be kept separate at every stage from earlier sinkers and after 72 hours the floaters be
discared. In addition punctured, black and sticky seeds must be discarded.
Storage and transportation
The tea has a limited germinative power and can lose their ability to sprout and must therefore be
planted as soon as possible after collection. If it has to stored , don’t expose them to sunlight.
They should be kept in cool, shaded, well ventilated room that allow free movement of air all
21

22. around each of the containers of seed. If it has to be transported for a long distance, it should be
packed in boxes in moist charcoal.
Seed cracking
Before planting in the nursery, seeds must be pre-sprouted. They are spread out in the sun,
preferably on black plastic, and kept moist by frequent watering. The seeds should be checked
every 2-3 days. In seeds that have begun to sprout, the tough seed coat will crack. As soon as the
seed coats crack, they are removed and sown in the nursery. This is required to crack slightly the
hard seed coat to allow free entry of moisture.
6.1.1.4 Seed sowing
In cloudy weather, the seeds are placed on beds raised 15cm above the surrounding soil or in
polythene tubes. The seeds should be planted with their ‘eyes’ horizontal. They should be
covered by 2.5 cm of soil. For stumps, the seeds should be planted at a spacing of 12.5cm
triangular.
6.1.1.5 management of seedlings
Watering
Seedlings should be frequently watered, keeping the soil moist but not saturated because
seedlings require moderate soil moisture for their normal growth. Pure sandy soils need to be
watered more frequently than medium(loam) soils. Under dry weather condition more amount of
water will be needed and in wet or cloudy conditions plants require less amount of water.
Watering is usually by sprinkler system and it is done in the morning or evenings(more
preferably in the evening).
Mulching
Mulching is covering the soil surface with mulching materials such as grasses, saw dusts,etc.
mulching maintains soil moisture, regulates soil temperature and avoids disturbance of seedlings
while watering.
Shade construction
The nursery should be protected from the sun because it can damage the seedlings and heavy
rainfall because of mechanical damage and up root of the seedlings by a shade trellis made of
bamboo or wood. To support the trellis, vertical posts of bamboo or wood are firmly derived in
to the ground at interval of 2-3 m with 150- 160 cm height. Then, a frame of horizontal bamboo
crosspieces is made on the top of the poles. Finally, the shade is provided by thinly spread
grasses, palm leaves. The shade should be strong enough to withstand heavy winds. The Shade
could be temporary or permanent.
Pest management
Seedlings that are infected with disease should be removed before the disease can spread to
neighbouring seedlings. Weeding should always be made by hand pulling. Chemical herbicides
should not be used because the chemical can damage the seedling themselves at this stage.
Fertilization
Once the plants have several leaves, begin applying balanced fertilizer once every two month.
Spray the plant with clean water after fertilizing to wash of any fertilizer paricles sticking to the
tender leaves.
Hardening off
Plants are usually ready for field planting about 10 months after sowing seeds(can range from 8-
12 months). About four months before planting, start taking a way the shade little by little so that
22

23. the plants develop resistance to the sun. then, remove the shade completely on days that are
cloud and cool. Put a little shade back on days that are sunny and hot. For the final 1-2 months,
the seedlings should not have any shade.
6.1.2 Propagation by stem cutting
Vegetative propagation produces uniform plants which grow faster as compared to plants raised
from seed. Tea can be propagated vegetatively by cutting budding, grafting and in vitro
propagation (tissue culture) methods.
The usual method of vegetative propagation in tea plant is by the use of cutting, which enables
regulate multiplication of the tea plants selected and full reproduction all their characteristics. In
this method special mother trees are kept as a source of cuttings.while having a mother tree,
bushes having the following unsatisfactory characteristics should be rejected.
 Lax or loose plucking table
 Upright habit as opposed to spreading habit
 Scarcity of foliage leaves below plucking table
 Tendency to flowering
 Prevalence of dormant buds
 Close or short internodes
 Susceptibility to disease and insect pests
The mother plant bushes are planted separately so that they can be given special treatment.
These bushes should not have been pruned in the past 4-9 months and plucking should be
stopped. And bushes should be given fertilizer at a higher rate than normal fields.
6.1.2.1 methods of raising rooted-cuttings
There are two alternative methods of raising rooted cuttings.
Stump-rooted cutting : Cutting could be made from the mother bushe planted in the nursery
and are stumped before they are transplanted to the permanent field. Rarely used.
Sleeved-rooted cuttings: prepared cuttings could be planted in polythene bag.
Advantages
 All bushes will be the same , because all cuttings are the same.
 Possible to get uniform population because propagation is asexual
 Weeding is less frequent
 Fast development to reach commercial stage
Disadvantages
 It requires extra time and labour, and careful work to make a nursery.
 Bushes do not develop a strong tap root( carrot root)
23

