1. The document assesses the environmental, indoor pollution, and socioeconomic impacts of charcoal production and use in Kenya. It estimates that 1.6 million tonnes of charcoal is produced annually using traditional earth kiln technologies with low efficiencies of around 15%.
2. Due to the inefficiencies of traditional kilns, an estimated 10.65 million tonnes of wood is required to produce the annual charcoal output. This level of wood harvesting is associated with deforestation estimated to range from 0.087 to 1.33 million hectares annually depending on the wood source ecosystems.
3. Surveys found charcoal production and trade provides livelihoods but exposes users to high indoor air pollution
Impacts Of Seemai Karuvelam (Prosopis Juliflora) Charcoal Heap Units In Rama...PARAMASIVANCHELLIAH
Community entrepreneurship is one of the conventional methods of self employment activities of local
people with available resources. Seemai karuvelam charcoal heap units are one of the traditional way to
convert the wood into charcoal which in used in hotel, fireworks, laundering etc. Environmental aspects of
wood energy use are diverse. They range from local land use to global climate change and from applications
in smoky kitchens to electricity generation in large-scale power stations. Consequently environmental
impacts of wood energy use and production can be both positive and negative, and an assessment of these
impacts should always be part of wood energy policy making. Seemai karuvelam charcoal heap units is
one of the environmental of its smoke and activities which directly affect the environment of its smoke and
the seemai karuvelam will affect the ground water. Therefore, there is a need of understanding the Seemai
karuvelam charcoal heap units and its impact on socio-economic and environmental aspects.
- In Tanzania, 88% of total energy consumption comes from fuelwood and 4% from charcoal, leaving only 7% for petroleum and 1% for electricity.
- Fuelwood constitutes 96.6% of cooking fuel and 4.2% of lighting fuel in rural Tanzanian areas. Estimates of fuelwood consumption per capita in Tanzania range from 1 to 3 cubic meters per year.
- Unsustainable fuelwood extraction is the main driver of deforestation in Tanzania. Certification of sustainably produced fuelwood could help address this issue.
Olorunnisola, A.O., Richards, A. and Omoniyi, T.E., 2021. A Review on the Renewable Energy from Agricultural and Forest Residues in Nigeria. United International Journal for Research & Technology (UIJRT), 3(1), pp.04-11.
Este informe de análisis de impacto ofrece una visión general del potencial de aumento del uso de la madera en España desde la perspectiva del aumento de la oferta de madera y sus posibles beneficios indirectos, recopilando y presentando datos estructurados sobre el estado de los bosques españoles y de la UE.
Documento en inglés. Elaborado por Dark Matter Labs.
Resource recycling and waste-to-energy: The cornerstones of circular economyIJRTEMJOURNAL
"Circular Economy" is the pursued goal of sustainable development of mankind for the 21st
century. In short, the fundamental spirit of circular economy is the concept of "Zero Waste". The example used
in our daily lives means 100% of waste treatment, leaving no trace. At this time, it would be an ideal goal that
the waste could be fully recovered into available raw materials or energies. In particular, "waste-to-energy" is
a key factor, because all the wastes are almost related to energy. Resource recycling of waste metal from the
household garbage is the best example. When smelting metals, the refining industry needs to reduce the metal
oxides (mineral materials) to metals, such as steel, aluminium, copper, etc. The reduction processes consume
considerable portion of energy for the entire smelting process, for example, 70.6% for steel and 77.4% for
aluminium. However, if the waste metallic products can be fully recovered, as long as by melting and reshaping,
the original oxide metal reduction processes that consume a lot of energy can be avoided. On the other hand,
when the general garbage cannot be recovered as a resource, they can be converted into fuel or electricity by
biological or thermal treatment. Another more important human waste utilization is the waste paper recycling.
The production of one tonne of raw pulp emits about 6 tonnes of carbon, consuming about 100 cubic meters of
water, using about 200 kilograms of chemical raw materials, and draining 300 tonnes of toxic waste water. The
entire papermaking process is how terrible environmental pollution! The recycled pulp of one tonne can save
energy 10-13GJ.The proportion of paper waste in Taiwan 2015 is 34.69% and the estimated amount is 2.5
million tonnes. If the paper waste could be fully recycled, it could save energy about 0.725 million kloe (kilolitre oil equivalent). In other words, it virtually reduces Taiwan's oil imports of 4.56 million barrels and CO2
emissions of 2.5 million tonnes annually.
cleaner technology in pulp and paper industry Chētâñ Şhărmă
Chetan Sharma presented on cleaner technology in the pulp and paper industries. The presentation covered the significant environmental impacts of pulp and paper production, including high water usage, large wastewater outputs containing chemicals from pulping and bleaching, and air emissions. It also discussed technologies that have been implemented to reduce pollution, such as chemical recovery systems, best available techniques, new pulping/bleaching processes, and primary, secondary, and tertiary wastewater treatment methods including biological, chemical, and physical processes. The presentation concluded that minimizing waste and further developing treatment technologies are important to reduce the environmental risks of the pulp and paper industry.
GHG emissions in an intensive agriculture scenario 2.0Ramanjaneyulu GV
GHG emissions from intensive agriculture in India are significant. The intensive agriculture model relies on heavy use of external inputs like chemical fertilizers and is linear rather than cyclical. Chemical fertilizer production and use, including urea, accounts for nearly 100 million tons of CO2-eq emissions annually in India or around 6% of total emissions. Methane emissions from rice cultivation, livestock, and large dams also contribute substantially to India's GHG emissions. Burning of rice and wheat straw releases millions of tons of pollutants and lost nutrients annually. Climate change will negatively impact agriculture through rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather. Sustainable agricultural models that are less input-intensive and align more with natural
Sustainable Utilization of Woodfuel in Selected Sites of Mwala Sub-County, Ma...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Biomass energy provides 68% of Kenya’s national energy requirements and it is expected to remain the main source of energy for the foreseeable future (Mugo, F. and Gathui, T. (2010).The traditional stoves which happen to be very popular with most households wastes a lot of fuel due to its low energy efficiency and this leads to negative environmental impacts such as deforestation and pollution. This study focused on understanding the sustainable utilization of woodfuel in two (2) Sub-locations of Mwala Sub-county namely: Mwala and Kibauni. The primary objective of this study was to determine if woodfuel utilization by the households in the study areas is sustainable. The specific objective of the study was to establish the level of adoption of the energy saving techniques in the selected sub-locations. This study used survey methodology and observation to collect data. The total household sample size was 160. Data collection instrument was questionnaires. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics and the software was Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0.The study revealed low adoption of rationing of wood with majority of the respondents 84% in Kibauni and 65% in Mwala not practicing it. There was significant relationship between rationing of woodfuel and the number of days taken to consume a bundle of wood (df=1 and 158, F=462.898, p=0.00 ). The study also revealed low adoption of splitting of wood with 70% of respondents in Mwala and 88% in Kibauni not doing the splitting. There was significant relationship between splitting of wood and pollution challenges ( df=1 and 158, F=28.456, p=0.00 ). Low adoption of the practice of putting off fire after use was also revealed with 66% of respondents in Mwala and 80% in Kibauni not practicing it. The study revealed a significant relationship between putting off fire after use and the number of days taken to consume one bundle of wood (df=3 and 156, F=57.292, p=0.00.). It was also found out that there was no significant relationship between the type of stove and pollution challenges (df=1 and 158, F=0.072, p=0.789). The study recommended that aggressive campaign in dissemination of improved stoves and related technology in order to reduce pressure on forests, the Government to have a structured management in production of charcoal and fuel wood by small scale farmers so as to have a source of income, promote capacity of field extension staff in the energy sector andestablish an Energy Centres in the Sub-county to help disseminate knowledge and materials related to energy conservation.
