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![Silicone Elastomers 2012 27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany
Page 1 of 8 pages Paper 1 - Franssen
WINNING AGAINST FUNCTIONAL COMPETITION –
THE SUCCESS-STORY OF SILICONES
Oliver Franssen, Global Marketing Director Elastomers Transportation
Heiko Bayerl, Marketing Manager Elastomers Automotive Europe
Momentive Performance Materials GmbH, 51368 Leverkusen, Germany
oliver.franssen@momentive.com
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Oliver Franssen studied Mechanical Engineering and Plastics Technology at the
University of Technology RWTH Aachen / IKV and received his engineering degree
in 1990. He started his professional career 1990 at Dätwyler / Switzerland as
project leader for rubber precision parts for the Automotive Industry. In 1996, Oliver
joined DuPont-Dow Elastomers as Market Development Manager for Automotive.
Between 2001 and 2003 he was the commercial director at Omnexus in Europe. In
2004 he joined Momentive Performance Materials (formerly GE Bayer Silicones) in
Automotive Marketing for Elastomers. Since 2008 he is the Global Marketing
Director of this segment.
ABSTRACT
In the global elastomers market, Silicone Elastomers continue to be a niche with approx. 1.5% of the global
demand in rubber. However Silicones grow faster than many industries and economies. Due to megatrends
including aging population for healthcare applications, environmental awareness in automotive and energy or
consumer perception and legislation for example in consumer good applications.
While silicones have an almost universal set of physical properties for rubber applications, based on material
cost considerations they are often not immediately selected - instead of judging by system costs. Successful
Silicone Elastomer applications can be achieved, when engineers understand the Silicone product features
and creatively apply their benefits for new applications and designs.
This paper will help to position Silicone Elastomers vs. functionally competing materials including rubber
materials like FKM, ACM, EPDM or natural rubber and metal in a spring or thermoplastics and glass in
optical applications. Examples show how specific properties of Silicone Elastomers lead to successful new
applications winning against functional competition.
Overview on Elastomers
In comparison to the global rubber market, Silicone Elastomers continues to play a niche role and represent
only approx. 1.5% of the global elastomers market. [1,2] Due to their -Si-O- backbone, Silicones are
considered as an inorganic elastomers as opposed to all other synthetic elastomers and natural rubber
which are based on a –C-C- backbone. This difference is root-cause reason for the various single
advantages and disadvantages of silicone elastomers against their functional competitors.
25.8 MM
tons in
2011](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-11-320.jpg)
![27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012
Paper 1 - Franssen Page 4 of 8 pages
New Technologies
Example: Lighting is one of the global drivers in innovation. Energy saving, CO2-reduction and
safety accelerate the transformation to LED light. The share of LED in lighting is forecasted to grow
from 15% in 2010 to 45% in 2015, substituting traditional lighting like the historical Edison lamp. [5]
The light power of LEDs are developing rapidly, in combination with emission of strong blue light and
increasing temperatures. High transparent Silicones combine resistance against high temperatures
and against UV-light at high optical transparency.
For a winning development with Silicone Elastomers, a pure material replacement calculation from an
existing drawing / application is often not enough. In Silicone LSR, elastomer innovations allow redesigning
of parts and systems benefitting from values resulting from simple feature differences to individual organic
elastomers. Those include
Low viscosity enables very thin walls and long thin flow paths
Low hardness without plasticizers
Easy to color, even glass-clear products are available
Silicones mechanics are almost linear / similar to a Hooke-spring
Hydrophobicity
Excellent insulation properties
Those features enhance the number of functional competitors (and application potentials) significantly and
Silicone elastomers therefore find usage in
insulators for high voltage, replacing porcelain
replacements of metal springs
replacements of transparent plastics and glass in optical applications
as illustrated in following examples.
Ultra-transparent LSR vs Glass and Plastics
Dispensable, high transparent Silicones replaced engineering thermoplastic resins in packaging of the
semiconductors in LEDs for some years. The higher temperatures and the hard blue light radiation of high
efficient, new generation LEDs requires UV-light resistance and low yellowing for the optical packaging
material. These properties combined with improved crack resistance are provided by silicone based
packaging materials which are basically used in LED packaging nowadays.
