This document discusses the involvement of racial and ethnic groups in sport in the United States. It covers several key topics: 1) It examines the historical experiences of African Americans in sport, from exclusion in the early years to breaking barriers in the mid-20th century and challenges that still remain with representation in leadership positions. 2) It explores the concept of race and ethnicity in society, debunking the idea of biological races and discussing how these are social constructs used to justify oppression and stratification. 3) It looks at the large involvement of Latino athletes in baseball and their economic exploitation as a source of cheap labor, as well as the growing role of Latinos in soccer in the U.S.

1. Coloring Outside The Lines
The Poetics of Race and Ethnicity in Sport
(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)
dl murphy
Kinesiology 101
Department of Kinesiology
San Jose State University

2. “Racism is man's gravest threat to man – the maximum of hatred
for a minimum of reason.”
– Abraham J. Heschel
(Jewish theologian and philosopher, 1907-1972)
“Nothing reveals so much about us as how we play the games we
play.”
- Q, Star Trek
“Race is one of the most inflammatory, slippery, maddeningly
paradoxical concepts to afflict human consciousness; witness its
ugly history. Shamefully, perversions of biology, anthropology and
psychology have at various times racially justified colonialism,
slavery and disenfranchisement.”
– John Rennie, ‘Little Black Pills’, Scientific American, Aug 2007
-“A fully functional multiracial society cannot be achieved without a
sense of history and open, honest dialogue.”
- Dr. Cornell West

3. - Bob Marley, Lyrics from “War”
“What life has taught me
I would like to share with
Those who want to learn.
Until the philosophy which
hold one race superior and
another inferior is finally and
permanently discredited and
abandoned.
Everywhere is war, me say
war.
That until there are no
longer first class and
second class citizens of any
nation.”
“Until the color of a man's skin is
of no more significance than the
color of his eyes. Me say war.
That until the basic human
rights are equally guaranteed to
all, without regard to race. Dis a
war.
That until that day.
The dream of lasting peace,
world citizenship, rule of
international morality
will remain in but a fleeting
illusion to be pursued, but never
attained.
Now everywhere is war, war.”

4. Theoretical Approach | “Reading” Race, Ethnicity, and
Sport
Three keys to reading sport, race, and popular media in
U.S. society (Hartmann, 2000).
1. Sport in the U.S. is a contested terrain where racial
images, ideologies, and inequalities are constructed and
transformed.
2. There is a need to understand the power,
prominence, and deep structuring significance of race in
America.
3. Sport occupies a privileged and prominent role in
U.S. society.
Contested terrains: Sport is a racialized space where
meanings, power, presence, and voice are struggled
over (Hall, 1981).

5. “Droppin’ Bad Science” | The Myths of Race
•“Race” as a distinction between types of humans entered the European
vocabulary towards the end of the 15th century (Wieviorka, 1995)
– Driven by growth in part by state sovereignty, slave trade, manifest destiny,
economic, and colonialism
• By late 19th century, race logic is prevalent throughout Europe and U.S. -
presupposes a sense of “naturalness” of ordering of social arrangements
by on race.
– “Science and literature, scripture and law, culture and political rhetoric all
worked in subtle and blunt ways to establish racial stratification” (Goldberg,
2004)
– The scientifically-endorsed concept of race found wide application in the late
19th and early 20th centuries (e.g.s eugenics)
– The idea of race (and implicitly, racial purity) became a mechanism for rigidly
segregating groups within society by virtue of culture as well as physical
appearance.
• End of the 20th century, academics consensus across disciplines –
humanities, social sciences and biological sciences – biological races do
not exist in humans. (Gannett, 2004)

6. “Color Me Bad” | Racial Myths and “Facts”
• Race is largely social not biological category
• Assignment to different racial groups has often been
linked to sociocultural context and power
– One drop of black blood used to make one black
– Determined by random physical features – skin
pigmentation
• Power issue – who determines what constitutes a
racial category?
The Sociology of Biology
– Humans share the same basic gene structure
– There more within group differences than between group
differences
– Social scientist reject race as a valid way to define human
groups