Impacts Of Seemai Karuvelam (Prosopis Juliflora) Charcoal Heap Units In Rama...PARAMASIVANCHELLIAH
Community entrepreneurship is one of the conventional methods of self employment activities of local
people with available resources. Seemai karuvelam charcoal heap units are one of the traditional way to
convert the wood into charcoal which in used in hotel, fireworks, laundering etc. Environmental aspects of
wood energy use are diverse. They range from local land use to global climate change and from applications
in smoky kitchens to electricity generation in large-scale power stations. Consequently environmental
impacts of wood energy use and production can be both positive and negative, and an assessment of these
impacts should always be part of wood energy policy making. Seemai karuvelam charcoal heap units is
one of the environmental of its smoke and activities which directly affect the environment of its smoke and
the seemai karuvelam will affect the ground water. Therefore, there is a need of understanding the Seemai
karuvelam charcoal heap units and its impact on socio-economic and environmental aspects.
- In Tanzania, 88% of total energy consumption comes from fuelwood and 4% from charcoal, leaving only 7% for petroleum and 1% for electricity.
- Fuelwood constitutes 96.6% of cooking fuel and 4.2% of lighting fuel in rural Tanzanian areas. Estimates of fuelwood consumption per capita in Tanzania range from 1 to 3 cubic meters per year.
- Unsustainable fuelwood extraction is the main driver of deforestation in Tanzania. Certification of sustainably produced fuelwood could help address this issue.
Olorunnisola, A.O., Richards, A. and Omoniyi, T.E., 2021. A Review on the Renewable Energy from Agricultural and Forest Residues in Nigeria. United International Journal for Research & Technology (UIJRT), 3(1), pp.04-11.
Este informe de análisis de impacto ofrece una visión general del potencial de aumento del uso de la madera en España desde la perspectiva del aumento de la oferta de madera y sus posibles beneficios indirectos, recopilando y presentando datos estructurados sobre el estado de los bosques españoles y de la UE.
Documento en inglés. Elaborado por Dark Matter Labs.
Resource recycling and waste-to-energy: The cornerstones of circular economyIJRTEMJOURNAL
"Circular Economy" is the pursued goal of sustainable development of mankind for the 21st
century. In short, the fundamental spirit of circular economy is the concept of "Zero Waste". The example used
in our daily lives means 100% of waste treatment, leaving no trace. At this time, it would be an ideal goal that
the waste could be fully recovered into available raw materials or energies. In particular, "waste-to-energy" is
a key factor, because all the wastes are almost related to energy. Resource recycling of waste metal from the
household garbage is the best example. When smelting metals, the refining industry needs to reduce the metal
oxides (mineral materials) to metals, such as steel, aluminium, copper, etc. The reduction processes consume
considerable portion of energy for the entire smelting process, for example, 70.6% for steel and 77.4% for
aluminium. However, if the waste metallic products can be fully recovered, as long as by melting and reshaping,
the original oxide metal reduction processes that consume a lot of energy can be avoided. On the other hand,
when the general garbage cannot be recovered as a resource, they can be converted into fuel or electricity by
biological or thermal treatment. Another more important human waste utilization is the waste paper recycling.
The production of one tonne of raw pulp emits about 6 tonnes of carbon, consuming about 100 cubic meters of
water, using about 200 kilograms of chemical raw materials, and draining 300 tonnes of toxic waste water. The
entire papermaking process is how terrible environmental pollution! The recycled pulp of one tonne can save
energy 10-13GJ.The proportion of paper waste in Taiwan 2015 is 34.69% and the estimated amount is 2.5
million tonnes. If the paper waste could be fully recycled, it could save energy about 0.725 million kloe (kilolitre oil equivalent). In other words, it virtually reduces Taiwan's oil imports of 4.56 million barrels and CO2
emissions of 2.5 million tonnes annually.
cleaner technology in pulp and paper industry Chētâñ Şhărmă
Chetan Sharma presented on cleaner technology in the pulp and paper industries. The presentation covered the significant environmental impacts of pulp and paper production, including high water usage, large wastewater outputs containing chemicals from pulping and bleaching, and air emissions. It also discussed technologies that have been implemented to reduce pollution, such as chemical recovery systems, best available techniques, new pulping/bleaching processes, and primary, secondary, and tertiary wastewater treatment methods including biological, chemical, and physical processes. The presentation concluded that minimizing waste and further developing treatment technologies are important to reduce the environmental risks of the pulp and paper industry.
