Sultan Qaboos UniversityCollege of Economics and Political ScienceIn.docx

Sultan Qaboos UniversityCollege of Economics and Political
ScienceIntroduction to Management Information
SystemsINFS2412 - SPRING 2020Case Study Individual Project
(20% of Final Grade)BackgroundThe COVID-19 Coronavirus
pandemic is spreading around the world at a rapid pace,
affecting every aspect of how we live, how we study, how we
work and how we shop. While the coronavirus brought many
challenges and threats for some businesses, it created new
opportunities for others across all industries. Due to the
outbreak, quarantine measures have been implemented in
countries around the world (including Oman), forcing
companies, government organizations, schools and universities
to shift large part of their operations online.RequirementsYou
(as an individual - not in a group) are required to:· Read chapter
7 in the textbook and watch the provided online lecture on the
chapter. This will give you enough idea about the concepts of
E-commerce and E-business.· Research and describe how
information and communication technologies are playing a vital
role during COVID-19 pandemic in enabling many of us to
carry out our regular duties from the comfort of our homes. This
may involve researching the current business situation and
related issues on how this pandemic is disrupting every
industry, creating new challenges and opportunities.· You are
also required to highlight the key issues (ethics, privacy, and
security), as discussed in chapters 3 and 4, as well as in section
7.5 in chapter 7. · Use trustworthy resources in your research
form the Internet, social media, mobile applications, and also
the Website of SQU main library.SubmissionPrepare and submit
a report using the below template. A soft copy of the report
must be submitted to the lecturer via email no later than 12pm
on Thursday 4th of June 2020. Late submission will attract 3%
per day.0. Title PageInclude a title that describes the content of
your report, your name, student ID, section number and your
instructor’s name1. Executive Summary 150-200 words that
provide a general summary of the report 2. Introduction 200-250

words that give general exploratory remarks and highlight the
main sections of the report. 3. Business during COVID-193.1
Overview250-300 words that provide a general description
of COVID-19 impact on businesses. 3.2 E-Commerce 400-450
words that analyze the current status of e-commerce as
follows3.2.1 Definition 3.2.2 Benefits 3.2.3 Case Study from
Oman 3.2.4 Challenges/Risks 3.3 E-Learning and E-training
400 – 450 words describing e-learning and e-training
sectors during COVID-193.3.1 Definition 3.3.2 Benefits 3.3.3
Case Study from Oman 3.3.4 Challenges/Risks 3.4
Teleworking400 – 450 words explaining how jobs in different
sectors have been transformed3.4.1 Definition 3.4.2 Benefits
3.4.3 Case Study from Oman 3.4.4 Challenges/Risks 4.
Conclusion 150-200 words describing your own opinion and
views about the above experiences5. References List all the
references and resources you have used in your report in APA
format. You may use an online APA citation generator, click
here.
Policies related to transgender athletes are currently one of the
most discussed and controversial issues in all of sports. The
development of policies for transgender athletes is an important
issue for several reasons. In addition legal application, policy
development in this area has practical application in the form of
sensitivity, fairness, and continued growth in women's athletics
(The Associated Press, 2019; West-Sell, Van Ness, &
Ciccolella, 2019).
From a legal perspective, the primary issue seems to be the
definition of the word "sex" (Higgins, 2019; Milanovich, 2019;
West-Sell, Van Ness, & Ciccolella, 2019). Title IX uses the
language "on the basis of sex" in its landmark legislation in
1972. The Supreme Court recently held heated discussions on
whether gender identification or sexual orientation should be
included under the umbrella of the existing language (Higgins,
2019).
In regard to fairness, two biological males, that now identify as

females, have won a combined 15 woman's track championship
titles since 2017. Those titles were previously held by 10
different biologically female athletes (Milanovich, 2019).
Policies in amateur sports across the country and now being
adjusted to include transgender athletes, regardless of whether
they have officially begun the process of permanently altering
their physiology (Milanovich, 2019). This raises several
questions.
1. If a trend like this continues, how could it impact women's
sports long-term?
2. What a trend such as this impact the progress made since the
passing of Title IX in 1972?
3. How can this issue be handled in a sensitive way as
discussions move forward?
4. Would state-wide policy changes across the country impact
private or schools with a religious affiliation?
5. Finally, what ideas can you share to possible resolve the
situation?
Directions: Week 6 Assignment:
Please review the resources provided in this assignment, as well
as any other resources you locate through your own research.
Then, in a 3-4 page essay, please share your position on the
issue of transgender policies in sports, as well as how you think
this complex issue will play out over the next several months
until the Supreme Court rules on the case. Try to place yourself
in the position of athletes, transgender athletes, sports
administrators, parents, and fans, in order to consider all
stakeholders in your analysis. Be sure to carefully proof your
work, and follow APA format throughout. Please include a title
page that includes your name and the assignment topic, as well
as a reference page at the end of your essay which includes a
minimum of five (5) scholarly sources. A minimum of three of
references must not be provided above. Don't forget that every
source should be correctly cited in the text throughout your
essay.

References
DANIELS, M. J.; NORMAN, W. C. (2020) Estimating the
Economic Impacts of Seven Regular Sport Tourism
Events. Journal of Sport & Tourism, [s. l.], v. 8, n. 4, p. 214–
222
Case, R., & Branch, J. D. (2003). A Study to Examine the Job
Competencies of Sport Facility Managers. International Sports
Journal, 7(2), 25
Hsieh, L., Wang, C., & Yoder, T. W. (2011). Factors associated
with professional baseball consumption: A cross-cultural
comparison study. International Journal of Business and
Information, 6(2), 135-159. Retrieved from https://search-
proquest-
com.ezproxy1.apus.edu/docview/910986309?accountid=8289
Singh, B., Singh, K., & Sharma, N. (2010). Equality, equity and
inclusion: Transgender athletes' participation in competitive
sports - a new era. Physical Culture and Sport, 49, 85.
doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy1.apus.edu/10.2478/v10141-010-
0020-2
Pontarelli, D. (2013, Sep 03). Transgender athletes still have
hurdles to equality. University Wire Retrieved from
https://search-proquest-
com.ezproxy1.apus.edu/docview/1766295312?accountid=8289
Hsieh, Wang, and Yoder 135
Volume 6, Number 2, December 2011

Factors Associated with
Professional Baseball Consumption:
A Cross-Cultural Comparison Study
Li-Wen Hsieh
Department of Recreational Sport Management
National Taipei University
E-mail: [email protected]
Chien-Hsin Wang
Department of Recreational Sports
National Taiwan College of Physical Education
Tracy Wisdom Yoder
Department of Research and Statistics
Running USA
ABSTRACT
Sports are very much a part of global markets. This study
compares the
underlying differences of professional baseball consumption
behaviors between
two distinct cultures, the United States (US) and Taiwan.
Previous studies have
indicated that sporting event consumption is influenced by sport

fans‟ identity or
team identification, sport consumption motivation, the influence
of social agents,
and some demographic variables. However, there is still a lack
of integration of
the aforementioned factors, and our understanding on cultural
differences is
relatively sparse when explaining sporting event consumption
behaviors. In the
current study, data were collected from questionnaires sent to
residents in one US
and one Taiwanese city. The authors used independent t-tests,
stepwise
multiple-regression analyses, and path analyses to explore the
cultural differences
in sport consumption. The comparison results indicated that the
Taiwanese tend
to watch more professional baseball games on television and
have higher levels
of identification as a baseball fan, rather than as the fan of one
particular team.
Family influence on sport consumption was found to be
particularly important
for people in the US, whereas escape motive and gender were
found to be
important for the Taiwanese.
Keywords: Sport consumption, sport fan identification,
spectator motivation,
social influence
136 Factors Associated with Professional Baseball