7. Ethnicity | Identity
Ethnicity – refers to the cultural heritage of a group rather
than biology
– A more appropriate way to differentiate between groups
• Ethnicity is one of many social lines of identity that inform
our involvement with the social world around us
• Identity is a complex concept, connection between
individuals and society, associated with time, place and
membership in social groups, and is relevant to both ethnicity
and race.
– So who we are, or more importantly, how we define
ourselves and others in a particular sociocultural and
historical context
• Multiple and fractured lines of identification: race,
class, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age,
geography, language, and fashion

8. “How it Do?” |
Power Structures in U.S. Society
• Historical patterns of social resource
allocation, control, and power have lead to
unequal stratification in the U.S.
• Power is derived from technology, weapons,
property, economic resources, language,
education, etc.
• Majority Group – interest lie in preservation of
status quo or enhancement of current status
– Minority Groups – distinct group in society that
shares common group characteristics, often
occupy lower status in society

9. Vox Populi | Social Change and Agency
• Disparities and inequities are often the results
of problems in social and public institutions
– Institutional Racism – def. pattern of negative
treatment and oppression by society’s institutions
• Focus on agency, counter-narratives,
challenges, and social justice rather than
victimization
• Social Dialogue – interchanges between
dominant and minority groups (e.g thru sport)

10. Change the Game
African American Experiences & Sport
(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)
Kinesiology 101
Department of Kinesiology
San Jose State University

11. Change the Game | African American
Experiences & Sport
4 Historical Periods of A.A. Sport
• Exclusion before the Civil War
• Breakthroughs following Emancipation
Proclamation
• Racial segregation between WWI &
WWII
• Racial Integration after WWII

12. “Gonna Work It Out” | African American Experiences
in U.S. Sport
• Early A. A. in sport exclusively male
– 18th
Century: Boxing, horse racing, trainers, jockeys
– 19th
& Early 20th
Century: A.A. excluded from competition in
public organized sport
• Leads to development of all-Black leagues
• Harlem Gs, Satchel Paige, Josh Gibson
• J. Robinson breaks color barrier 1946/47
• Jack Johnson, 1908 boxing champion, barred, cavorted
with white women
• Great White Hope (black boxers paid less, took dives,
and were champions)
• Basketball: The Black Fives typically refers to leagues that first
thrived in the African-American communities of New York,
Pittsburgh, Washington and Chicago in the teens and '20s but
soon spread to the South and Los Angeles.
• Racist Rhetoric: Black players were athletically gifted, but lazy,
unintelligent, animalistic, god-given talent not worked for

13. NCAA and the Black Athlete
• NCAA – Prior to WWII participation mainly at Black colleges
– Black players absent in mainstream colleges until 1950s
– By 1948 10% of basketball teams had black player(s)
– SEC last conference to integrate 1960s
– 1966 Un. Of Tennessee Football signs black athlete to
football (20 years after J.R.!)
– 1966 Vanderbilt signs black basketball athlete
– By 1975 Black athletes common in NCAA
– Un. Alabama 1968 – no black players; 1975 start an all-
Black line-up in basketball
• Huge effects on Black college athletic programs
– Programs dropped, level play diminished, fewer
opportunities
• Leads to increased exploitation of Black athletes
– Stacking, position profiling, lack of attention to grades and
graduation rates

14. Current Sport and Social Issues | Black Athletes
• Post WWII Black athletes have made massive strides
• Under representation and occupational power:
– management, coaching, agents, sport marketing
decision makers, journalists, presenters, sport
media decision maker
• “Coding” of Black athletic bodies and style
– Gangsters or good boy (Iverson or Duncan)
– Denigration of Black athlete and relationship to
hip-hop and rap (NBA dress codes)
– Media scrutiny of Black crime and athletic stars
– Hyper-sexualization of Black athletic bodies –
“need to be controlled”
– God-given talent (unearned vs. earned) Hard-
Worker

15. “Get Real Playa” | Black Athletes &
The Media
• Dr. Boyce Watkins on Barry Bonds, OJ
Simpson, Michael Vick (2:50mins.)
– Finance Professor, Syracuse University
• Dr. Boyce “brings it” so be warned…
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iuw5BFPL

16. Foundations from the Past | The Negro Leagues
Baseball:
Negro American League (1937-1950)
Negro National League (1933-1948)
Negro Southern League (1932)
American Negro League (1929)
Negro National League (1920-1931)
Eastern Colored League (1923-1928)