Figure 4: plastics and LSR 7000 after heat aging 6480 h 150°C [6]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-14-320.jpg)
![Silicone Elastomers 2012 27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany
Page 5 of 8 pages Paper 1 - Franssen
Innovation in lighting design and the success of high efficient LEDs are
driving the research for new materials which can be processed by
injection molding, enabling high complex design at high production
volumes. The new LSR 7000 family by Momentive provides high optical
transparency, excellent UV- and blue- light resistance. The new ultra-
transparent LSR is a good candidate to replace transparent plastics like
PC and PMMA in lighting applications which require high temperature
resistance and flexibility in design.
An obvious next step is to use high transparent LSR for secondary
optical lenses which can be directly assembled to the LED. The light of
a semiconductor is spread in a very simple way by the packaging
material, e.g. a globe-top. In order to form and to guide the light
secondary lenses and light guides are needed. So far such optics are
mainly made from PC or PMMA. In order to protect
these materials against the high temperature of a high
power LED, those optical elements can’t be
assembled directly onto the light source - a 1-2 mm
gap is necessary to reduce the junction temperature.
Resulting reflections from plastic to air and from air to
plastic reduce the efficiency of such optical
components. Secondary lenses and light guides
made out of high transparent, temperature resistant
LSRs can be assembled directly to the LED and
higher efficiency can be achieved. Additionally LSR
allows a higher freedom of design than PC and
PMMA.
LSR vs NR in Babycare
When LSR was brought to the market some 30 years ago, baby bottle nipples were one of the first
application, the industry immediately started to work on. LSR brought a transparent appearance, was easy to
injection-mold at high yield and neutral in odor and taste. At the time the market was dominated by pacifiers
and bottle nipples made from natural rubber latices. Studies show that LSRs not only fulfill necessary food
compliancy, their allergene potential is far less than the natural rubber product. LSR is UV-resistant and will
survive cooking water without significant change of appearance or physical properties. The decision to
choose LSR in baby-care at the end
was a decision from many mothers
and even more babies, which
preferred the silicone elastomer vs.
natural rubber. The baby-care
market today is amongst the biggest
LSR application volumes globally.
Also in this mature segment the
elastomer innovation continues to
fulfill expectations for the next
generation of products e.g. with
higher tear resistance. A new
development is for example
Momentive’s LSR 2645 with
improved hot tear resistance
according to EN 1400-2.
Figure 5: Multifunctional Lens
based on LSR 7070 [4]
Figure 7: LSR 2645 in comparison [6]
Figure 6: Transparency over wavelength of LSR
7070 [6]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-15-320.jpg)
![27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012
Paper 1 - Franssen Page 6 of 8 pages
Silicone vs Porcelain in High Voltage Applications
Silicone Elastomers in High Voltage Applications came up in the late 60s when experts tried to find a lighter
and maintenance free solution to replace glass and porcelain in composite insulators like hollow cores.
Key expectations for this application are:
Low weight - high mechanical strength
Easy Handling
Pollution performance - low maintenance costs
Flexibility / Explosion Safety (seismic behavior)
A functional elastomer competitor to Silicones is EPDM with as good weatherability and insulation properties.
Silicone insulators benefit from standard silicone features, the most important are:
Flexibility
Low density
Hydrophobicity
Low Viscosity
Hydrophobicity (which prevents contaminations and flashovers on the insulator surface) and low viscosity
(enables casting of big shapes) are key properties differentiating Silicones vs. EPDM. Silicone also has the
ability to transfer it’s water repellent properties into contamination layers that might be built up in heavily
polluted environments. A good example here is Momentive’s Silopren Electro 242-0, that additionally
features excellent tracking and erosion resistance (1A 4.5 kV according to IEC 60587). Looking at
manufacturing costs, Silicone leads to the most expensive part. However in system costs which include
assembly, long-term maintenance and disassembly, Silicone insulators are the most cost efficient solution.
[3] One of the main reasons is the need for regular cleaning of conventional insulators including those made
with EPDM which is unnecessary with the hydrophobic Silicones.
Heat-resistant LSR against ACM and FKM in charge-air-cooler gaskets
The demand for more efficient vehicles continues to drive the share of turbo-charged engines. Since
turbochargers are running in a loss-oil lubrication with engine oil, their compressed hot charge air contains
oil. The compressed air passes a through a cooler to increase the density. The charge-air-cooler-gasket is
normally a big square seal. In manufacturing, the necessary flow length of the thin shape can cause
problems in mold and process-design with organic elastomers being high in viscosity. Materials had to
combine necessary oil-resistance with high temperature performance and acceptable static low temperature
performance. Most specified materials have been FKM (expensive and problematic in low temperatures) and
ACM (better in low temperatures and cheaper, but limited in heat-resistance). HCR silicone compounds
Figure 9 Silicone Hollow Core Insulator
$/YR
Figure 8: Life cycle cost for insulators](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-16-320.jpg)
![Silicone Elastomers 2012 27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany
Page 7 of 8 pages Paper 1 - Franssen
came up (modified with mineral fillers to achieve lower oil swell), but also these compounds had same
potential scorch-problems in traditional rubber molding. In the early 2000s, a major OEM qualified LSR 2670
black from Momentive. The LSR features fit perfectly to the difficult to manufacture geometry, however LSR
has higher swell in oil than any of the mentioned functional competitors.