GHG emissions in an intensive agriculture scenario 2.0Ramanjaneyulu GV
GHG emissions from intensive agriculture in India are significant. The intensive agriculture model relies on heavy use of external inputs like chemical fertilizers and is linear rather than cyclical. Chemical fertilizer production and use, including urea, accounts for nearly 100 million tons of CO2-eq emissions annually in India or around 6% of total emissions. Methane emissions from rice cultivation, livestock, and large dams also contribute substantially to India's GHG emissions. Burning of rice and wheat straw releases millions of tons of pollutants and lost nutrients annually. Climate change will negatively impact agriculture through rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather. Sustainable agricultural models that are less input-intensive and align more with natural
Sustainable Utilization of Woodfuel in Selected Sites of Mwala Sub-County, Ma...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Biomass energy provides 68% of Kenya’s national energy requirements and it is expected to remain the main source of energy for the foreseeable future (Mugo, F. and Gathui, T. (2010).The traditional stoves which happen to be very popular with most households wastes a lot of fuel due to its low energy efficiency and this leads to negative environmental impacts such as deforestation and pollution. This study focused on understanding the sustainable utilization of woodfuel in two (2) Sub-locations of Mwala Sub-county namely: Mwala and Kibauni. The primary objective of this study was to determine if woodfuel utilization by the households in the study areas is sustainable. The specific objective of the study was to establish the level of adoption of the energy saving techniques in the selected sub-locations. This study used survey methodology and observation to collect data. The total household sample size was 160. Data collection instrument was questionnaires. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics and the software was Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0.The study revealed low adoption of rationing of wood with majority of the respondents 84% in Kibauni and 65% in Mwala not practicing it. There was significant relationship between rationing of woodfuel and the number of days taken to consume a bundle of wood (df=1 and 158, F=462.898, p=0.00 ). The study also revealed low adoption of splitting of wood with 70% of respondents in Mwala and 88% in Kibauni not doing the splitting. There was significant relationship between splitting of wood and pollution challenges ( df=1 and 158, F=28.456, p=0.00 ). Low adoption of the practice of putting off fire after use was also revealed with 66% of respondents in Mwala and 80% in Kibauni not practicing it. The study revealed a significant relationship between putting off fire after use and the number of days taken to consume one bundle of wood (df=3 and 156, F=57.292, p=0.00.). It was also found out that there was no significant relationship between the type of stove and pollution challenges (df=1 and 158, F=0.072, p=0.789). The study recommended that aggressive campaign in dissemination of improved stoves and related technology in order to reduce pressure on forests, the Government to have a structured management in production of charcoal and fuel wood by small scale farmers so as to have a source of income, promote capacity of field extension staff in the energy sector andestablish an Energy Centres in the Sub-county to help disseminate knowledge and materials related to energy conservation.
The document defines climate change and discusses its causes and effects. It states that climate change is connected to both natural phenomena and human activity that increases greenhouse gases. The major human causes are burning fossil fuels, deforestation, agriculture, and industrial processes. Effects of climate change include rising sea levels from melting ice sheets, heavier rainfall worldwide, more extreme droughts and hurricanes, declining crop yields, and changing ecosystems. Climate change is also acidifying oceans by absorbing increased carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
This document discusses converting cow dung into methanol through a two-step process of anaerobic digestion followed by acid treatment. The quantities and qualities of methane gas and methanol produced depend on factors like slurry concentration and temperature. Gas chromatography analysis found the biogas contained 57.23% methane. Refining the biogas enhanced the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, making the organic components more available for the acid reaction. Spectroscopic analysis indicated methanol was formed, with a purity of 92.5%. The process also generates fertilizer from the leftover sludge.
1. Wood recycling, reuse and reduction (3Rs) can help address the growing issue of municipal solid waste and reduce various negative impacts if implemented properly.
2. There are challenges to promoting 3Rs for wood waste including lack of awareness, concerns about costs and feasibility, and difficulties in standardizing approaches.
3. Potential unethical problems with wood recycling include poor waste management, taking shortcuts in disposal, deforestation if not managed sustainably, and lack of awareness. Suggestions to overcome these include improving waste sorting systems, promoting awareness campaigns, and avoiding environmental degradation.
Carbon Storage & Low Energy Intensity in Harvested Wood ProductsBecky LaPlant
Presentation by Jim Bowyer, Dovetail Partners, at the Blandin Foundation sponsored Forest Values and Carbon Markets: Opportunities for Minnesota conference. February 25-26, 2009 at the Cloquet Forestry Center, Cloquet MN
This document discusses various sources of biomass that can be used for fuel applications. It describes how biomass from agriculture, forestry, plantations and animal husbandry can be processed into fuels. Primary sources include crop residues, woody biomass, animal waste and energy crops. Technologies for converting biomass include direct combustion as well as thermochemical and biochemical processes like pyrolysis, gasification and anaerobic digestion. The document also provides estimates of biomass potential from different sources in various countries and discusses preparation and densification of biomass through processes like drying, grinding and briquetting to improve its fuel properties.
IRJET- Design and Fabrication of Waste Destroying Machine-A ReviewIRJET Journal
This document provides a review of a waste destroying machine designed to burn dry waste materials. It begins with an abstract that describes the machine's use of a heating coil to burn dry waste and use the resulting ash in construction. The introduction provides background on waste management and methods like incineration. It then describes the project's use of solar panels to power a heating coil and burn dry waste on a base plate. The literature review discusses research on seasonal waste composition and generation. It finds food waste is higher in some months. The conclusion states that more work is needed on this topic since the project will use a heating coil to burn dry waste and use the resulting ash.
Effects of Varying Particle Size On Mechanical and Combustion Characteristics...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The document discusses several issues with forest carbon offset projects and carbon trading schemes. It argues that planting trees does not actually reduce emissions and storing carbon in forests is temporary. It also notes that many forest offset projects have resulted in conflicts over land rights and negative social impacts. The document concludes that forest offsets are used to justify continued fossil fuel extraction and burning, exacerbating climate change.
This document discusses how bamboo can help address climate change, energy issues, and poverty through being a fast-growing, renewable resource. Bamboo forests can sequester large amounts of carbon and bamboo products can replace higher carbon materials. The county of Anji, China is provided as a case study where bamboo makes up a large portion of the economy and culture through industry, carbon credits, and tourism. With less than 3% of forest area, bamboo provides 22% of China's total forest carbon sink.
ADVANCING SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS ENERGY PRODUCTION IN UGANDA THROUGH PRACTICAL I...RECSONETWORKRECSONET
ADVANCING SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS ENERGY PRODUCTION IN UGANDA THROUGH PRACTICAL INCENTIVE MECHANISMS
A Presentation by Issa Katwesige, Principal Forest Officer Forest Sector Support Department, Ministry of Water and Environment , at Esella Hotel October 07, 2020
During the National dissemination and policy engagement workshop on identification of practical incentives for advancing sustainable Biomass Energy Production within Central Forest Reserves and Forest Landsapes in Uganda.
Organized by Environmental Alert in partnership with financial support from Norad within the framework of the project titled, ‘Increasing access to sustainable and renewable energy alternatives in the AlbertineGraben’ that is implemented by WWF-Uganda Country Office.”
Design and Fabrication of an Anaerobic DigesterAZOJETE UNIMAID
This document describes the design and fabrication of an anaerobic digester to generate biogas for small-scale farmers in Nigeria. Key aspects of the design include:
- The digester is made of locally available materials and has a total volume of 0.974 cubic meters.
- It is designed to process 40 liters of slurry per day from a mixture of Typha grass, cow dung, and water.
- The digester components include a frustum-shaped top, cylindrical middle section, and cone-shaped bottom to allow slurry flow and discharge.