Consumption:
International Journal of Business and Information
1. INTRODUCTION
Sports have become a prominent part of the global
contemporary
consumption phenomenon. One sports event may drive the
growth of an
extensive number of related businesses, such as sports products
and souvenirs,
the media, commercials, and sponsorships. The sports industry
is so exuberant
that, in the United States (US) alone, it is estimated at
US$441.1 billion [Plunkett,
2008]. The merit of sports events is that millions of sports fans,
or consumers, are
brought together through live attendance and television (TV)
broadcasting. For
instance, 3 million spectators came to stadiums to watch the
2006 World Cup,
and 26.3 million people watched the game on TV, generating
around US$25
million in ticket revenues and US$1,380 million in TV
broadcast rights revenues
[Fifty-Seventh FIFA Congress, 2007].
Global strategies have been considered by many sports
organizations, which
were originally domestically based. Baseball, rated as the

second most popular
sport after US football [Statistical Abstract of the US, 2010], is
one of the many
US team sports that have potential global market benefits.
Consequently, major
league baseball (MLB) pays great attention to the markets of
baseball-rich
countries in Latin America and Asia [Riper, 2005]. Can we
assume, however, that
the US sports business model suits consumers in other cultures?
To date, our
knowledge about different sport consumption behaviors in
various cultures or
countries is relatively sparse. More investigation is needed,
particularly for
sports marketers who strive to maximize their organizations‟
business dollars.
In Taiwan, where baseball is almost as popular as it is in the
US, it is
deemed as a potential target market for MLB. Taiwan‟s
domestic professional
baseball league, the Chinese Professional Baseball League
(CPBL), was
established in 1990, and, each year, approximately 1 million
Taiwanese attend
CPBL games and an estimated 2.6 million watch the games on
TV [Chinese
Professional Baseball League, 2010; ESPN Star, 2009]. The
value of the current
study is to illustrate the underlying differences in professional
baseball
consumption behaviors between two distinct populations, the
US spectators for
MLB and the Taiwanese for CPBL.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section presents information from the literature on the
sports
consumption model and cross-cultural studies on sports
spectators.
2.1. Sports Consumption Model
Previous studies on sports consumption in the US have focused
on
attendance at sporting events. In particular, the interests of
early researchers
focused on predicting overall attendance at sporting events; a
number of these
studies have been conducted since 1969 [Bird, 1982;
DeSchriver, 1999; Jones,
1969; Scully, 1974; Wells, Southall, and Peng, 2000]. Over the
last ten years, the
number of studies focusing on individuals‟ psychological
factors for attending
sports events have grown in the sports marketing field [Funk,
Filo, Beaton, and
Pritchard, 2009; Funk, Mahony, and Ridinger, 2002; Kim and
Trail, 2010; Trail
and James, 2001]. More specifically, the mainstream began a

few decades ago to
comprehensively understand fan identification and spectator
motivation [Trail
and James, 2001; Wann, 1995]. The professional baseball
consumption model in
the current study is established using the aforementioned
perspectives.
2.1.1. Sports Fan Identification
Sports fan identification is an important factor of spectator
consumption
behavior. According to social identity theory [Tajfel, 1982], an
individual‟s
identity to his/her in-group influences his/her group-supportive
behaviors.
Therefore, a fan‟s level of connection to a team, or a sport, may
influence that
person‟s consumption decision. There are two fashions in
measuring sports fan
identification. Some research measures team identity, which
indicates the extent
to which a fan feels psychologically connected to a team [Fisher
and Wakefield,
1998; Wakefield, 1995; Wann and Branscombe, 1993]. Other
studies are related
to sports fandom identity, which measures a person‟s
identification with his or
her role as a sports fan [Dietz-Uhler, Harrick, End, and
Jacquemotte, 2000; Wann,
2002].
Sports fan identification has been used to explain fan group-
supportive
behaviors, especially attendance. Research has found that those

who identify
strongly with their team attend more games and predict more
future success for
their team [Murrell and Dietz, 1992; Wann and Dolan, 1994].
Moreover, Fisher
and Wakefield [1998] found that fan identification significantly
explains three
group-supportive behaviors: game behaviors, purchases of
licensed products, and
attendance. Studies [Armstrong, 2007; Kim and Trail, 2010;
Laverie and Arnett,
2000; Swanson, Gwinner, Larson, and Janda, 2003; Trail, Fink,
and Anderson,
2003; Wakefield, 1995; Wakefield and Sloan, 1995] that use fan
identification to
explain attendance show that sports fan identification normally
explains 10% to
30% of the variance in spectator behaviors in attending games.
H1: The degree of a person’s fan identification positively
influences the
extent of his/her professional baseball consumption.
2.1.2. Spectator Motivation
Motivationally oriented psychologists like to look inside the
person for
his/her desires; they assume that the person is an active
participant with needs,
desires, hopes, and fears [Pittman, 1998]. Psychological needs
for sports
spectator consumption have been studied for many years [Gantz
and Wenner,
1995; Pan, Gabert, McGaugh, and Branvold, 1997; Sloan, 1989;
Wann and

Wilson, 1999; Weiller and Higgs, 1997]. Scales measuring
sports fan or spectator
motives have also been developed and proposed [Funk et al.,
2002; Kahle,
Kambara, and Rose, 1996; Milne and McDonald, 1999; Trail
and James, 2001;
Wann, 1995; Zhang et al., 2001]. In spite of different scales,
spectator motives
Consumption:
can be basically categorized into nine types: self-
esteem/vicarious achievement,
entertainment, group affiliation, family, aesthetics,
eustress/drama, escape,
knowledge acquisition, and economics [Trail and James, 2001;
Wann, 1995].
A positive correlation has been found between spectator
motivation and fan
identification [Gantz and Wenner, 1995; Trail and James, 2001;
Wann, 1995;
Wann, Royalty, and Rochelle, 2002]. Among spectator motives,
some illustrated
potentially significant attributions for explaining sports
consumption behaviors.
These include: interest in the sport or team [Funk et al., 2002],

acquisition of
knowledge [Trail and James, 2001; Zhang, Smith, Pease, and
Mahar, 1996],
achievement seeking [Funk et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2001],
entertainment or
aesthetics [Funk et al., 2002; Trail and James, 2001; Zhang et
al., 2001],
salubrious effects or escape [Zhang et al., 2001], physical skills
(Trail and James,
2001], and role models [Funk et al., 2002]. Four studies showed
that overall
spectator motivation can explain 10% to 32% of the variance in
spectator
attendance [Funk et al., 2009; Kahle et al., 1996; Trail and
James, 2001; Zhang et
al., 2001]. One study revealed that 40% of the variance in sports
media
consumption was composed of spectator motivation [Andrew,
Kim, O‟Neal,
Greenwell, and James, 2009]. Spectator motivation was also
found to be an
important factor of fan identification, contributing to 50% to
70% of the
explained variance [Funk et al., 2009; Judson and Carpenter,
2005; Trail et al.,
2003; Woo, Trail, Kwon, and Anderson, 2009].
H2a: The degree of a person’s spectator motives positively
influences the
extent of his/her professional baseball consumption.
H2b: The degree of a person’s spectator motives positively
influences the
extent of his/her sports fan identifications.

2.1.3. Influence of Social Agents
Bandura and Walters [1963] suggested that people are active
learners who
observe and imitate others; their attitudes and behaviors are
influenced by the
people surrounding them, especially those with whom they have
a strong
relationship. The influence of socialization agents, such as
family, peers, school,
and community, has been widely researched in sports. Family
and peers were
found to be the most influential socialization agents for sports
consumption
[McPherson, 1976; Wakefield, 1995; Wann, Tucker, and
Schrader, 1996; Weiller
and Higgs, 1997). Wakefield‟s study [1995] illustrates that
social agents should
have a direct influence on sports spectator identification,
perceived values of
events, and perceived community acceptance. As such, it
indirectly impacts
sports consumption behavior.
H3a: The degree of a person’s social influence on watching
baseball games
positively influences the extent of his/her professional baseball
consumption.