17. The Man | J. Robinson’s Journey
Jackie Robinson Stood Up for Equality
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wV3yu5SlD0w
"Before and After Jackie" (1997 Jackie
Robinson)
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjHpIBcTT0Q&

18. Negro League Team All Star Team East – 1937
http://a.abcnews.com/images/US/ht_all_east_060128_ssh.jpg

19. All Black basketball before integrationhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.blackfives.com/images/basketball_holder.jpg&imgrefurl=http://onebrothasmind.blogspot.com/2006/03/brothas-have-been-playin-ball-
longer.html&h=419&w=339&sz=20&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=Ougj4j5HryyJYM:&tbnh=125&tbnw=101&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dnegro%2Bleague%2Bbasketball%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls
%3DRNWE,RNWE:2004-31,RNWE:en%26sa%3DN

20. All Black Basketball Leagueshttp://www.blackfives.com/images/basketball_holder.jpg

21. Racism in European Soccer
• European Racism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jwpO-nnFY9g
Learn more…
• Eto'o facing racist treatment
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQv4aIXaGQ4&feature=r
• Racism In Football I
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=10dv0BYeuF8&feature=re
• Racism in football II
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BD_KyDB69-c&feature=r

22. Racism in Video Games
• Stereotypical African American Male
Roles in Video Games
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ulMFaz-1Qco&
• Asian and Latino Male Stereotypes in
Video Games
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bpgu_9bCPeA

23. Si, Se Puede!
Latino Involvement in Sport
(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)
Kinesiology 101
Department of Kinesiology
San Jose State University

24. Si, Se Puede! | Latino Involvement in Sport
Latino/a – term used to describe men and women who heritage
traces to Spanish speaking nations and cultures
–Central American, South America, Caribbean, Spain, &
Portugal
1. Heterogeneous group, wide range of geographies, religions,
cultural practices, etc.
2.Majority of visible participation in boxing, soccer, and baseball
3. Growing economic and population presence will mean wider
involvement of Latinos in U.S. Sport
Latinos Management/Front Office Positions:
• Major League Baseball 13, NBA 7 and MLS 22 percent
Representation at the Pro Team Level (2001-02):
• Latinos are 30% on MLS rosters
• 5 and 8 percent in MLB and the NBA

25. “Beisbol Been Very Good To Me”? | Latino Revolution
and the “National Pastime”
Baseball largest sport presence of Latinos
– Latinos have been a part of major leagues since 1902
– Mainly Cubans pre WWI
– Darker skinned Latinos were barred before 1948
– Many players “passed” for white or Latino
Today, Latinos are 26% of major league; 43% in all leagues
• Economic labor exploitation?
• Cheap players from Caribbean
• In 2000 – 750 Latino pros – mainly from Caribbean and Central
America
• Language barriers, cultural issues, and economic concerns
• Human trafficking thru sport?
• What is the moral responsibility to educate, acculturate, labor
rights?
• How about those who don’t make it?

26. Si, Se Puede! | Latino Involvement in Sport
Why Latinos? Why Baseball?
– Popular and growing sport in Latin America
– Weather often allows for year-round competition
– Social mobility and wealth potential or myth of!
– 2001 highest paid pros were Latinos!
– MLB sees easy-to-exploit labor force that has a constant
supply
• Yet, for very one Sammy Sosa there a 1000 failures
• Cheaper than singing U.S. talent
• Tejada signs for 2,000, teammate Grieve 1.2 mil.
• 90 – 95% did not reach the pros
• So upward mobility thru sport? Where have we heard
this before? The numbers say, not likely.

27. Chicago White Sox manager Ozzie Guillen became the first Latin-
born manager to win a World Series.
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://assets.espn.go.com/photo/2006/0921/hhm_ap_chavez_195.jpg&imgrefurl=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/columns/story%3Fcolumnist%3Dlapchick_richard
%26id%3D2599046&h=262&w=195&sz=17&hl=en&start=13&tbnid=NWRrFau3H7nrfM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=83&prev=/images%3Fq%3DLAtino%2Bboxers%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-
a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DG
AP Photo/Duane Burleson