- A hopper with a capacity of 20 liters is designed to regularly feed the digester, and a 60mm ball valve
This document summarizes research on converting plastic waste to liquid fuel through pyrolysis. It discusses:
- Plastic waste management is a major problem in Khartoum, Sudan, with over 1 million tons of solid waste annually, 12.7% of which is plastic.
- Pyrolysis involves heating plastic in the absence of oxygen to produce liquid oil, gas, and carbon black. The oil yield from plastic pyrolysis is 80-90%.
- The document evaluates several commercial pyrolysis processes and modifies the thermofuel process in Aspen Hysys software to improve efficiency.
- The modified process uses screw conveyors to melt plastic continuously and utilizes uncondensed gases to heat the feed,
Fourteen teachers from 12 school districts and two organizations across the state earned 30 professional development hours while taking part in the Arkansas Forestry Association Education Foundation’s Teacher Conservation Tour (#TCT2016.) The week-long tour acquainted the group with a variety of different topics in the forestry industry. The week began in the classroom where the group learned forest history, tree cookie facts and tree identity. The days that followed consisted of a mill tours, a visit to an active logging site, a Tree Farm tour and a nursery tour.
Studies on development of fuel briquettes for household and industrial purposeSAT Journals
Abstract The hike in the price of electricity, petrol and diesel for daily usage has directed the researches for alternate fuels. But unfortunately recession and climatic changes has increased all the expenses. This makes a tough situation for the production of alternate fuels at low cost. Among several methods fuel briquetting is widely used using municipal waste, vegetable waste, newspaper waste etc. The present investigation is carried out using Almond leaves, saw dust and cocopeat. Using proximate analysis the moisture content, ash content, volatile matter and the fixed carbon are determined. The briquette sample size is fixed as 6 x 3 x 3 inches. The binding material used is plain flour in the proportion of 125 g per each briquette. The study incorporated the determination of calorific value, porosity , ultimate analysis, XRD, SEM analysis. The results indicated that the almond leaf briquette with higher compressive strength burns more time and is safer for storage and transportation. Keywords: Fuel Briquettes, Calorific Value, Almond Leaf, Porosity, Deforestation
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Analysis on municipal solid waste pellets makingJossie Xiong
The calorific value of raw MSW is around 1000 kcal/kg while that of fuel pellets is 4000 kcal/kg. On an average, about 15–20 tons of fuel pellets can be produced after treatment of 100 tons of raw garbage.
Briquetting machine report for phase-1manugowdapes
This document discusses the design and fabrication of a low-cost briquetting machine. It begins by introducing briquetting as a process to compress biomass into densified briquettes using screw or pneumatic compressors. It then describes the process of briquetting which involves drying, grinding, and compressing biomass. The document goes on to discuss the need for an integrated low-cost machine that can grind and compress biomass. It cites issues with fossil fuel depletion and air pollution as motivation for developing biomass briquettes as an alternative. The machine is intended to efficiently produce briquettes from dry waste that can be used as a replacement for fossil fuels like coal.
An Assessment of the Socio-Economic Impacts of Fuel Wood Exploitation on the ...AJSERJournal
This document discusses a study that assessed the socio-economic impacts of fuel wood exploitation in Gombe State, Nigeria. The study examined fuel wood supply patterns and levels to Gombe urban area from forest reserves. Results showed that on average 136 trips transported over 39,000 tons of fuel wood annually to Gombe urban. Extraction has negative environmental impacts and has increased due to population growth. While fuel wood provides income, overexploitation risks deforestation and degradation, affecting livelihoods. Recommendations were made to promote sustainable practices.
This document discusses the benefits of using fuel briquettes for cooking compared to traditional biomass fuels like charcoal and firewood. Briquettes are cheaper to produce and use, burn longer, and reduce indoor air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Producing briquettes from waste charcoal and biomass generates income, employment and social benefits for communities while helping meet the demand for cooking fuel and saving trees. Studies on briquette production technologies in Nairobi slums found they improve livelihoods and the environment by providing a sustainable and affordable cooking solution.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
The document defines climate change and discusses its causes and effects. It states that climate change is connected to both natural phenomena and human activity that increases greenhouse gases. The major human causes are burning fossil fuels, deforestation, agriculture, and industrial processes. Effects of climate change include rising sea levels from melting ice sheets, heavier rainfall worldwide, more extreme droughts and hurricanes, declining crop yields, and changing ecosystems. Climate change is also acidifying oceans by absorbing increased carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
This document discusses converting cow dung into methanol through a two-step process of anaerobic digestion followed by acid treatment. The quantities and qualities of methane gas and methanol produced depend on factors like slurry concentration and temperature. Gas chromatography analysis found the biogas contained 57.23% methane. Refining the biogas enhanced the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, making the organic components more available for the acid reaction. Spectroscopic analysis indicated methanol was formed, with a purity of 92.5%. The process also generates fertilizer from the leftover sludge.
1. Wood recycling, reuse and reduction (3Rs) can help address the growing issue of municipal solid waste and reduce various negative impacts if implemented properly.
2. There are challenges to promoting 3Rs for wood waste including lack of awareness, concerns about costs and feasibility, and difficulties in standardizing approaches.
3. Potential unethical problems with wood recycling include poor waste management, taking shortcuts in disposal, deforestation if not managed sustainably, and lack of awareness. Suggestions to overcome these include improving waste sorting systems, promoting awareness campaigns, and avoiding environmental degradation.
Carbon Storage & Low Energy Intensity in Harvested Wood ProductsBecky LaPlant
Presentation by Jim Bowyer, Dovetail Partners, at the Blandin Foundation sponsored Forest Values and Carbon Markets: Opportunities for Minnesota conference. February 25-26, 2009 at the Cloquet Forestry Center, Cloquet MN
This document discusses various sources of biomass that can be used for fuel applications. It describes how biomass from agriculture, forestry, plantations and animal husbandry can be processed into fuels. Primary sources include crop residues, woody biomass, animal waste and energy crops. Technologies for converting biomass include direct combustion as well as thermochemical and biochemical processes like pyrolysis, gasification and anaerobic digestion. The document also provides estimates of biomass potential from different sources in various countries and discusses preparation and densification of biomass through processes like drying, grinding and briquetting to improve its fuel properties.
IRJET- Design and Fabrication of Waste Destroying Machine-A ReviewIRJET Journal
This document provides a review of a waste destroying machine designed to burn dry waste materials. It begins with an abstract that describes the machine's use of a heating coil to burn dry waste and use the resulting ash in construction. The introduction provides background on waste management and methods like incineration. It then describes the project's use of solar panels to power a heating coil and burn dry waste on a base plate. The literature review discusses research on seasonal waste composition and generation. It finds food waste is higher in some months. The conclusion states that more work is needed on this topic since the project will use a heating coil to burn dry waste and use the resulting ash.