The very low viscosity of the shear-thinning LSR allows fast filling
The inhibition of LSR prevents scorch of the material
The platinum catalyzed addition cure makes full automation affordable
No material losses with automated a waste-less and trim-free molding system
Good high temperature resistance and compression set
LSR 2670 contributed to significant cost savings in this application and is in successful mass-production.
LSR against a metal spring - Silicone HCR against NR in engine mounts
Movement is creating
vibration and noise. Electrical
motors as well as combustion
engines need to be fixed and
in the same time decoupled.
The ideal material provides
constant rebound resilience
combined with good
mechanical properties along
the working temperature
range of the application.
Silicone Elastomers are
relatively constant in modulus
and spring properties from
very low temperatures –40°C and up to high temperatures above 150 °C. Thanks to such outstanding
properties LSR substituted thermoplastic TPE as the decoupling element in the fixing device of the electrical
cooling van under the hood. A special self-bonding LSR allows the 2K-injection molding of a thermoplastic
fixing device with chemically bonded dampening elements made out of silicone rubber to keep the device in
place to dampen the noise and vibration over a wide range of
temperature.
Another example is the substitution of NR by a special, low dampening
Silicone Rubber used in the engine mount of the combustion engine of a
power station. NR is destroyed at temperatures above 120 °C, high
efficient combustion engines have to be encapsulated for noise
reduction. As a consequence the temperatures around the engine are
increasing and new materials are required to replace NR as dampening
material. Engine mounts made out of Silicone Elastomer work
consistently at temperatures of 150 °C.
Outlook
The next successful application of Silicone replacing a functional
competitor requires bright engineers and innovative raw material suppliers teaming up with each other.
Unique Silicone formulations can add value in use above and beyond just higher processing efficiency. More
important are creative innovators who can think outside of the box and utilize necessary freedom of design to
function..
Figure 12: Dampening cage
for cooling fan motor
Figure 11: DMA LIM 8040 [6]
Figure 10´: Silicone Engine
Mounts](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-17-320.jpg)
![27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012
Paper 1 - Franssen Page 8 of 8 pages
References
[1] Dr. Stephen Evans, IRSG, Presentation on China Rubber Conference, Mar 2011
[2] Momentive Market Estimates 2011
[3] EPRI, Transmission Line Reference Book, 115-138kV Compact Line Design, RP 260, pp:29.
[4] Foto by KIMW Lüdenscheid / Germany
[5] Philips Global Lighting Market Study
[6] Momentive Lab Data
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THE EXTENT THAT THE END-USE CONDITIONS AND/OR INCORPORATION CONDITIONS CORRESPOND TO THE
RECOMMENDED CONDITIONS OF USE AND/OR OF INCORPORATION AS DESCRIBED BY SUPPLIER IN ITS PRODUCT DATA
SHEET AND/OR PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS. EXCEPT AS PROVIDED IN SUPPLIERS’ STANDARD CONDITIONS OF SALE,
SUPPLIERS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIVES SHALL IN NO EVENT BE RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY LOSS RESULTING FROM ANY
USE OF ITS MATERIALS, PRODUCTS OR SERVICES DESCRIBED HEREIN.
Each user bears full responsibility for making its own determination as to the suitability of Suppliers’ materials, services,
recommendations, or advice for its own particular use. Each user must identify and perform all tests and analyses necessary to assure
that its finished parts incorporating Suppliers’ products, materials, or services will be safe and suitable for use under end-use conditions.