28. Arturo Moreno became the first Latino majority owner of a major U.S. sports
team when he purchased the Anaheim (now Los Angeles) Angels in 2003.
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://assets.espn.go.com/photo/2006/0921/hhm_ap_chavez_195.jpg&imgrefurl=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/columns/story%3Fcolumnist
%3Dlapchick_richard%26id%3D2599046&h=262&w=195&sz=17&hl=en&start=13&tbnid=NWRrFau3H7nrfM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=83&prev=/images%3Fq%3DLAtino%2Bboxers
%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DG

29. NASCAR has reached out to fans in Mexico by establishing operations in
Mexico…or Cheap Labor? http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://assets.espn.go.com/photo/2006/0921/hhm_ap_chavez_195.jpg&imgrefurl=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/columns/story%3Fcolumnist%3Dlapchick_richard%26id
%3D2599046&h=262&w=195&sz=17&hl=en&start=13&tbnid=NWRrFau3H7nrfM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=83&prev=/images%3Fq%3DLAtino%2Bboxers%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den
%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DG

30. Latinos & Soccer | Return of the Foreign
Sport?
MLS and “Hustling Culture.”
• Marketing soccer to specific communities (Anglo and
Latino) via player signings and team identity and
iconography.
• Chivas USA, ethnic marketing initiatives, community
outreach, and cross-cultural competitions.
• Immigration, Mexican nationalism, and growing
Latino consumer base in U.S.
• Modern soccer, multiple ethnic identities, “other”
sport sold to marginalized groups and the
mainstream.

31. The Number One Rule | Latinos & Boxing
Boxing has a history of working class champions
– Has been a historical entry point for various ethnic groups:
• Pre WWII - Irish, Italian, Jew; Post WWII Black, and now
Latino
• Here again myth of mobility
• Very few make it to the top!
• Those that do often suffer major health issues
• History of cheating, diving, organized crime, underworld,
and nefarious promoters
• Recently very popular in Mexico and among Mexican-
Americans
• More research need on Latino/a experiences in sport
• Growing demographic in the U.S.

32. Gregory S. Rodriguez: "Palaces of Pain: Arenas of
Mexican American Dreams"
Focus: Examined boxing and the formation of ethnic
Mexican identities in 20th-century Southern California
“Boxing contributed to the restructuring or reproduction
of ethnic, gender and national identities over the course
of the 20th century. Boxing arenas became metaphors
for the struggles over the meaning of race, gender, and
citizenship that has preoccupied United States society
in the twentieth century … an examination of Mexican-
American boxing industries highlights the ways ethnic,
familial, linguistic and class dynamics influenced
Mexican-Americans and Mexican immigrants in
negotiating new urban identities through popular
culture."

33. Julio Cesar Chavez has generated great pride among Mexican and
Mexican-American boxing fans. http://assets.espn.go.com/photo/2006/0921/hhm_ap_chavez_195.jpg

34. Oscar de lay Hoya – bi-cultural champion
Mexican American http://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/boxing/hoya_camacho/art/hoya2.jpg

35. Puerto Rican Boxers & Cultural Pride
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhUITOqESH

36. Selected Quotes from “On the Waterfront “(1954)
• “I could have been a contender. I could been somebody.”
- Terry Malloy (Marlon Brando)
• “The only arithmetic he ever got was hearing the referee count
up to ten”.
- Big Mac
• Charlie: “Oh I had some bets down for you. You saw some
money. “
Terry: “You don't understand. I coulda had class. I coulda been
a contender. I coulda been somebody, instead of a bum, which
is what I am, let's face it.”
Raging Bull (1980)
• Jake la Motta (R. deNiro): I remember those cheers / They still
ring in my ears / After years, they remain in my thoughts.

37. Asian Americans | Making the Invisible
Visible
Lack of visibility for Asian American athletes
More research need on these communities
– Research on A.A. sports revolves around Martial Arts
• At elite levels:
– Female athletes are most well-known in upper class
sports
– Ice skating, gymnastics, dance, tennis, diving,
badminton, golf
– In 2000, 6 of top 50 female golfers were Asian
– Tend to be individual sports? Why?
– Korean, Chinese, and Japanese – Southeast Asians?
– Male athletes…growth in professional baseball, but
Japanese born not U.S. born
• Participation growth at rec. levels in basketball?
• Question of who is considered Asian? Pakistani? Indian?