H3b: The degree of a person’s social influence on watching
baseball games
positively influences the extent of his/her sports fan
identifications.
2.1.4. Demographic Variables Related to Sports Event
Consumption
Watching sports involves an investment of time, energy, and
money. Sports
spectators need to decide whether a sports event is valuable
enough to invest
their resources. Generally, researchers organize determinants of
event attendance
into four categories: economics, socio-demographics,
attractiveness of games,
and residual preferences such as weather, convenience, and
special promotion
activities [Boyd and Krehbiel, 1999; Bird, 1982; DeSchriver,
1999; Rivers and
DeSchriver, 2002]. Factors such as ticket price, substitute forms
of entertainment,
TV effect, travel distance, and other sports attractions in the
area may have a
negative influence on sports consumption. Research on
spectator attendance
reveals that differences in ethnic populations, gender, age, and
socioeconomic
status may influence sports event consumption, as well as sports
fan
identification [Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Murrell and Dietz,
1992; Pan et al., 1997].

In addition, people who are male, young adults, and have higher
household
incomes tend to be highly identified fans and consume more
sports events.
H4a: Demographic variables are associated with the extent of a
person’s
professional baseball consumption.
H4b: Demographic variables are associated with the extent of a
person’s
sports fan identifications.
Based on the literature review, Figure 1 illustrates the
conceptual model of
professional baseball consumption that was used in the current
study to
investigate underlying differences between the US and
Taiwanese cultures.
Figure 1. Conceptual Model of Professional Baseball
Consumption
2. Age
4. Income
6. Distance to
Ballpark
Background Variable

1. Gender
3. Education
5. Marriage
2. Aesthetic
4. Escape
6. Physical Skill
Spectator Motivation
1. Achievement
3. Drama
5. Knowledge
7. Social Affiliation
Professional Baseball
Consumption
1. Games Attended
2. Games Watched on TV
Sport Fan Identification
1. Team Identification
2. Baseball Fandom

Influence of Social Agents
1. Family Influence
2. Peer Influence
Consumption:
2.2. Cross-Cultural Studies of Sports Spectators
Cross-cultural studies of sports spectators are still relatively
few. In the
current study, the cultural value of individualism-collectivism is
the main vehicle
used to analyze and compare Eastern and Western sports
spectators. According to
Hofstede [2001], the US represents a culture of individualism
where people tend
to initiate behaviors independently of others, whereas Taiwan is
more of a
collectivistic society where people live close together among a
number of
relatives and tend to think of themselves as part of a “we”
group. Cultural
differences may play a crucial role in sports consumption
behaviors. Spectators

from a more individualistic society may have higher levels of
sports team
identification than those from a more collectivistic one. A study
showed that US
youths exhibit higher levels of team identification than their
Greek and Korean
peers [Dalakas and Kropp, 2002]. Another study found that US
participants,
when compared with those in Taiwan and Korea, not only have
higher levels of
team identification but also demonstrate a stronger relationship
between their
team identification and spectator sports attitudes [Gau and Kim,
2011].
Cultural differences in baseball fan socialization processes,
known as
ritualizations, have been discussed by Chun, Gentry, and
McGinnis [2004]. In
particular, Chun and colleagues hypothesized that, for a more
individualistic
culture like the US, fans tend to adhere to more self-disciplined
rules,
self-expressive aspects of symbolic performance, rural and pre-
industrial aspects
of traditionalism in baseball fan rituals, and close social groups
(e.g., family or
friends) as influential specialists. For a more collectivistic
society like Japan,
however, fans are likely to adhere to more group-disciplined
rules,
collective-expressive aspects of symbolic performance,
modernization aspects of
traditionalism in baseball fan rituals, and socially authorized
groups (e.g., media
or supporters) as influential specialists.

3. METHODOLOGY
The section discusses the methodology of the current study
with regard to
participants, measures, and statistical analysis.
3.1. Participants
The participants in this study were selected from two cities, one
in the US
and one in Taiwan. A total of 2,000 questionnaires were
distributed by local
marketing companies to mailboxes of residents living within a
50-mile radius of
the local professional baseball ballparks. There were 281 US
survey replies (a
14.1% response rate), 213 of which were valid in the data
analysis. Because of
the initial low response rate (2.8%) in Taiwan, a convenience
sampling method
was used, in which 30 volunteers from selected and
representative local
companies or organizations helped distribute questionnaires at
their workplaces.
Eventually, 202 valid Taiwanese respondents were used in this
study.

3.2. Measures
The English version of the questionnaire used in this study
includes
instruments that were adopted from previous US studies. In
order to conduct a
cross-cultural comparison, the authors developed a Chinese
version of the
questionnaire. Content validity was ensured via a five-member
Taiwanese expert
panel and a back-translation method. Both the English and
Chinese versions of
the questionnaires consisted of five major parts, with a total of
44 items.
Demographics. Demographic information in the study included
gender, age,
education, marital status, annual income, and travel time to city
ballparks.
Sport Consumption. The concept of spectators‟ direct and
indirect sports
consumption behaviors was adopted in the current study
[McPherson, 1976;
Mullin, Hardy, and Sutton, 2000]. Two 7-choice items were
designed to help
recall numbers in the previous year of direct consumption by
games attended, as
well as numbers of indirect consumption by games watched on
TV.
Sport Fan Identification. Two facets of spectator identification
were

measured. First, the modified 4-item Sports Spectator
Identification Scale [SSIS;
Wann and Branscombe, 1993] was used to assess participants‟
identification with
a particular baseball team. Second, Wann‟s (2002] 5-item
Sports Fandom
Questionnaire (SFQ) was used to assess participants‟ identities
as baseball fans.
The measurements were both rated by a 6-point scale.
Influence of Social Agents. A 7-point scale of the social agent‟s
influence
on sport spectators was modified from the measurement of
Perceived Reference
Group Acceptance in Wakefield‟s [1995] study. Influences of
family and peers
were tracked as two separate sub-scales (three items for each).
Family influence
indicates the involvement level of an individual‟s family in
consuming baseball
games. Peer influence indicates the involvement level of an
individual‟s friends
in consuming baseball games.
Spectator Motivation. Participants evaluated their spectator
motivation via
the modified 21-item Motivation Scale for Sports Consumption
[MSSC;
modified version, Trail et al., 2003]. The Chinese version of the
MSSC used in
this study was validated in previous research [Hsieh and Wu,
2009]. A 5-point
scale was used to measure seven motives (three items for each).
Achievement is
the extent to which an individual watches games because of a
heightened sense

of self-esteem when the team wins. Aesthetics is the extent to
which an individual
watches games because of the enjoyment of the artistic beauty
and grace of the
sport. Drama is the extent to which an individual watches games
because of the
excitement and suspense of the competition. Escape is the
extent to which an
individual watches games because it provides a diversion from
the rest of his or
her life. Knowledge is the extent to which an individual watches
games because
of the interests of sports-related knowledge and strategies.
Physical skill is the
extent to which an individual watches games because of the
players‟ sports skills.
Social affiliation is the extent to which an individual watches
games because it
provides an opportunity to interact with other fans.
Consumption:
3.3. Statistical Analysis
To evaluate the measurement models, the authors performed
three separate
confirmatory factor analyses for identification, the influence of

social agents, and
motivation, using LISREL 8.52. Descriptive statistics were used
to better
understand the general differences of participant characteristics
between the two
cultures. Chi-square and independent t analyses were used to
compare
differences in demographic and psychological variables between
the two cultures.
Stepwise multiple regression analyses, using SPSS 12.0, were
performed to
explore important indicators for sports consumption and
identification. Last, a
2-group path analysis using LISREL 8.52 was used to examine
the differences of
the underlying relationships on sport consumption between the
two cultures. The
coefficients from the common metric standardized solutions
were examined for
ensuring the comparability of the results from the two cultures.
4. RESULTS
This section presents study results relating to measurement
examination,
descriptive statistics, preliminary analysis, and model
comparison.
4.1. Measurement Examination
The model fit indices for the confirmatory factor analyses
illustrated
acceptable model fits for all measurements; hence, the construct
validity was met
(Table 1). Further examination indicated that factor loadings of
the

measurements were all significant (ps <0.05) and convergent
validity was met
[Anderson and Gerbing, 1988]. Internal consistency reliabilities
were adequate
for Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.79 to 0.95.
The AVE scores
ranged from 0.54 to 0.82, indicating good construct reliabilities
(Table 2).
Table 1
Fit Indices for the Measurement Models
Model χ
2
(df) SRMR CFI NNFI RMSEA (90% CI)
Identification 63.82 (20) 0.024 0.99 0.98 0.073 (0.053-0.093)
Influence of
Social Agent
17.92 (6)
0.031
0.99