Effects of Varying Particle Size On Mechanical and Combustion Characteristics...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The document discusses several issues with forest carbon offset projects and carbon trading schemes. It argues that planting trees does not actually reduce emissions and storing carbon in forests is temporary. It also notes that many forest offset projects have resulted in conflicts over land rights and negative social impacts. The document concludes that forest offsets are used to justify continued fossil fuel extraction and burning, exacerbating climate change.
This document discusses how bamboo can help address climate change, energy issues, and poverty through being a fast-growing, renewable resource. Bamboo forests can sequester large amounts of carbon and bamboo products can replace higher carbon materials. The county of Anji, China is provided as a case study where bamboo makes up a large portion of the economy and culture through industry, carbon credits, and tourism. With less than 3% of forest area, bamboo provides 22% of China's total forest carbon sink.
ADVANCING SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS ENERGY PRODUCTION IN UGANDA THROUGH PRACTICAL I...RECSONETWORKRECSONET
ADVANCING SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS ENERGY PRODUCTION IN UGANDA THROUGH PRACTICAL INCENTIVE MECHANISMS
A Presentation by Issa Katwesige, Principal Forest Officer Forest Sector Support Department, Ministry of Water and Environment , at Esella Hotel October 07, 2020
During the National dissemination and policy engagement workshop on identification of practical incentives for advancing sustainable Biomass Energy Production within Central Forest Reserves and Forest Landsapes in Uganda.
Organized by Environmental Alert in partnership with financial support from Norad within the framework of the project titled, ‘Increasing access to sustainable and renewable energy alternatives in the AlbertineGraben’ that is implemented by WWF-Uganda Country Office.”
Design and Fabrication of an Anaerobic DigesterAZOJETE UNIMAID
This document describes the design and fabrication of an anaerobic digester to generate biogas for small-scale farmers in Nigeria. Key aspects of the design include:
- The digester is made of locally available materials and has a total volume of 0.974 cubic meters.
- It is designed to process 40 liters of slurry per day from a mixture of Typha grass, cow dung, and water.
- The digester components include a frustum-shaped top, cylindrical middle section, and cone-shaped bottom to allow slurry flow and discharge.
- A hopper with a capacity of 20 liters is designed to regularly feed the digester, and a 60mm ball valve
This document summarizes research on converting plastic waste to liquid fuel through pyrolysis. It discusses:
- Plastic waste management is a major problem in Khartoum, Sudan, with over 1 million tons of solid waste annually, 12.7% of which is plastic.
- Pyrolysis involves heating plastic in the absence of oxygen to produce liquid oil, gas, and carbon black. The oil yield from plastic pyrolysis is 80-90%.
- The document evaluates several commercial pyrolysis processes and modifies the thermofuel process in Aspen Hysys software to improve efficiency.
- The modified process uses screw conveyors to melt plastic continuously and utilizes uncondensed gases to heat the feed,
Fourteen teachers from 12 school districts and two organizations across the state earned 30 professional development hours while taking part in the Arkansas Forestry Association Education Foundation’s Teacher Conservation Tour (#TCT2016.) The week-long tour acquainted the group with a variety of different topics in the forestry industry. The week began in the classroom where the group learned forest history, tree cookie facts and tree identity. The days that followed consisted of a mill tours, a visit to an active logging site, a Tree Farm tour and a nursery tour.
Studies on development of fuel briquettes for household and industrial purposeSAT Journals
Abstract The hike in the price of electricity, petrol and diesel for daily usage has directed the researches for alternate fuels. But unfortunately recession and climatic changes has increased all the expenses. This makes a tough situation for the production of alternate fuels at low cost. Among several methods fuel briquetting is widely used using municipal waste, vegetable waste, newspaper waste etc. The present investigation is carried out using Almond leaves, saw dust and cocopeat. Using proximate analysis the moisture content, ash content, volatile matter and the fixed carbon are determined. The briquette sample size is fixed as 6 x 3 x 3 inches. The binding material used is plain flour in the proportion of 125 g per each briquette. The study incorporated the determination of calorific value, porosity , ultimate analysis, XRD, SEM analysis. The results indicated that the almond leaf briquette with higher compressive strength burns more time and is safer for storage and transportation. Keywords: Fuel Briquettes, Calorific Value, Almond Leaf, Porosity, Deforestation
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Analysis on municipal solid waste pellets makingJossie Xiong
The calorific value of raw MSW is around 1000 kcal/kg while that of fuel pellets is 4000 kcal/kg. On an average, about 15–20 tons of fuel pellets can be produced after treatment of 100 tons of raw garbage.
Briquetting machine report for phase-1manugowdapes
This document discusses the design and fabrication of a low-cost briquetting machine. It begins by introducing briquetting as a process to compress biomass into densified briquettes using screw or pneumatic compressors. It then describes the process of briquetting which involves drying, grinding, and compressing biomass. The document goes on to discuss the need for an integrated low-cost machine that can grind and compress biomass. It cites issues with fossil fuel depletion and air pollution as motivation for developing biomass briquettes as an alternative. The machine is intended to efficiently produce briquettes from dry waste that can be used as a replacement for fossil fuels like coal.
An Assessment of the Socio-Economic Impacts of Fuel Wood Exploitation on the ...AJSERJournal
This document discusses a study that assessed the socio-economic impacts of fuel wood exploitation in Gombe State, Nigeria. The study examined fuel wood supply patterns and levels to Gombe urban area from forest reserves. Results showed that on average 136 trips transported over 39,000 tons of fuel wood annually to Gombe urban. Extraction has negative environmental impacts and has increased due to population growth. While fuel wood provides income, overexploitation risks deforestation and degradation, affecting livelihoods. Recommendations were made to promote sustainable practices.
This document discusses the benefits of using fuel briquettes for cooking compared to traditional biomass fuels like charcoal and firewood. Briquettes are cheaper to produce and use, burn longer, and reduce indoor air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Producing briquettes from waste charcoal and biomass generates income, employment and social benefits for communities while helping meet the demand for cooking fuel and saving trees. Studies on briquette production technologies in Nairobi slums found they improve livelihoods and the environment by providing a sustainable and affordable cooking solution.
Similar to Socioeconomic_and_Environmental_Impacts.pdf (20)
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
Whether you're new to SEO or looking to refine your existing strategies, this webinar will provide you with actionable insights and practical tips to elevate your nonprofit's online presence.
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...