38. Back to the Future
Native American Experiences & Sport
(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)
Kinesiology 101
Department of Kinesiology
San Jose State University

39. Jim Thorpe Olympian – Medals were stripped due to
“semi-professional” statushttp://www.explorepahistory.com/images/ExplorePAHistory-a0h5t1-a_349.jpg

40. Jim Thorpe – Playing for the NY Giantshttp://www.nativeamericans.com/JimThorpe_NewYorkGiants.jpg

41. Jim Thorpe – Professional football playerhttp://www.nativeamericans.com/JimThorpe_FootballStar.jpg

42. Billy Mills – 10k Gold Medallist http://www.stripes.com/photoday/040504.jpg

43. Native Americans & Sport
• In 2000, 2 million Native Americans (0.7% of population)
• Extremely heterogeneous society – differences in physical
appearances, customs, language, rituals, and social
organizations
• Faced 100 years of genocide and imperialism
• Before Western colonialism (1700s) – 7 million N. Americans;
less than 250k by 1890!
• Forced to live on reservations and attend Indian Boarding
Schools: “reeducated” in Western moralities
• Identity in Popular Culture: Noble Savage or invisible (e.g.s
Dancing with Wolves)
• N. Tribes had various indigenous games: horse racing, stick
fighting, lacrosse, ball games, board games, running, and
archery

44. The Bad, The Worse, and The Ugly |
N. Americans & Hollywood
• “How Hollywood stereotyped the Native
Americans”
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hJFi7SRH
Learn More…
• Native American Stereotypes & Truths
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e15YDqt9n

45. Thorpe to Mills | Native American Sportsmen
Notable N. American Sportsmen
• Jim Thorpe – Olympian, baseball, and football
• Billy Mills 1964 – won the 10K meters at Olympics
• Notah Begay III – played on PGA tour
• Six N. Americans have played in the NBA
• 1998-99 NCAA – 310 of 70k plus student athletes were N.
American
• Sport Challenges and N. American Communities:
– Lack of economic resources
– Travel distances
– Racism
– Social Collisions
– Population and team size

46. The Price of Acculturation?
“If you go to far into society, there’s a fear
of losing your Indian-ness. There’s a
spiritual factor that comes into play. To
become part of white society you give up
half your soul.”
– Billy Mills

47. A Tradition of Shame | Indian Mascots
Sports teams use iconography: symbols, shields, logos, colors,
mascots
– Evoke emotion and tradition within fan community
• Most use symbols of aggression from animal world
History of use of derogatory images and symbols in U.S. popular
culture: racial caricatures in ads, films, music, fashion, and sport
– Pros: Braves, Indians, Redskins, Chiefs, Warriors, &
Blackhawks
– NCAA: Seminoles, Utes, Fighting Sioux and Illini, & Savages
Class Question: Do we see any other use in U.S. pop culture of a
racial or ethnic group being imaged as a team mascot or logo?

48. Anti-Indian Mascot Movement
The Two Sides of the Aisle:
• Concerted effort to remove names, images, rituals, mascots,
and songs that demean N.A.s
• Serious resistance from perpetrating communities
– Arguments for Usage:
• Use of mascots is tribute to indigenous peoples
• Portrayed as brave, resourceful, and strong
• Others argue use is no different than Fighting Irish or
Vikings
– Arguments Against Usage:
• Use is inherently demeaning
• Not based in actual Indian heritages
• Approval was never asked for nor given
• Caricatures are often clearly racist and violent
• Fits pattern of racist treatment

49. Grassroots Social Changehttp://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/1364/nmascots/demonstr.jpg

50. Cardinals? | Stanford Indians until the 1970s
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://espn-att.starwave.com/media/ncf/2005/0919/photo/i_stanfordtree_195.jpg&imgrefurl=http://cal.thecrawfordfamily.net/blog/%3Fp
%3D49&h=262&w=195&sz=33&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=tFT2NlR6nL6LpM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=83&prev=/images%3Fq%3DAnti-Indian%2BMascot%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den
%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en

51. Really!? I Mean Really!

52. Indian Mascot PSA
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fCBspSK4Iw

53. Turning The Tide | NCAA Action. Whaaat?
• NCAA bans Indian mascot representation in NCAA postseason
play starting 2008.
• Any school with a nickname or logo considered racially or
ethnically “hostile” or “abusive” by the NCAA would be
prohibited from using them in postseason events. Mascots will
not be allowed to perform at tournament games, and band
members and cheerleaders will also be barred from using
American Indians on their uniforms beginning in 2008.
• Read More at: http://www.cnle.net/2005/08/ncaa-bans-indian-
mascots/

54. “Can’t Get With That?”| Dude, Oppression of
One Group Oppresses Us All

55. “Get on the Mic!”|Small Group Discussion
• What do you think about the anti-Indian
mascot debate?
• Should all ethnic mascots be removed?
• Is this over-political correctness?
• How should we got about removing
Indian mascots?
• Who should decide?