0.98
0.069 (0.034-0.110)
Motivation 469.24 (165) 0.045 0.98 0.98 0.070 (0.063-0.077)
Note: SRMR=Standardized Root Mean Square Residual;
CFI=Comparative Fit Index ; NNFI=Non-Normed Fit Index;
RMSEA=Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
Table 2
Factor Loadings and Reliability Statistics for the Measurement
Models
Measurement, Factor, and Item β α AVE
Identification

Team Identification
0.95
0.82
How important to you is it that the [Team] win? 0.92
How strongly do you see yourself as a fan of the
[Team]?
0.92
How strongly do your friends see you as a fan of the
[Team]?
0.91
During the season, how closely do you follow the
[Team] via any of the following: in person, on the radio
or on TV, or news or a newspaper?
0.86

Baseball Fandom 0.93 0.71
I consider myself to be a baseball fan. 0.89
I believe that following baseball is the most enjoyable
form of entertainment.
0.61
My friends see me as a baseball fan. 0.95
Team Identification 0.95 0.82
My life would be less enjoyable if I were not allowed to
follow baseball.
0.83
Being a baseball fan is very important to me. 0.90
Influence of Social Agent
Family influence
0.86
0.68
How often does your family watch professional baseball
games?

0.64
In my family, going to a [Team] game is:
(unpopular-popular)
0.86
In my family, going to a [Team] game is:
(unimportant-important)
0.95
Peer influence 0.84 0.69
How often do your closest friends watch professional
baseball games?
0.59
Among my friends, going to a [Team] game is:
(unpopular-popular).

0.88
Among my friends, going to a [Team] game is:
(unimportant-important).
0.97
Motivation
Achievement
0.91
0.76
I feel a personal sense of achievement when the team
does well.
0.88
I feel like I have won when the team wins. 0.86
I feel proud when the team plays well. 0.88

Consumption:
Measurement, Factor, and Item β α AVE
Motivation (Cont’d)
Aesthetics
0.90
0.74
I enjoy the natural beauty in the game of baseball 0.88
I enjoy the gracefulness associated with the game of
baseball.
0.82
Drama 0.85 0.61
I enjoy the drama of close games. 0.89
I prefer watching a close game rather than a one-sided

game.
0.72
I enjoy it when the outcome is not decided until the very
end.
0.73
Escape 0.79 0.54
The game provides an escape for me from my
day-to-day routine.
0.66
Going to the game is a change of pace from what I
regularly do.
0.76
Knowledge 0.92 0.79
I increase my knowledge about baseball at the game. 0.87

I increase my understanding of baseball strategy by
watching the game.
0.92
I can learn about the technical aspects of baseball by
watching the game.
0.87
Physical skill 0.88 0.73
The athletic skills of the players are something I
appreciate.
0.78
I enjoy watching a well-executed athletic performance. 0.85
I enjoy a skillful performance by the team. 0.92
Social affiliation 0.89 0.73
I enjoy interacting with other spectators at the game. 0.85
I enjoy talking with others at the game. 0.86

I enjoy socializing with people sitting near me at the
game.
0.86
4.2. Descriptive Statistics
Demographic profiles comprising gender, age, marriage,
education, and
travel time to ballparks were established for both cultures.
Among the US
participants, 74% were male, 84% were over 41 years old, 73%
were married,
and 78% had a college or advanced degree. Among the
Taiwanese participants,
47% were male, 78% were over 51 years old, 52% were married,
and 83% had a
college or advanced degree. Significant differences were found
in all
demographic variables, except education, between participants
in the two
cultures (Table 3).

There were no significant differences between the two cultures
for games
attended, family influence, aesthetic motive, drama motive,
escape motive, and
social affiliation motive (Table 3). Taiwanese participants
tended to have higher
scores for games watched on TV, baseball identification, peer
influence,
achievement motives, and knowledge motives. The US
participants had higher
scores for team identification and physical skill motives (Table
3). Correlations
of professional baseball consumption, identification, social
agent influence, and
motivation ranged from 0.24 to 0.80 (Table 4).
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics by Culture
Taiwan
(N=202)
US
(N=213)
Total
(N=415)
Variables M/n (SD/%) M/n (SD/%) M/n (SD/%) p

Gender (Male) 95 (47.0) 155 (73.8) 250 (60.2) <0.001
Age <0.001
<30 5 (2.5) 19 (8.9) 24 (5.8)
31-40 5 (2.5) 38 (17.8) 43 (10.4)
41-50 34 (16.8) 61 (28.6) 95 (22.9)
51-65 105 (52.0) 70 (32.9) 175 (42.2)
>65 53 (26.2) 25 (11.7) 78 (18.8)
Education 0.194
High school/ below 35 (17.3) 48 (22.5) 83 (20.0)
College 114 (56.4) 102 (47.9) 216 (52.0)
Advanced degree 53 (26.2) 63 (29.6) 116 (28.0)
Marriage (single) 96 (47.5) 58 (27.2) 154 (37.1) <0.001
Income <0.001
I1 46 (22.8) 9 (4.2) 55 (13.3)
I2 36 (17.8) 59 (27.7) 95 (22.9)
I3 60 (29.7) 78 (36.6) 138 (33.3)
I4 60 (29.7) 67 (31.5) 127 (30.6)
Distance to Ballpark <0.001

D1 43 (21.3) 94 (44.1) 137 (33.0)
D2 110 (54.5) 89 (41.8) 199 (48.0)
D3 49 (24.3) 30 (14.1) 79 (19.0)
Games Attended
a
1.61 (1.34) 1.80 (0.89) 1.71 (1.13) 0.089
Games Watched on TV
a
3.65 (2.34) 3.04 (2.01) 3.34(2.20) 0.004
Team Identification
b
2.45 (1.46) 2.74 (1.28) 2.60 (1.38) 0.034
Baseball Fandom
b
2.76 (1.37) 2.47 (1.32) 2.61 (1.35) 0.032
Family Influence
a
2.90 (1.64) 2.83 (1.62) 2.86 (1.63) 0.650
-Cont’d
Consumption:

Table 3 (Cont’d)
Taiwan
(N=202)
US
(N=213)
Total
(N=415)
Variables M/n (SD/%) M/n (SD/%) M/n (SD/%) p
Peer Influence
a
3.64 (1.51) 3.29 (1.53) 3.46 (1.53) 0.021
Achievement Motive
c
3.51 (1.07) 2.63 (1.67) 3.06 (1.21) <0.001
Aesthetic Motive
c
3.12 (1.00) 3.19 (1.10) 3.16 (1.05) 0.466
Drama Motive

c
3.63 (1.01) 3.68 (1.02) 3.66 (1.01) 0.577
Escape Motive
c
2.76 (0.96) 2.88 (1.06) 2.82 (1.02) 0.260
Knowledge Motive
c
3.38 (1.02) 2.79 (1.09) 3.07 (1.09) <0.001
Physical Skill Motive
c
3.21 (1.04) 3.56 (1.07) 3.39 (1.07) 0.001
Social Affiliation
Motive
c
2.82 (0.91)
2.77 (1.06)
2.80 (0.99)
0.606
NOTES: Because of economic and geographic differences,
income and travel time to the

ballpark for the two countries were based on different
categories.
I1 through I4 represents annual income:
Taiwan US
I1 <$8.5K <$20K
I2 $8.6K - $12.7K $20K - $60K
I3 $12.7K - $21.2K $60.1K - $100K
I4 >$21.2K >$100K
D1 through D3 represents minutes spent traveling to ballpark:
Taiwan US
D1 <10 <30
D2 11-30 31-50
D3 >30 >50
a
7-point scale
b
6-point scale
c
5-point scale

4.3. Preliminary Analysis
The multiple regression analysis is easily biased with data not
meeting the
requirements of certain statistical assumptions. Thus, before
conducting the
multiple-regression analysis, the authors examined assumptions
of normality,
linearity, homoskedasticity, collinearity, and the outliers
[Tabachnick and Fidell,
2000]. All variables, except professional baseball consumption,
were found to be
normally distributed for the scores of skewness and kurtosis,
within the range of
±3.0. After the logarithmic treatment of professional baseball
consumption, a
normal distribution was met for both games attended and games
watched on TV
(skewness = 1.02 and -0.7, respectively; and kurtosis = 0.17 and
-1.37).