Socioeconomic_and_Environmental_Impacts.pdf
1. 1
Environmental and socio-economic implications of charcoal production
and use in Kenya
K. Senelwaa
, E. E. Ekakoroa
; D. O. Ogwenoa
& K. O. Okacha
Department of Forestry & Wood Science, Moi University, PO Box 3900, ELDORET- 30100,
Kenya
Kenya's forests have declined in area, stocking and volumes of wood and biomass contained
therein over the last couple of decades, being blamed on charcoal production and use,
especially in peri-urban areas where the practice is outlawed. This work assessed
environmental, indoor pollution and the socioeconomic impacts of the production and use 1.6
million tonnes of charcoal in earth mound kilns in Kenya. Although the industry is a source of
employment and livelihoods for millions of Kenyans in the informal sector, it is associated
with vegetation and forest clearing estimated to range from 0.087 to 1.33 million hectares
annually due to the low charcoal recoveries of earth kilns. Besides, the use of the charcoal in
poorly designed appliances and houses exposed residents to high levels of carbon monoxide
emissions (4166–6147 mg/m3
) and other products of incomplete combustion. Improved kilns
and a shift in focus to on-farm wood production with high biomass densities should be part of
the solution in heavily degraded charcoaling areas to (i) relieve pressure on natural forests and
vegetation ecosystems; (ii) generate extra earnings through increased charcoal production with
remnant trees for alternative uses and/or rehabilitation.
Key words: Environment, deforestation, socioeconomic, charcoal, Kenya
Introduction
Over 90% of the wood in Kenya is harvested
for fuelwood (Senelwa et al. 2005; Senelwa
et al. 2004; Rweyemam, 2002; MoE, GoK,
2002) which provides over 70% of the final
energy requirements (Kahiga, 2000). Some
of this wood is harvested from fragile
ecosystems such as natural vegetation,
upstream water catchments and arid and
semi arid lands. The wood is converted and
or processed in poorly designed and
inefficient traditional technologies such as
earth mound charcoal kilns. It has been
estimated that 1.6 million tonnes of charcoal
is “illegally” produced annually (ESDA,
2005). The demand is expected to increase
gradually. In the absence of clear policies
that encourage efficient use of valuable
biomass resources, little effort is made to
improve conversion technologies or skills of
charcoal producers. The inefficient
technologies lead to deforestation and are
therefore unsustainable. For charcoal
producers, it influences the profitability of
the enterprises and therefore their livelihoods
as it limits the income generating activities.
This work assessed charcoal production
and utilization processes and the attendant
environmental, indoor pollution and its
socioeconomic impacts in Kenya. The
study (i) quantified the potential
implications of adopting and applying the
improved earth mound and metal kiln
technologies in mitigating the problems of
deforestation from current production
processes, and (ii) analysed the socio-
economics of the people in the charcoal
industry (users, transporters, traders and
producers). In addition, the gaseous
emissions associated with charcoal use
were analysed.
2. Methods
It was assumed that 1.6 million tonnes of
charcoal is produced and used in Kenya
annually (ESDA, 2005).
2. 2
Surveys
Surveys of charcoal producers,
transporters, vendors and consumers were
conducted in Makueni, Kitui, and
Machakos, Uasin Gishu and Narok
districts; and in two urban centers - Eldoret
and Nairobi. The data collected included
socio-economic characteristics, charcoal
production processes and types of kilns
used, problems resulting from charcoal
production, charcoal trade, combustion
appliances, charcoal quantities and
availability. Except Uasin Gishu district
that falls in the highlands, all the other
districts fall in the arid and semi arid lands
of Kenya, and supply the bulk of charcoal
used in Nairobi.
Charcoal production process
Thirteen earth mound and 10 interlocking
metal kilns were monitored to evaluate
charcoal production processes in
commercial field environments in Uasin
Gishu, Narok and Malindi Districts, Kenya
(Ekakoro et al. 2006). Recoveries
measured from this study - 15.03% for
earth mound; 32.26% for improved earth
mound; and 36.9% for interlocking metal
kilns were applied to evaluate the socio
economic and environmental implications
of charcoal production technologies. For
purposes of the analysis, we assumed that
the bulk of the charcoal in the country is
produced in the traditional earth mound
kilns at efficiencies of 15.03%.
Environmental implications of charcoal
production technologies
In estimating charcoal specific rates of
deforestation, the main objective was to
translate the annual amount of solid wood
required (in tonnes, t), but not supplied
from private sources (additional or
"deficit" wood), into the equivalent area of
woody biomass needed (in hectares) and
either managed on a sustainable basis
(using mean annual increment, MAI) or
deforested (using growing stock). This
required consideration of the annual
charcoal production / requirements,
efficiencies of production; solid wood
requirements, and the equivalent areas of
natural woody biomass required.
Three major growing stock specifications
were assumed for a low, medium, and high
woody biomass potential representing all
major ecosystems. "Low woody biomass
potential", included wooded grasslands,
shrubland, bushland and thicket averaging
8 (air-dry) tonnes per hectare (t/ha);
medium value of 27 t/ha of woody biomass
in farmlands; and "high woody biomass
potential" humid tropical and montane
forests, of 122 t/ha. Greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions implications were based on
established IPCC guidelines (IPCC, 1996).
Combustion emissions
Charcoal samples from common tree
species were tested for Carbon monoxide
(CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) and hydrocarbon emissions
using a Flue gas analyzer (KM9106). Two
appliances were tested - traditional metallic
stove (TMS) and Kenya ceramic stove
(KCJ).
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In total, 370 households (consumers), 60
charcoal dealers, 90 charcoal producers, 40
transporters and 32 professionals (in
different fields associated with charcoal
production and use) were interviewed. All
the producers interviewed used the
traditional earth mound kiln. With the
exception of Uasin Gishu district, most
producers obtained their wood for charcoal
from communal and trust lands as a “free
good’, without any payment. In areas
where trust lands were limited or where the
vegetation had been cleared such as Kitui
and Uasin Gishu, wood was obtained from
private farms. Only a smaller percentage of
the charcoal producers (9.8%) reported to
have obtained permits for charcoal
production. Charcoal producers prefer
3. 3
Acacia spp and other indigenous species,
even though the preferences vary with
region and depended on availability. The
charcoal was mostly produced from green
wood in earth kilns with average
efficiencies of 15.03% (Ekakoro et al.,
2006).
3.1 Socio-economics of charcoal
production and use
Most of the respondents (71%) in the
charcoal utilization survey were females in
the age group of 36 years. Majority of the
respondents (54%) had primary level of
education and 35% had post primary level
education, and engaged in business as a
source of income (Fig. 1). The average
household monthly income was estimated
to be KShs 5241.00 (US $ 70).
Figure 1: Occupation of respondents
Most of the charcoal producers on the
other hand were married males with
average household size of 6 and with
monthly incomes of between KSh 3000
and 6000. Apart from charcoal, other
sources of income include farming (45%),
business (49%) and teaching (6%).