56. Sociocultural Aspects of Racial & Ethnic Sport Participation
(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)
Kinesiology 101
Department of Kinesiology
San Jose State University

57. “Break it Down” | Not So Taboo
So the question has been asked…
Are Black athletes more athletic in sports (i.e. superior)
to Whites due to genetics and superior physiology?
A loaded question with numerous logic holes:
1. How do we need to define who is Black?
2. How do we define athleticism?
3. Which sports are we talking about? All?
4. How do we test such a broad population base?
5. What does genetic science have to say?
6. What roles do socialization play?

58. Absurdity of Race-Linked Physical Difference & Sport
Achievement
Black athletes are over represented in specific sports at elite levels:
NCAA & Professional
– Football, basketball, track and field, boxing
– Prestige sports magnify race-sport discussion
Is Black dominance in the above named sports due to physical
superiority?
– Answers lie in sociology not biology
1. Slippery Logic: If Blacks are superior in these sports, does it
mean Asians are superior in martial arts; Whites in hockey, race
car driving, tennis, golf; Latinos in soccer and baseball?
Starting to see the absurdity yet?
2. Proponents seek to replicate and continue political and
economic status quo; “naturalness” to social order

59. The Sociology of Race Biology
Biological Determinism
– Assumptions that certain races are superior to others due to
certain psychophysiological genetic traits
– Serious problems with biological race science
• Who is Black?
• Shifted over the course of history
• Racial categories are not fixed or unambiguous
– Blacks exhibit a wide-range of physiological features
– Previous studies have been ill developed, poor
scientific method, sample population problems,
based on out-dated methodologies and practices
• Blacks are not a homogenous group; the assumption
that one can say “Blacks”, “all Blacks” are one thing is
inherently racist

60. “Flip The Script Homey” | Sociocultural
Influences
Humane Genome Study – There are greater ranges of differences
within races than between races
– 100k genes in humans; only 1-6 genes regulate skin color
– Black are more unlike each other than they are different from
most Whites
– Social variables influence sport participation, identification,
and competition
• Environmental factors, diet, training methods,
geography, sport infrastructures, political climate,
economic considerations, & cultural import of sport
The question is not nature vs. nurture (heroes or villains), but
rather how nature interacts with nurture

61. Structural Constraints & “Opportunity”
To explain racial/ethnic sport sociocultural situations
need to look at:
1. Occupational structures
2. Sport opportunity structures
Factors that influence participation:
– Sport seen as viable path out of economic
hardship
– Cultural importance and visibility of sport in
communities
– Part of historical dialogue of growing visibility in
U.S. popular culture
– Prevalence of role models
– Social pressures and idiosyncrasies

62. Style and Substance | Cultural Improvisation
Additional Considerations:
1. Urban or rural area
2. Cost of play
3. Field space
4. Safety
5. History of participation
Styles of play are often linked to sociocultural idiosyncrasies
– Black communities have history of invention, creativity, &
improvisation – seen in art, music (jazz), cooking, and
language
• Think Brazilian soccer
– Evidenced in styles of sport play (but not all!, one can
never essentialize!)

63. Racial Discrimination in Sport
Perspectives:
• Black visibility in pro and NCAA sports has served to
mask socioeconomic inequities
• Sport is not immune to racism – as we have
demonstrated
Two Prominent Issues:
• Assignment of player positions
– Stacking, positional profiling
• Rewards and authority structures
– Ownership representation and economic
allocations