Consumption:
The residual plot showed that the errors of prediction and the
predicted
scores were normally distributed, equally spread and almost not
correlated, which
indicated meeting the requirements of normality,
homoskedasticity, and linearity
assumptions. The highest and lowest standardized score for all
variables were
within the range of ±3.29, suggesting the cut-off values for the
potential outliers
[Tabachnick and Fidell, 2000]). No VIF value exceeded 10.0,
illustrating that the
collinearity assumption was not violated. For the demographic
variables, gender
and marriage were dummy-coded; the others were treated as
ordinal variables.
4.4. Model Comparison
Ten important indicators were determined through a stepwise
multiple-regression analysis to predict games attended, games
watched on TV,
team identification, and baseball fandom. The indicators were:
y influence

A two-group path model was analyzed to investigate direct, as
well as indirect,
effects from the aforementioned indicators. Non-significant
paths were removed
separately from the two cultures‟ model. Eventually, the
regression coefficients
were all significant and the data fit with the determined model,
χ
2
(151) = 76.09, p >
0.05. Figures 2 and 3 are the professional baseball consumption
models
determined for the Taiwanese and Americans, respectively.
For the explained variance of games attended, the US model (R
2
= 0.41) was
better than the Taiwanese (R
2
= 0.25), but for the explained variance of team
identification, the Taiwanese model (R
2

= 0.87) was better than the US (R
2
=
0.67). The explained variances of games watched on TV (the
Taiwanese‟s R
2
=
0.61; the American‟s R
2
= 0.64), and baseball fandom (Taiwanese‟s R
2
= 0.68;
American‟s R
2
= 0.66) were relatively close between the two cultures (Table
5).
Test of H1: Sport fan identification predicted professional
baseball
consumption. Similar tendencies were found for both cultures.
Games attended
were predicted directly only by team identification but not
baseball fandom; and,
games watched on TV were predicted by team identification as
well as by
baseball fandom (Figures 2 and 3). Team identification was
relatively important,
compared with baseball fandom to predict games attended at
ballparks; however,
baseball fandom was relatively important to predict games
watched on TV (Table

5).
Contribution to χ
2
= 35.92 (47.21%), SRMR = 0.026, GFI = 0.97
Figure 2. Path Model for Professional Baseball Consumption in
Taiwan
Contribution to χ
2
= 40.17 (52.79%), SRMR = 0.028, GFI = 0.97
Figure 3. Path Model for Professional Baseball Consumption in
the US
Games
Attended
Games
Watched

Team
Identification
Baseball
Fandom
Travel
Knowledge
Motive
Male
Single
Family
Influence
Social
Affiliation
Motive
Escape
Motive
Aesthetic
Motive

Age
0.48
0.77 0.23
0.40
-0.16
0.14
0.16
0.11
0.08
0.09
0.08
0.22
0.11
0.22
-0.14
0.48
0.30
Games

Attended
Games
Watched
Team
Identification
Baseball
Fandom
Achievement
Motive
Male
Age
Aesthetic
Motive
Escape
Motive
Family
Influence
0.37

0.53 0.36
0.55
-0.14
0.29
-0.11
0.35
0.11
0.30
0.15
0.10
0.36
0.09
Consumption:

Test of H2a: Direct influences of spectator motivation to games
attended
were not found; however, the significantly direct influences of
games watched on
TV were found in the achievement motive for Americans
(Figure 3) and in the
knowledge motive for the Taiwanese (Figure 2). The indirect
effects of spectator
motives were found in professional baseball consumption; slight
differences were
illustrated between cultures, where achievement and aesthetic
motives were
significant for the Americans and aesthetic and escape motives
were significant
for the Taiwanese (Table 6).
Test of H2b: In the Taiwanese model, the social affiliation
motive was the
only motive showing a significant influence on team
identification. Social
affiliation, aesthetic, and escape motives illustrated direct
effects on baseball
fandom (Figure 2), as well as indirect ones for team
identification (Table 6). In
the US model, there was no direct spectator motive influence

for team
identification, but there was for baseball fandom (Figure 3).
Indirect effects were
found to be significant in achievement and aesthetic motives for
team
identification (Table 6).
Test of H3a: In both cultures, only family influence was found
to be
significant in predicting professional baseball consumption. For
the Taiwanese,
no direct effect was found for professional baseball
consumption (Figure 2), but
indirect effects existed (Table 6). For the Americans, the effect
of family
influence was illustrated only for games attended (Figure 3);
indirect effects
existed for professional baseball consumption (Table 6). The
impact of family
influence on professional baseball consumption in the US model
was much
stronger than in the Taiwanese model (Table 5).
Test of H3b: In both cultures, the direct effects of family
influence were
found in both sport fan identifications (Figures 2 and 3) and saw
indirect effects
in team identification (Table 6). The impact of family influence
on sport fan
identification in the US model was much stronger than in the
Taiwanese model
(Table 5).
Test of H4a: For the Taiwanese, travel time was found to be a
direct
determinant of games attended and gender of games watched on

TV (Figure 2);
additionally, gender, marital status, and age had indirect effects
on professional
baseball consumption (Table 6). For the Americans, age had a
direct effect on
games attended; no demographic variables had a direct effect on
games watched
on TV (Figure 3); however, gender had indirect effects on
professional baseball
consumption (Table 6). Gender and travel time played relatively
important roles
in the Taiwanese model; whereas age played a more important
role in the US
model (Table 5).
Test of H4b: In both cultures, gender had a direct effect on two
sport fan
identifications. No other direct effect was found from the
demographic variables
for the Americans (Figure 3), but was found in marital status for
team
identification and age for baseball fandom for the Taiwanese
(Figure 2). Gender
played a relatively important role in the Taiwanese model
(Table 5).
Consumption:

5. FINDINGS, DISCUSSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
This section presents study findings and discussion, describes
the
implications of the current study, and offers recommendations
for future research
on this topic.
5.1. Findings and Discussion
The present research study provides a basic understanding about
the
differences in professional baseball consumption behaviors
between two distinct
cultures. In Taiwan, people are more likely to watch
professional baseball games
on TV than are people in the US. The number of professional
baseball games
attended at ballparks is not significantly different between the
two cultures. One
possible explanation is that the sports channels in the US
usually have a variety
of sports and events to broadcast; however, the channels in
Taiwan replay
(sometimes even two or three times) every broadcasted

game to fill their schedules. This repetition increases the chance
of watching
baseball games on TV by accident.
The mean differences of identification illustrate two opposite
directions
between the two cultures, where the Taiwanese participants had
a higher mean
score on baseball identification and the US participants had a
higher score on
team identification. Differences of baseball sport environments
between the two
cultures may explain the findings. First, the Taiwanese have a
strong and special
connection, almost exclusively, with the sport of baseball in
relation to the
nation‟s history, with good records in world standard
competitions for baseball.
In the US, baseball may not be the only sport that draws
attention, as there are a
variety of popular sports, such as American football, basketball,
ice hockey, and
golf. All of these sports have substantial influences on
Americans. This influence
may result in higher baseball fandom for the Taiwanese.
Second, a professional
baseball team‟s home game system in Taiwan is not like in the
US, where the
home team has an exclusive right to a city‟s ballpark and
particular influence on
its citizens‟ identity. In Taiwan, a nominated home team is
responsible for
promotion and owns all ticket revenues from a game. In the case
of the
Taiwanese city, residents may not easily identify with a specific

team, because
the whole league‟s teams take turns hosting home games in the
city‟s ballpark,
depending on the league‟s schedule, in order to ensure equal
opportunities for
sharing responsibilities and collecting ticket revenue.
A basic and universal construct of the professional baseball
consumption
model was found in both cultures. Consistent with past studies
[Armstrong, 2007;
Kim and Trail, 2010; Swanson et al., 2003], the two models
showed that a
person‟s team identification is an important determinant of both
direct and
indirect professional baseball consumption. In addition, a
person‟s baseball
fandom can directly explain team identification and games
watched on TV, as
well as indirectly link team identification to professional
baseball consumption.
When comparing two kinds of identification, team identification
plays a
Consumption:
relatively important role in direct professional baseball

consumption, whereas
identifying as a baseball fan has more of an influence on
indirect consumption.
Some important cultural differences were found between the
two
professional baseball consumption models.
First, the family‟s social influence was an essential factor in the
US
consumption model. On the other hand, family influence in the
Taiwanese
culture was not as important as that in the US. Our study
supports Chun et al.‟s
[2004] hypothetical idea that close social groups (e.g., family or
friend groups)
are more influential for baseball fans in a highly individualist
society like the US.
Second, the importance of spectator motivation was somewhat
different
between the two cultures. Although Andrew et al. [2009]
illustrated that aesthetic
and knowledge motives are determinants of media consumption
for sport, the
knowledge motive was found to have a significant effect only in
the Taiwanese
model. The achievement motive was found to be influential only
in the US model,
which supports the idea that people from collectivist cultures
are less likely than
people from individualist cultures to use favoring strategies
(like supporting a
winning team) to enhance their self-esteem (Heine and Lehman,
1997). In
addition, for the Taiwanese, the escape motive was more
important.

Third, demographic variables, like gender, age, marital status,
and travel
distance to the ballpark, were found to be influential in the
Taiwanese model; but,
only gender and age were influential in the US model. Studies
have shown that,
for both US and Taiwanese sports spectators, males tend to
demonstrate higher
levels of sports-related psychological characteristics, such as
team identity and
spectating motivation, than females [Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000;
Hsieh and Wu,
2009; Wann and Branscombe, 1993]. In the current study,
however, we found
that gender plays a more important role in the Taiwanese
consumption model than in the US model. A possible
explanation is that, for an
individualistic society like the US, people‟s tendency to adhere
to self-disciplined
rules and influences from boyfriends or husbands may
encourage female
spectators‟ self-determination to be sports fans; whereas, in
Taiwan, a more
collectivistic country, the collective aspect that sports are
men‟s entertainment
may hinder female spectators‟ self-determination from being
fans. As a result,
the discrepancy of levels of fan identity or numbers of games
consumed between
males and females in Taiwan may be higher than it is in the US.
5.2. Implications of Current Study

Marketing strategies to build local citizens‟ identity to a team
has been
discussed and promoted to increase attendance at baseball
games [Lachowetz,
Dees, Todd, and Ryan, 2009]. Therefore, the MLB has used a
globalized strategy
that is making extensive scouting efforts in East Asian countries
(i.e., Japan,
Korea, and Taiwan). Having more elite Asian players on the
team has caused
more identified Asian fans to watch MLB games [Cho, 2009;
Kelly, 2007].
Nevertheless, this empirical study also found that the strategies
of enhancing a
person‟s love or identity with baseball is more important for the
increasing
consumption of professional baseball games than improving
citizens‟
identification to a team in Taiwan. One merit of this study is the
historical
relationship and similarities of language and culture between
Taiwan and China.
Expansion of MLB‟s markets to Asia, especially China, was
considered [CBS
Sportsline, 2006]. One possible strategy for MLB is to first
penetrate the market

in Taiwan, which is also relatively easy, because of the high
extent of
Taiwanese‟s identity with the sport of baseball. Family values
associated with a
baseball game have usually been used and promoted to increase
consumption in
the US; however, such a strategy may not be as important in the
Taiwanese
society as is the promotion of escape value. The female market
for professional
baseball games, especially in Taiwan, still needs to be evaluated
and explored.
5.3. Limitations of Study and Recommendations for Future
Research
This study has shown similarities and differences in
consumption behaviors between the Taiwanese and US cultures.
One limitation
of the study is that participants were not randomly selected
from the two societies
because of limited resources, and this factor may have resulted
in an
unrepresentative sample of the general population of the US city
and the
Taiwanese city. Hence, one should be cautious when
interpreting the findings of
cultural differences beyond the city level, especially in the US,
a nation with
many cultures. In addition, one city cannot represent an entire
nation.
Furthermore, the sample in the study was composed of middle-
aged and older
participants; these results may not be suitable to generalize to

the younger
population. The discrepancy of demographic variables between
participants of
the two cultures may have led to influences on the study‟s
findings.
Despite these limitations, however, this study contributes to a
basic
understanding of the differences between two nations with
respect to professional
baseball. Further studies should investigate the generalizations
of the current
findings. A thorough and sophisticated sampling method may be
used to obtain
more data from diverse cultures that can be compared. Or,
longitudinal data may
be used so that researchers may understand more in-depth
information on the
issue.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Li-Wen Hsieh is an assistant professor in the Department of
Recreational Sport
Management at the National Taipei University. He received his
Ph.D. from the University
of Northern Colorado. His research interests focus mainly on
consumer behavior and
managerial or marketing issues related to sport businesses.
Chien-Hsin Wang is an assistant professor in the Department of
Recreational Sports at

the National Taiwan College of Physical Education. He received
his Ph.D. from the
University of Northern Colorado. His research areas of interest
include sport marketing
and sponsorship, sport consumer behavior, sport volunteers, and
sport tourism.
Tracy Wisdom Yoder is the director of research and statistics
for Running USA, based in
Colorado Springs, Colorado. She received her Ph.D. from the
University of Northern
Colorado. Her research interests currently focus on the sport of
long distance running
including consumer preferences, participation rates, and
women‟s running.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.

Transgender athletes still have hurdles to
equality
Pontarelli, Desiree . University Wire ; Carlsbad [Carlsbad]03
Sep 2013.
ProQuest document link
ABSTRACT
According to Christina Kahrl, Secretary of the Equality Illinois
Board of Directors and member of the Baseball
Writers Association of America, administrative sports bodies
too often create policies reacting to transgender
athletes as opposed to establishing guidelines anticipating their
existence.
FULL TEXT
Publication: The Columbia Chronicle, Columbia College,
Chicago IL .
Kye Allums, the first openly transgender athlete to play NCAA
Division I basketball, was a man playing on the

women's team at George Washington University. At least that's
how he saw itTwo years into being the team's
starting shooting guard, Allumsdecided to tell his teammates
that he identified as male.
Donald Wu THE CHRONICLE
He said he first came out to his best friend on the team in 2010,
explaining that while he was born physically
female, he felt male. He later came out to teammates, coaches
and family.
"Everyone supported me and accepted my pronouns and my
name," Allums said. "It wasn't as difficult or as hard as
I thought it was going to be, but it was scary initially before I
did it."
While Allums' family, friends and teammates were all
supportive; the NCAA didn't allow him to play on the men's
team.NCAA policy states that athletes who undergo hormone
treatment involving testosterone will not be allowed
to compete against women's teams in gender-specific sports at
NCAA Championships. However, if a male is
transitioning to become a female, the athlete will have to
provide documentation showing evidence of testosterone