Majority of charcoal producers have low
education level, the majority having only a
primary level education. The charcoal was
produced for sale to wholesalers at the
production sites and along the transport
routes to major towns including Eldoret
and Nairobi. The producers used a very
small proportion of the total charcoal
output. All interviewed respondents said
charcoal business was an important
economic activity, providing employment
to a number of people in the study areas.
Fuel mix and combinations among
respondents
Households in the urban areas (Eldoret and
Nairobi) used different fuels and
combinations of different fuels (Table 1),
with the most common fuels being
charcoal and kerosene.
Table 1: Fuel use by different
households
Fuel type Kerosene Fire wood Charcoal LP
% % % %
Don't use the fuel 1 84 12 98
Using the fuel 99 12 74 2
No response 0 4 14 0
Total 100 100 100 100
The charcoal was used for domestic
cooking, household heating, water heating,
ironing, and for household businesses like
fish frying for sale. Kerosene was used for
lighting and cooking. Although LPG has
been proposed as an alternative to reduce
charcoal use, its application was low.
3.2 Environmental implications
The most obvious environmental problems
of charcoal production and utilization
activities are the level and extent of tree
felling, forest clearing and therefore
deforestation (Table 2).
Table 2. Deforestation and greenhouse
gas emission implications of charcoal
production in Kenya.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Farmers
Tailors
Businessmen/women
Office workers/civil
servants
Others (teachers,
Mechanics, Drivers,
Juakali artisans and
masonry
Casual workers
Unemployed
Occupat
ion
of
respondent
Respondents involved (%)
4. 4
To produce the estimated 1.6 million
tonnes (Mt) of charcoal, up to 10.65 Mt of
wood was required from different types of
ecosystems, and on land that is controlled
under a range of land tenure regimes and
management practices. Unfortunately, the
laws that currently apply to charcoal
production and use are incoherent - while it
is legal to sell, buy and cook with charcoal,
it is illegal to produce and transport it. As a
result, there is a paucity of data on charcoal
production, sources of wood and the
possible effects of the production activities
since the production is mainly done in
unregulated underground cartels that are
largely difficult to monitor. It is therefore
difficult to ascertain the proportion of
wood and or charcoal from the different
configurations (forests, private farms and
woodlands), even though it is widely
believed that the bulk of the charcoal
originated from woodlands with low
biomass densities of only 8 t/ha. The lack
of data notwithstanding, the magnitude and
overall effect of the huge demand for wood
to produce charcoal on vegetation clearing
and or deforestation, ranging from 0.087 to
1.33 million hectares of land annually is
clear (Table 2). Indeed, evidence suggests
that charcoal production has led to
deforestation of large tracts of wooded
savannah. Recent aerial studies have
indicated that charcoal production, among
other activities, has taken a serious toll on
some of Kenya’s few remaining closed-
canopy forest areas (Gathaara, 1999).
Additional technology scenarios and the
attendant recoveries (Table 2) show
opportunities to significantly reduce
vegetation clearing for charcoal
production, and therefore the significant
impacts on the extent of deforestation.
Inclusion of improved earth and
interlocking metal kilns in the analysis
should be viewed as providing practical
interventions to the massive degradation of
the fragile savannah-like grasslands. In the
short term, it will be feasible to focus on
incremental improvements on earth kilns,
taking advantage of traditional knowledge
and practical knowledge of operators of
‘best practice kilns’.
GHG emissions of 4.4 Mt attributed to
charcoal is significant especially since
household bio-fuel production and use in
Kenya represents 78% of the total national
CO2 emission budget (Kituyi, 2000).
Although the First Kenya Communication
to UNFCCC reported emissions of CO2 =
395.1; CH4 = 5.3; N2O = 0.31 and NOX =
11.5 from charcoal, the current assessment
did not consider CO2 emissions from
combustion of biomass fuels.
Other attendant environmental
implications of charcoal production
include effects on the species diversity and
fragmentation of wildlife habitats even
though no quantitative data exists on the
negative impacts of tree felling to wildlife
species such as birds, reptiles and
invertebrates. For woody plants in such
environments, it has been found that fire
kills the above ground biomass of
seedlings, while the underground part is
not killed. Thus only temporal dieback is
exhibited, and later resprouting occurs
(Chidumayo, 1991b). For instance, high
species diversity has been found on
chitemene (shifting cultivation) ash
High Forests (122
t/ha)
Farmlands
(27 t/ha)
Woodlands
(8 t/ha)
Traditional Earth Mound 1.6 15.03 10.65 87,257 394,273 1,330,672 4,431,240
Improved Earth Mound 1.6 32.26 4.96 40,653 183,693 619,963 4,431,240
Interlocking Metal 1.6 36.90 4.34 35,541 160,594 542,005 4,431,240
Kiln Technology GHG
Emissions (t
CO2 Eq).
Vegetation Clearing (Hectare Equivalents)
Kiln
Efficiency
(%)
Quantity of
Charcoal
(Mt)
Wood
Requirements
(Mt)
5. 5
gardens ranging in age from 1 - 25 years
(Stromgaard, 1986), which has been
attributed to the survival of stumps and
roots of the pre-felling woodland, which
apparently were not killed by fire. Kiln
covering destroys vegetation at the dug-up
site, and plant roots up to 15 cm deep. The
heat generated during wood carbonization
destroys all plants at the kiln site where
herbaceous vegetation from seed dispersal
may establish within a few years meaning
the negative impact is long term.
While technology does not appear to
influence GHG emissions, the reduced
wood requirements for the higher
efficiency kilns imply that the carbon
sequestration potential in the grasslands
would be maintained. It is assumed that the
enhanced earth kiln charcoal production
recoveries will result in reduced natural
vegetation harvesting with progressive
regeneration and rehabilitation of natural
vegetation. Thus, improved kilns should be
part of the solution in heavily degraded
charcoaling areas to (i) relieve pressure on
natural forests and vegetation ecosystems;
(ii) generate extra earnings through
increased charcoal production with
remnant trees for alternative uses and/or
rehabilitation; and (iii) soil protection and
improvement in watershed protection. The
ultimate goal is to promote better
management of natural vegetation and
wetlands and prevent further loss and
degradation of these natural resources by
involving local communities in a
participatory manner. In future, efforts to
encourage sustainable tree farming for
charcoal production should be encouraged
to reduce the natural vegetation clearing in
woodlands as these ecosystems are fragile
and take longer to recover, yet they support
Kenya’s wildlife heritage that is
increasingly threatened.
Charcoal combustion gaseous emissions
The emissions varied with species and also
with stove type and differed from the
World Health Organization (WHO) indoor
air quality guidelines (WHO, 1999).