24. 6.1.2.2 The cutting nursery
A nursery phase is an important part of the planting operation in the cultivation of tea as many of
tropical crops and the site should be carefully selected. After selecting the appropriate site the
land should first be cleared. Especially if the land is virgin, the vegetative material should be
slashed; stumps, stones and other debris should be removed. Later the land should be tilled
thoroughly, divided in to compartment (laid out); seed bed and /or polythene tube prepared based
on the alternative methods of raising seedlings which are stump-rooted cutting and sleeved-
cuttings.
6.1.2.3 Preparation of cuttings
The cuttings should be collected from mother bush early in the morning. Cut stems must be
wrapped in damp sacking under shade and watered. The cuttings should be made under shade,
and kept shaded at every stage thereafter.
Cutting should be not be taken from the whole part of the branch. Only vigorous young shoots
between five and seven months old should be used for making cuttings. Normally the top 3-4
leaves and the bottom parts are discarded and so cuttings are taken only from the middle part. As
result, green or slightly reddening wood cuttings can be made. Rooting is easier in green wood
than red wood. If cuttings are too hard they will hardly root or grow poorly and may oroduce
flowers early which exhaust the food reserves in the stems and this may lead to death. The
young, succulent green shoots have less stored food and can easily damaged while planting. So
old wood and young green shoots should not be used.
Single leaf cuttings are made by s slopping cut above each leaves. Very long internodes can be
shortened by another slopping cut. Finished cuttings must be placed in water until planted in the
nursery. Cutting should be done with sharp knife, so as to minimize damage to conducive tissues.
The good material is now made in to individual cuttings each consisting of a single leaf with 3 to
4 cm of stem. This is done by making two cuts; one just above the bud (0.5cm above the leaf)
and slopping away from the bud, and second across the stem 3 to 4cm below the top cut (2.5cm
below the leaf), again a slopping cut. Both cuts should be parallel to the leaf, then cuttings should
be placed in to a container full of water. They are soaked in water about 30 minutes before
planted.
6.1.2.4 planting cuttings
The stem is inserted in the soil at a slight angle so that the leaf rests on the surface and the leaves
should not overlap. Careful and controlled watering is essential after planting.clones vary iin
their requirement for rooting medium. Most of them only intiate root when there is virtually no
humus in the soil,when the ph is below 5.5 and when there is a little clay or sand present. Friable
acid subsoil is therefore ideal.
6.1.2.5 management of rooted cuttings
Watering
When the whole bed is completely planted by cutting the soil should be watered thoroughly.
Watering should be done as strong as strong jets may displace cuttings.seedling should be
frequently watered at nursery because they require enough and moderate soil moisture for their
normal growth. The frequency of Watering varies depending on soil type and weather
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25. conditions. Pure sandy soils need to be waterd more frequently than medium(loam) soils. Under
dry weather condition more amount of water will be needed and in wet or cloudy conditionplants
require less amounts of water. Watering is usually by sprinkler system and it is done in the
morning or evening more preferably in the evening.
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