suppression treatment for one year. To remain eligible for a
women's team in post-season play, the athlete must
continue to documenthormonal treatment.
The NCAA states that the association distinguishes testosterone
as a banned substance and provides a medical
exception review for demonstrated necessity of a contraband
medication.
African Journals Online states that studies on transgender
athletes point out unfair discrimination against
transgender individuals as a result of inappropriate application
of testing results.
"It's difficult to play in sports when everyone around you
doesn't believe that you are a real athlete and that you're
https://search.proquest.com/docview/1766295312?accountid=82
89
89
cheating," Allums said. "If we were, there wouldn't be policies
set in place for trans athletes to compete."
Allums never sought to undergo gender reassignment surgery,
but even if he wanted to go through surgery, he

could not until after his college basketball season was complete,
due to the NCAA standards.
Allums ultimately decided to leave GWU in 2011 after suffering
a collective nine concussions and graduating early.
"I stopped playing basketball because I got nine concussions,"
Allums said. "I didn't want to get a tenth one, and
wanted to remember the rest of my life; I thought it was a good
choice."
Allums said other sports organizations, such as the Maine
Principals' Association, are beginning to adopt the
NCAA policies due to more transgender athletes becoming
visible, so necessary steps are in place for if and when
a transgender athlete comes out.
Since then, he has established his own LGBT awareness project
"I Am Enough" to help people better understand
the science behind the physical transitioning from one gender to
another.
According to Christina Kahrl, Secretary of the Equality Illinois
Board of Directors and member of the Baseball
Writers Association of America, administrative sports bodies

too often create policies reacting to transgender
athletes as opposed to establishing guidelines anticipating their
existence.
"Your identity as a trans person is not dependent on the
medicines you receive, it is dependent on your sense of
self," Kahrl said. "It's not about being trans, it's about
something that everybody likes--if you like to play basketball
whether or not the person is gay straight, trans--it doesn't really
matter."
Instead, school districts and sports administrations could reach
an agreement and implement fair transgender
policies nationwide.
"There was certainly a lot of concern, a lot of questions and a
lot of confusion initially when I came out [as
transgender] in 2003," Kahrl said. "Trans people are just like
anyone else--as long as you're extremely confident in
your work, then you're going to be given an opportunity to
work."
Kahrl was inducted into the Gay &Lesbian Hall of Fame on
Aug. 2 for her efforts and her position as an ESPN
sportswriter.

"After I came out, I was just focused on my transition for the
first couple of years and making sure that went well in
the context of my career, my relationships with my family, my
colleagues and co-workers, and friends -- that was
first and foremost," Kahrl said. "Slowly, I got more and more
active and started doing some volunteer work and
when I came to Chicago I became much more active. The trans
community needed people to get active-- there
wasn't a lot of effective readership, and there wasn't a lot of
communication from the trans community."
In 2010, she was a part of the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against
Defamation award-nominated segment
"Transitions" on HBO's Real Sports, a monthly newsmagazine,
in which she spoke about coming out as a
transgender sportswriter.
"Sports are a great way to not only get away from all the pain
that's shoveled around on LGBT people," Allums said.
"It's also a great way to really focus on winning a game and
accomplishing a goal with your other teammates or by
yourself that has nothing to do with your sexual orientation or

gender identity."
Allums encourages all LGBT athletes considering coming out to
commit to it. He said the more people that come
out, the more it will encourage conversation on the topic.
"We've had this wave of LGBT athletes coming out; it's a
domino affect," Allums said. "The more athletes that come
out, the more attention we're going to pay to it. If no one comes
out, people are going to think that we don't need to
address it or talk about it."
Credit: Desiree Pontarelli
DETAILS
Subject: Athletes; College sports; Gays &lesbians; Gender;
Women; Testosterone; Concussion
Company / organization: Name: National Collegiate Athletic
Association--NCAA; NAICS: 813990
Publication title: University Wire; Carlsbad
Publication year: 2013

Publication date: Sep 3, 2013
Section: Sports-And-Health
Publisher: Uloop, Inc.
Place of publication: Carlsbad
Country of publication: United States, Carlsbad
Publication subject: General Interest Periodicals--United States
Source type: Wire Feeds
Language of publication: English
Document type: News
ProQuest document ID: 1766295312
Document URL:
89
Copyright: © 2016 UWIRE, a division of Uloop
Last updated: 2017-11-22
Database: ProQuest Central
89
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athletes still have hurdles to equality
PHYSICAL CULTURE AND SPORT STUDIES AND
RESEARCH
2010 • VOLUME XLIX 85
DOI: 10.2478/v10141-010-0020-2
Equality, Equity and Inclusion:
Transgender Athletes’ Participation
in Competitive Sports – a New Era
Singh Bal Baljinder

1
, Singh Kanwaljeet
2
,
Kumar Sharma Narinder
3
1
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab ,India
2
Institute of Engineering & Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab,
India
3
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar, Punjab, India
ABSTRACT
I. Introduction

Sport is a social site where gender is performed and sexuality is
regulated. By promoting
hegemonic masculinity, patriarchal sport systematically
excludes women and actively encourages
homophobia. And yet, despite the inhospitable sporting
environment, many gay men, lesbians, and
transgendered people continue to play significant roles as
athletes and activists. In recent years, there
has been a shift in thinking about how we understand our lives
as lived in what has been called the
'postmodern condition'. Many of the previously dominant
foundational theories of sociology, or 'grand
narratives' as they are sometimes known, have been challenged
on the grounds that they are too rigid,
exclusionary, or simply no longer relevant in a rapidly changing
and complex world (Lyotard 1989,
pp. 425-429). Their legitimacy has also been called too
‘deconstructed’, on the basis that they benefit
some people at the expense of others.
This review manifests an attempt towards the conceptual study
of gender
identity issues in competitive sports, foregrounding the genesis
of policy
matters in relation to transgender athletes. The study explores

the motif of
inter-relational dynamics between participation in sports of
transgender
athletes and medico-legal information related to transgender
athletes, as the
inclusion of transgender athletes is one of the latest and
prominent equality
challenges across the globe. The International Olympic
Committee (IOC)
has taken up the issue with regard to participation of sex-
reassigned
transsexuals and it has resulted in a heated debate for which a
changing
notion of gender verification came out. The issue under
consideration has
multi-faceted dimensions of interpretations centering on a
desire to
'deconstruct' the present structuration of acceptance of sex and
gender
terminology. The resultant aim is to create a world-view of
equality, respect
for the 'other', and competitive fairness. The latent attempt of
the paper is to
deconstruct the binary of inequality in the field of sports with a

view to give
vibrational impetus for attaining the ideals of equality in sports
which
constitutes the basis of “authentic living”, to quote Jean Paul
Sartre.
sports, transgender athletes, International Olympic Committee
(IOC),
cultural constructs of society
KEYWORDS
RESEARCH
86 2010 • VOLUME XLIX
Gender and sexuality are two such social categories that are
based on a rigid binary relationship
(i.e., masculine/feminine, heterosexual/homosexual) in which
one of the pair is privileged, legitimized,
and valued over the other: specifically, masculinity over
femininity and heterosexuality over
homosexuality. Gender and sexuality are actually much more
complex social constructions. Moreover
- and critically - they play an important role in processes of
social regulation and control (Foucault