Nothing in this or any other document, nor any oral recommendation or advice, shall be deemed to alter, vary, supersede, or waive any
provision of Suppliers’ Standard Conditions of Sale or this Disclaimer, unless any such modification is specifically agreed to in a writing
signed by Suppliers. No statement contained herein concerning a possible or suggested use of any material, product, service or design
is intended, or should be construed, to grant any license under any patent or other intellectual property right of Suppliers or any of its
subsidiaries or affiliates covering such use or design, or as a recommendation for the use of such material, product, service or design in
the infringement of any patent or other intellectual property right.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-18-320.jpg)
![27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012
Paper 2 - Kaup Page 2 of 6 pages
INTRODUCTION
The development of automotive headlamps was affected by important enhancements of technologies,
particularly with regard on the last decade. There were different directions of development since the
beginning of the century. Functionalities like AFS (Adaptive Front-lighting System) were integrated.
Afterwards with the usage of more and more sensor technology, e.g. cameras, it was possible to implement
high beam assistant, adaptive and vertical cut-off-lines.
The implementation of AFS based on the discussions of the EUREKA Workgroup 1403 was divided in two
steps. First, 2003 bend lighting functionalities were integrated in the existing regulations and separated from
overall AFS discussion. Close to this, first cars with dynamic and static bend lighting entered the market.
Since initiation of the AFS regulation ECE123 in 2007 several cars integrated Full-AFS headlamps,
containing motorway light, country light, town light and even a light distribution for severe weather conditions
(Figure 1). Bend light and AFS light distributions enable a road situation adapted illumination. Those Front-
lighting systems use standard car sensor signals like steering wheel angle, speed, gear level etc. for system
control. The possibility to use GPS data for headlamp control is not integrated in most AFS systems. Thus,
light distributions are not direct associated to the environment [ECE, 2007], [Schmidt, 2011].
Figure 1 - AFS light distributions & VarioX projection module [Hella, 2011]
Next tremendous step was the launch of camera technologies in headlamp functionalities. If the sensor
detects other road users, it is possible to switch between high and low beam automatically, so called high
beam assistant. Further development offers the ‘Adaptive Cut-Off Line’. The aCOL controls the light range
depending on the distance to oncoming traffic and to traffic ahead. The visibility range of the driver is
increased and glare of the traffic is avoided. With an additional ‘Vertical Cut-Off Line’ glare-free high beam
and in most traffic situations a light distribution comparable to high beam is available for the driver. In case of
oncoming or heading traffic the glaring parts of the high beam lighting distribution are automatically faded
out. Today such functions are realized by leveling and swiveling projection modules (Figure 1). HID-lamps
with high luminous flux are usually the medium of choice.
In recent years, the luminous efficiency of phosphor-based white light-emitting diodes has improved rapidly.
Moreover LEDs have many features including energy-savings, long life, short rise and fall times and low
impact on the environment. Thus, they are well suited to be one of the main light sources in the current and
next generation of automotive headlamps. Furthermore design freedom is an advantage LEDs and polymer
optics have in common. In this context Figure 2 illustrates the milestones of headlamp development since
the beginning of the 21
st
century.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-20-320.jpg)
![Silicone Elastomers 2012 27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany
Page 3 of 6 pages Paper 2 - Kaup
Figure 2 - Headlamp-Milestones from 2000 on [Hella, 2011]
The chain of reasoning is the conclusion of adaptive light functionalities and the integration of LED light
sources and polymer optics. One high-end solution can be LED-array headlamps. The core is a matrix of
high-power LED-chips. Each chip has an own power supply. It can be activated or deactivated without
interacting with other chips. By turning on certain regions of the matrix, various light distributions can be
generated. Thus, it is possible to realize e.g. glare-free high beam or marking light with a non-mechanical
unit.
TRANSPARENT POLYMER OPTICS IN AUTOMOTIVE HEADLAMPS
The automotive industry and its suppliers know how to make use of new technologies. With the introduction
of Full-LED headlamps the car’s frontend styling changes obviously, like e.g. Audi A8 an A6 have shown.
With the LED as a “cold” light source the use of plastic material for thick, high precision lenses is now
possible. This offers a wide range of styling freedom. There are also advantages in weight, complexity and
integration compared to glass lenses.
Adaptive headlamps utilizing LED-arrays represent a special challenge. Well known are PC and PMMA
materials. On the one hand injection moulding and injection-compression moulding allow a comparatively
cheap one-step-manufacturing of high precision optical polymer lenses. On the other hand thermoplastic
polymers reach their limits relating to temperatures beyond 100°C or high irradiance. A promising material
for high precision and high performance optics is optical silicone. Highly transparent liquid silicone rubber
(LSR) stands out for being resistant against high temperatures, violet and ultraviolet radiation while providing
excellent transmission characteristics at the same time. When used as light guidance elements or primary
optics LSRs can directly be exposed to white LEDs. In contrast to that thermoplastics have to keep a safety
distance to the light source, so optical disadvantages are the result.