64. Stacking the Deck | Positional
Disproportionality
Stacking: Term refers to situations where minority group
members are disproportionately found in specific team sports (&
positions) and underrepresented in others
– E.g MBL 4% Black pitchers; 40% Black outfielders
Blalock & Grunsky Research:
– Lower the degree of purely social interaction on the job, the
lower will be degree of racial discrimination
– To the extent that performance level is relatively
independent of skill in interpersonal relations, the degree of
racial discrimination is lower
Loy & McElvogue Research:
– Centrality to play is related to racial stacking
– Positional authority over play
– Central positions held overwhelmingly by Whites, non-
central positions by minorities

65. Stacking the Deck | Positional
Disproportionality
Examples of Racial Stacking
– NFL – Blacks in running back, receiver, & corner, corner
positions
– NCAA women’s volleyball – Blacks in hitter positions, Whites
as setters
– Canadian Hockey – French Canadian as goalies
– British soccer – West Indian and Blacks in forward and wide
positions
– Australian rugby – Aborigines in wide positions
– MLB – Black outfielders, Whites pitchers
– Track and Field – Black in short distances and long/triple
jumps; Whites in long distance, field events
Economics and globalization are changing this a bit; best players
increasingly put in positions based on skills, $$, and winning

66. Ask the Egg Heads | Some Theoretical Approaches
Moss Kanter Hypothesis:
– Greater the numerical proportion of a minority in a social
organization, the more likely genuine integration will occur
– Such as in the case of NBA and NCAA basketball
– See pg. 300 of Eitzen text
Edwards – Authority and Outcome Control Hypothesis:
– 2 Critical variables in positional segregation
• The degree of outcome control or leadership
responsibility
• Association between athletic skill and intelligence
requirements of different positions
• Then linked to racial abilities and “naturalness”

67. Ask the Egg Heads | Some Theoretical Approaches
McPherson Social Modeling Hypothesis:
– Proposes that Black youth self-segregate into positions
historically played by Black players
• Role model emulation
• Previous minority success
• Community adulation & expectations
Eitzen & Sanford – determine whether Black athletes changed from
central to non-central positions more frequently than Whites when
moving from h.s. to NCAA to pros.
• Data sample 387 pro football players
• Whites held more central positions than Black in pros
• Blacks more likely to change to noncentral positions
• Possible focus on specific positions due to higher
chances of rewards and success

68. “You Gonna Get Yours”| Rewards and
Authority
Inequities in opportunities after sport career
– Lack of visibility in media positions
– Rarely as play-by-play or sportswriters, mainly sideline
reporters
Officiating (2001-02):
• NBA: 78% Black players, 67% refs White
• NFL 2/3 players Black; 84% officials White
• MBL – 41% players minority, 91% umps White
Management & Front Office (2001-02):
• NFL 6% coaches were minorities
• MBL 23% managers minority
• No racial minorities in NHL
• MLS 3 Latino coaches
• NCAA Football: 4.7% head coaches were minority
• 21.6% in NCAA basketball men

69. The Glass Ceiling | Leadership & Opportunity
Paucity of minorities in leadership positions
Leadership:
– Front Office, Media Directors
– Head Coaching, Head of Scouts, Head Trainer & Doctor
– President/CEO or V. President
Hiring Practices:
– Overt racism
– No previous history in central, decision-making positions
during playing careers used as excuse not to hire
• So, stacking kept one out of decision making situations
during playing career, then not hired later on based on
premise of no central, decision making experience
– Token interviewing
• NFL e.g. - Job opens up, a few Black coaches are called in
to interview to meet mandates by league for minimum
number of minority interviews during hiring process, few
are hired: Romeo Cornell, Dennis Green

70. Social Change and Agency
Various ways to enact social change in sport:
• First, counter-narratives do exist as we have discussed
• Recent visibility in minority-driven ownership groups
• Higher profile athletes returning to game in leadership roles (M.J. & I.
Thomas, and others)
• Still not enough to meet some parity in leagues and decision making
• Some growth in minority broadcasters (ESPN) & local news (often
geographically specific)
• Process to change will be long one; advances and set-backs and
reinterpretations
• Key is returning retired minority athletes into the game and mentoring
into business and decision making roles
• Less biased, more balanced media reporting and coverage of minority
athletes
• Growth in player power sharing and labor representation

71. Posting Online | Have Your Say
• Over the course of the next week, please post
your thoughts on the any of the issues
covered in the race and ethnicity section
• What spoke to you?
• Anything change your mind?
– Expand on topics discussed in class
– Min. of two paragraphs
– Reads your classmates thoughts first