1980).
II. Discussion & analysis
In the last 45 years, 'gender' has been understood as different
from 'sex' by reference to a
difference between the body, biology and being male or female
('sex'), as well as the social and
cultural roles inscribed on bodies; masculinity and femininity
('gender'). But originally the categories
'male' and 'female' were understood as residing in one body, and
sex was a sociological category rather
than a biological one (Laquer 1990, pp. 178-179). The idea that
there was a male and female 'sex' in
one body was superceded by the concept of two 'sexes' based on
bodily differences between the
reproductive organs, which became the foundation of sex
difference in the eighteenth century. The
sex/gender distinction was developed in research on intersex
people in the 1950s, which later gave rise
to transsexual identities in the 1960s. Later, psychoanalyst
Robert Stoller used the distinction between
sex and gender to argue that the biological sex of a person may
not necessarily determine their 'core

gender identity', a feeling of being male or female (Stoller
1968). As Jay Prosser states, it is 'the
difference between gender identity and sex that serves as the
logic of trans-sexuality' (Prosser 1998).
Thus the sex/gender distinction enabled transgender and
transsexual as categories. Many feminist
critics have raised the issue of differentiating female, feminine,
feminist - the prominent feminists
being Toril Moi, Susan Gubar etc. To add it, the postmodern
critical tools, e.g. Deconstruction,
Postmodernism, Poststructuralism, Queer Studies etc., have
played a dominant role in causing a
perceptional revolution in the world order.
1. Verification of gender
Gender has for many years been an issue that surfaces from time
to time in women's events at
athletic meets. Gender verification for the purpose of
competition has undergone significant evolution
since attempts were made to introduce measures aimed at
ensuring fair competition amongst female
athletes. The first mechanism (introduced for international
competition in the mid sixties) involved
rather crude and perhaps humiliating physical examinations.

This method quickly gave way to the
method of determining 'sex' chromatin through buccal smear
examination. However, as there were too
many uncertainties associated with this method, many experts in
the field clamored for its
discontinuance, resulting in it being abandoned first by the
IAAF in 1991 and then by the IOC in
Sydney in 2000. In a nutshell, a distinctive sort of controversy
has always engulfed the issue
verification gender thereby involving the metaphysics of doubt
in the core perception of the issue.
2. Gender and sport
Sport is a social and cultural process in which social
constructions of masculinity and femininity
play a key role. Sport may also be called an archetype always
present in the conscious/unconscious
mind of an individual at a given point of time, as per Jungian
thought. Sport is traditionally associated
with masculinity maintaining the logocentric/ patriarchal world
order. In many societies, it is
considered inappropriate for women to engage in sports, and
women who do may be perceived as
masculine. Women and men tend to engage in different types of

physical activity and their attitudes
towards sport may be very different. The women-only events
(rhythmic gymnastics and synchronized
swimming) and men-only events (boxing, wrestling, and
weightlifting) reflect persistent biases
RESEARCH
2010 • VOLUME XLIX 87
regarding athleticism in each gender; the reasons for the same
can largely be ascribed to the socio-
cultural constructs in a given society.
Generally speaking, sports for females compete for the beauty
of motion while sports of males
compete for the power, speed, strength and danger, speaking
metonymically and metaphorically. A
social cost that often confronts athletes attempting to participate
in a sport that is non-traditional for
their sex is the questioning of their sexuality. Author Mariah
Burton Nelson describes this situation in
her book, Are We Winning Yet?: "Homophobia in sports serves
as a way to control women, both gay

and straight." Whether a woman is lesbian or straight,
homophobia in sports and the society at large
tends to discourage girls and women from pursuing traditionally
"masculine" activities such as contact
sports and team sports for fear of being labeled a homosexual.
"Female athletes in traditionally
masculine sports challenge the social dictates about proper
behavior for females; therefore, the
reasoning goes, there must be something wrong with them.
Focusing on sexual orientation unfairly
denies women opportunities in sports on the basis of personal
preferences irrelevant to athletic
abilities. The mirrored argument highlights a desire of the
patriarchy to weave a complex web of
power-relations even in the field of sports as the criteria-
constitution is largely from the side of
“cultural construction”, to quote Foucault’s term.
3. Transsexuals in competitive sport
Changing social views and laws affecting sexuality has meant
an increasing number of cases of
transgender/transsexual athletes in sport. A
transgender/transsexual means a person who was born in
one sex and now identifies with, and lives as, another sex, and

includes a person who has undergone a
sex reassignment procedure. The phenomenon is new in the
realm of the sporting world, as this kind
of new consciousness on the part of humanity is vibrant across
the world. Such types of cases are
astonishing and challenging the socio-cultural stereotypes,
thereby causing a new chord in the
symphony of constructs. Men generally have an inherent
performance advantage over women due to
their greater average height, muscle mass and power, as the
result of correspondingly different
exposures to androgens. Therefore, it is considered fair that in
sports men and women compete in
separate categories.
The question now emerging is whether reassigned transsexuals
can compete in fairness with
others of their new sex (Gooren 2004). The pertinent question is
how far the previous effects of
testosterone in male-to-female transsexuals (M–F) are
reversible upon androgen deprivation so that
M–F have no advantage over women, and, vice versa, what the
effects are of androgen exposure in
female-to-male transsexuals (F–M) on variables relevant to
competition in sports. The issues being

voiced pertain to the thesis in question. An analysis and
deliberation is the call in order to achieve
greater democracy, transparency and fairness.
4. Transgendered athletes create a 'New Frontier' of issues
The most recent and controversial decision on gender by the
IOC came on May 27, 2004 when
the IOC Executive Committee decided to allow transsexuals to
compete in the Olympics and opened
the way for transsexual athletes to compete in the 2008 Beijing
Olympics. Transsexuals, male-to-
female or female-to-male, must meet three requirements to
compete: “Completion of surgical
anatomical changes, including external genitalia changes and
gonadectomy; legal recognition of
assigned sex by the appropriate official authorities; and
sufficiently long and verifiable administration
of hormonal therapy appropriate for the assigned sex to
minimize gender-related advantages in sport
competitions. Eligibility should begin no sooner than two years
after gonadectomy.” The quoted
guidelines have brought a revolutionary change with respect to
perceiving the issue that carries almost

opposite significations as per the ‘way of the world’. However,
it has opened up new frontiers of
RESEARCH
88 2010 • VOLUME XLIX
deliberation to bring about empirical and qualitative
understanding pertaining to the issue under
consideration.
III. Conclusion
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) has taken an
inevitably arbitrary decision with
regard to the participation of sex-reassigned transsexuals in
elite sports (Gooren 2008, pp. 427-432):
the IOC's transsexual policy as currently stated is deficient.
More specifically, the IOC has not
sufficiently demonstrated that transsexual athletes do not have
competitive advantages over typically
gendered athletes. It is the responsibility of the IOC to reduce
the various doubts about transsexual
athletics. It is clear, from the scientific, socio-cultural and
ethical criticisms outlined in this paper, that

sex testing (gender verification) was/is inappropriate. When it
comes to Gender Testing, the policy of
the IOC had to be rethought and was criticized because it
involved only testing women to ascertain
their gender. With a view to evolve a holistic understanding of
the issue in question, an international
debate of intellectuals belonging to various knowledge
disciplines should be initiated.
REFERENCES
Foucault, M. (1980). The History of Sexuality: Volume I: An
Introduction. New York: Vintage.
Stoller, R. J. (1968). Sex and Gender: On The Development of
Masculinity and Femininity. New York: Science
House.
Gooren, J. G. & Bunck, C. M. (2004). Transsexuals and
competitive sports. The Netherlands. European Journal
of Endocrinology, 151, pp. 425-429.
Laqueur, T. (1990). Making Sex: Body and Gender from the
Greeks to Freud. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press.
Louis, J. G. (2008). Hormone Doping: Detection and Deterrence
Olympic sports and transsexuals. Asian Journal

of Andrology, 10, pp. 427–432.
Lyotard, J. F. (1989). The Postmodern Condition: A Report on
Knowledge (pp. 178-179). Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
Prosser, J. (1998). Second Skins: The Bodily Narratives of
Transsexuality. New York: Columbia University
Press.
AUTHOR’S ADDRESS: Baljinder Singh Bal
Department of Physical Education Guru Nanak Dev University
Amritsar, Punjab, India
Email: [email protected]
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