Silicone lenses can withstand permanent temperatures beyond 150°C. Obviously, LSR is the only
transparent polymeric material capable to withstand the high temperatures occurring at and close to the LED
junction (Figure 3).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-21-320.jpg)
![27-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012
Paper 2 - Kaup Page 4 of 6 pages
Figure 3 - Transparency behavior of various transparent polymers during and
after aging at elevated temperatures [Luce, 2009].
Furthermore LSR’s injection mouldability is excellent, even undercuts can be demoulded with this flexible
material. In comparison to thermoplastics the injection moulding process of LSR gets by without high post
pressure, long cooling time and anisotropic end product properties. A significant cycle time advantage can
be realized when manufacturing LSR-parts even with excellent isotropic properties [Luce, 2009], [Bayerl,
2010]. LUCE ET AL. already proofed the suitability of LSR lenses under very severe conditions in a headlamp.
But they did not consider the thermal expansion and the fact that the refractive index is a function of
temperature (dn/dT ≈ -0,0003 K-1
). In case of imaging secondary optics the change of optical performance
has a wide influence on resulting light distribution. Thus, a sharply bounded cut-off line can be destructed. In
case of collecting primary optics it is less critical from optical point of view.
FLEXIBLE LENSES
Expansion with rising temperature and simultaneous decreasing refractive index are polymeric properties. In
a wide range of temperature you have to deform a lens exactly so that the thermally induced change in the
refractive index and the shape of the optically active surfaces are compensated. On top of that, it can be
possible to control light distributions in this manner. Already described adaptive front-lighting systems enable
generation of different light functions in automotive applications by use of only one projection module and a
halogen or HID-lamp. Usually subtractive systems are used as in the case of variable apertures. By contrast,
the use of white LEDs offers new possibilities for additive AFS functions. For example you can combine
LEDs with primary optics and projection lenses consisting of LSR. A change in focal distance is obtained by
deforming the elastomer. This is the decisive step to the realization of an accommodating headlamp. In order
to apply the specific force on the side surface of the lens an appropriate actuator is needed. But first of all
there is an iterative process of optical and mechanical simulation.
Figure 4 - Simulation of deformation with the finite elements method [ABAQUS, 2012]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-22-320.jpg)
![continet 12 steppys.” 4. Carew also speaks of it as “a chapel for
devotion, builded by William Earl of Morton,” (Carew so speaking
with the multitude, when he ought to have given the building to the
Confessor,) “and greatly haunted while folk endured (endeared) their
merits by farre travailing.” 5. Carew thus refers obscurely, perhaps
unconsciously, to a particular privilege annexed to the church, which
was given by one decree from Pope Gregory, and confirmed by
another from Bishop Leofric. “Universis Sanctæ Matris ecclesiæ
presentes literas inspecturis vel audituris salutem,” cries the former,
“noverit universitas vestra quod sanctissimus Papa Gregorius, anno
ab incarnatione Domini millesimo septuagesimo,” the very year,
therefore, in which Earl Montaign gave this church to the other in
Normandy, “ad ecclesiam Montis Sancti Michaelis, in comitatu
Cornubiæ, gerens eximiæ devocionis affectum, piè concessit
ecclesiæ predictæ, [et] omnibus fidelibus, qui illam cum suis
beneficiis et elemosinis,” (with alms and oblations, so that “folke
endeared their merits,” not merely “by farre travailing,” but by a tax
upon their purse,) “exepecierint seu visitaverint, tertiam partem
penetenciarum suarum eis condonari,” a third of all those acts being
remitted, which penitents were enjoined to perform, in order to
prove the sincerity of their penitence to God, and to themselves. The
same privilege is repeated by the Bishop of Exeter in 1085, thus:
“omnibus illis, qui illum ecclesiam suis cum beneficiis et elemosinis
expetierint et visitaverint, tertiam partem penitentiarum
condonamus.” Yet, what is surprising, the privilege became nearly as
much unknown afterwards as it is at present, and was therefore
promulgated by the clergy of the church at the beginning of the
fifteenth century: “Tota verba,” adds the reciter, “in antiquis registris
de novo,” a little before William’s visit, “in hâc ecclesiâ repertis,
inventa,” being then unknown to the very clergy themselves, and
only discovered by the discovery of some registers equally unknown,
“prout his in valvis ecclesiæ publicè ponuntur,” were exhibited to
public view by being posted upon the folding-doors of the church.