Emissions varied significantly among the
different charcoal species and with stove
design (Tables 3 and 4) indicating varying
health risks to users.
Table 3: Emissions variation with
charcoal species
CO
(mg/m3
)
NO2
(mg/m3
)
Species Mean Mean
Balanites aegyptiaca 2904.2a
± 2533.0 0.0a
± 0.0
Ekebergia capensis 4073.9ab
± 2421.5 1.0a
± 1.3
Acacia tortilis 4098.5ab
± 3259.2 0.0a
± 0.0
Combretum schuminii 5306.3ab
± 2789.4 0.2a
± 0.7
Acacia mearnsii 5770.2b
± 2915.0 3.1ab
± 4.
Newtonia hildebrandtii 9794.0c
± 229.2 5.5b
± 7.0
abc
Means with same letters are not
significantly different at 0.05 level.
The improved stove (KCJ) emitted more
CO than the traditional stove (TMS).
However, stove type had no significant
influence on NO2, hydrocarbons and CO2
emissions (p=0.131, 0.823 and 0.356
respectively). The use of KCJ therefore
poses more health risks to consumers in
terms of exposure to CO emissions. SO2
was not detected in any of the combustion
tests.
Table 4: Charcoal combustion
emissions from different stoves
Stove type CO (mg/m3
) NO2 (mg/m3
) CO2 (%) Hydrocarbon
KCJ 6147.7±3190.0 1.9±3.2 3.1±2.0 151.6±114.2
TMS 4166.5±2539.2 0.8±3.0 2.3±1.7 154.4±108.5
Mean 5070.2±2998.0 1.3±3.1 2.6±1.9 153.1±110.1
TMS has no ceramic lining and thus looses
more heat to the surroundings, which heats
the ash box, which in turn heats the
incoming air as it flows into the fuel bed
through the perforated grating. Besides, the
design allows for more excess air
conducive for complete combustion
processes. The preheated air reacts faster
with the emitted volatiles, favoring the
formation of NO and CO2 rather than
6. 6
reduced compounds such as CO. With KCJ
most heat is trapped in the thick ceramic
wall and less preheating occurs. Thus, the
high levels of CO and hydrocarbons
emissions in KCJs largely result from
incomplete combustion attributed to low
carbon conversion efficiency to CO2 and
improper air turbulence and distribution
leading to partial oxidation of carbon to
CO. The low levels of excess air and
improper air distribution produce reducing
conditions.
4. CONCLUSION
The charcoal industry is a source of
livelihoods for millions of Kenyans. For
producers, it provides alternative
employment, providing additional income
to supplement other sources.
Unfortunately, the low recoveries of the
earth kilns have a negative influence on the
profitability and livelihoods of producers,
limiting the income generating and social
activities. For users, it provides ‘easily’
accessible energy in the form and
quantities that are affordable to the
majority of the poor even though charcoal
use applying the two common appliances
(the Kenya ceramic and the traditional
metallic stoves) exposed residents to high
levels of carbon monoxide emissions
(4166–6147 mg/m3
) and other products of
incomplete combustion. The most obvious
environment problems associated with
charcoal production and use was the extent
of vegetation and forest clearing estimated
to range from 0.087 to 1.33 million
hectares, depending of the sources of the
wood.
Improved kilns and a shift in focus to on-
farm wood production with high biomass
densities should be part of the solution in
heavily degraded charcoaling areas to (i)
relieve pressure on natural forests and
vegetation ecosystems; (ii) generate extra
earnings through increased charcoal
production with remnant trees for
alternative uses and/or rehabilitation; and
(iii) soil protection and improvement in
watershed protection. The ultimate goal is
to promote better management of natural
vegetation and wetlands and prevent
further loss and degradation of these
natural resources by involving local
communities in a participatory manner. In
future, efforts to encourage sustainable tree
farming for charcoal production should be
encouraged to reduce the natural
vegetation clearing in woodlands as these
ecosystems are fragile and take longer to
recover, yet they support Kenya’s wildlife
heritage that is increasingly threatened.
References
Kahiga, T. D., (2000). An insight into
Energy Situation in Kenya. A Ministry of
Energy Perspective, February.
Ekakoro E.E., K. Senelwa, L. Etiegni, K.
Okach (2006). Evaluation of Charcoal
Kiln Processes and Recoveries in Kenya.
(Paper to be presented at the World
Renewable Energy Congress IX (WREC
IX), Florence, Italy, 19-25 August, 2006
Rweyemamu L. (2004). Evaluation of
Fuelwood Energy Consumption in Dar er
Salam Schools. (In Press). Tanzania
Engineers Journal.
MoE GoK (2003). National Energy Policy
(Draft 1), Ministry of Energy, Government
of Kenya, Nairobi.
MoE (2002). Study on Kenya’s Energy
Demand, Supply and Policy Strategy for
Households, Small Scale Industries and
Service Establishments. Ministry of
Energy, Final Report, Kamfor Company
Ltd., Nairobi.
ESDA (2005) National Charcoal Survey:
Exploring the Potential for a Sustainable
Charcoal Industry in Kenya. Energy for
Sustainable Development - Africa,
Nairobi, Kenya. June.
IPCC (1996). Revised 1996. IPCC
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas
7. 7
Inventories. Reference Manual (Volume
3). Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate
Change. IPCC Secretariat, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Kituyi, E., (2000), Atmospheric Emission
Budgets for domestic biomass burning in
Kenya, PhD Thesis, University of Nairobi.
Chidumayo, E.N. (1991). Woody biomass
structure and utilization for charcoal
production in a Zambian miombo
woodland. Bio-resources Technology 37:
43-52.
WHO (1999). Guidelines for Air Quality.
WHO Geneva.
Gathaara, G. N. (1999). Aerial Survey of
the Destruction Of Mt. Kenya, Imenti and
Ngare Ndare Forest Reserves: February -
June 1999. Nairobi, Kenya Wildlife
Service: 33.
K. Senelwa, E. E. Ekakoro, K. Okach, E.
Omutange and M. Njenga (2005).
Application of the LCA methodology in
evaluating environmental attributes of
forests and wood products: the case of
charcoal in Kenya. Proceedings, Kenya
Forest Research Institute (KEFRI)
Scientific Conference, KEFRI
Headquaters, Nairobi Kenya 1-4 November
2004.
K. Senelwa, D. Ogweno, L. Etiégni, D.
Okwara & F. Mburu (2004). East African
regional needs for forestry: Wood
requirements and the dimensions of
deforestation. East African Clonal Forestry
Conference. Proceedings. Windsor Golf &
Country Club Nairobi, Kenya. 26-27
January 2004. ISBN 1-892456-37-0