“Et quia pluribus istud est incognitum, ideo nos, in Christo Dei famuli
et ministri hujus ecclesiæ, universitatem vestram qui regimen
animarum possidetis,” all the rectors and vicars of the kingdom, “ob](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-43-320.jpg)
![mutuæ vicissitudinis obtentum requirimus et rogamus, quatenus ista
publicetis in ecclesiis vestris, ut vestri subditi et subjecti ad majorem
exoracionem devocionis attentius animentur, et locum istum
gloriosius peregrinando frequentent ad dona et indulgencias predicta
graciosè consequenda.” From this republication of the privilege,
undoubtedly, did the numerous resort of pilgrims to the church
begin. Then too was formed assuredly that seat on the tower, which
is so ridiculously described by Carew, as “a little without the castle—
a bad seat in a craggy place—somewhat dangerous for access;”
when it is only a chair, composed of stones, projecting from the two
sides of the tower battlements, and uniting into a seat without the
south-western angle, but elevated above the battlements on each
side. It thus appears somewhat dangerous from the elevation or
projection only, is an evident addition to the tower, and was
assuredly made at this period for the pilgrims, that they might
complete their devotions at the Mount by sitting in this St. Michael’s
Chair, as denominated, and by showing themselves as pilgrims to the
country round. Hence, in an author[6]
who alludes to customs
without feeling the force of his allusion, we read this intimation:
Who knowes not Michael’s Mount and Chaire,
The pilgrim’s holy vaunt?
We thus find a reason for the construction of such a chair, that
comports with all the purposes of the church on the tower of which
it is constructed, and that shows it ministered equally with this to
the uses of religion then predominant; making it not, as Carew most
extravagantly makes it, “somewhat dangerous for access, and
therefore holy for the adventure,” but holy in itself, as on the church-
tower, holy in its purposes, as the seat of the pilgrims, and doubly
holy as the seat of accomplishment to all their vows, as the seat of
invitation to all the country. And the whole church remains to this
day, beaten by the rains and buffeted by the winds, yet a venerable
monument of Saxon architecture.
This Mount appears decisively, from the charter of the Confessor,
to have been in his time not surrounded with the sea during all the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/82807-250404180808-1e66c688/85/Silicone-Elastomers-2012-1st-Edition-Ismithers-44-320.jpg)
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- 5. Silicone Elastomers 20121st Edition Ismithers Digital Instant Download Author(s): iSmithers ISBN(s): 9781847357281, 1847357288 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 24.50 MB Year: 2012 Language: english
- 6. 27-28 March 2012 MövenpickHotel Berlin, Germany 5th International Conference Organised by: Conference Proceedings ©iSmithers 2012 ISBN 978 1 84735 727 4 iSmithers Smithers Rapra has provided a world leading portfolio of Rubber, Plastic and other Polymer Information products and services for 85 years. To improve the delivery and range of products a new business was formed in July 2008 called iSmithers. iSmithers, working alongside Smithers Rapra and still part of the Smithers group, has expanded its service offering to cover other business areas and industries harnessing the expertise of the iSmithers management team and the knowledge from other companies within the group. Please visit our webside for more information: www.polymerconferences.com Silicone Elastomers 2012
- 7. Silicone Elastomers 2012 Organised by Berlin,Germany 27-28 March 2012
- 8. ISBN: 978-1-84735-727-4 © SmithersRapra Technology Ltd, 2012 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher, Smithers Rapra Technology Ltd, Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, UK. The views expressed in this publication are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily correspond to those of Smithers Rapra Technology Ltd. This publication is published on the basis that no responsibility or liability of any nature shall attach to Smithers Rapra Technology Ltd arising out of or in connection with any utilization in any form any material contained in this publication.
- 9. Silicone Elastomers 2012 Contents Paper1 Winning against functional competition – the success story of silicones Oliver Franssen & Heiko Bayerl, Momentive Performance Materials GmbH, Germany SESSION 1: APPLICATION OF SILICONES Paper 2 Application of highly transparent liquid silicone rubber in automotive headlamps Marc Kaup, L-LAB Hella KGaA Hueck & Co, Germany Paper 3 Fluorosilicone elastomers – innovations for automotive industry challenges Dr Hans Peter Wolf, Dr P Beyer, F Magnan & B Cuocci, Dow Corning GmbH, Germany Paper 4 LSR – closing the gap in the medical grade offering Simone Marquardt & Joel Valencony, Dow Corning GmbH Healthcare, Germany - unavailable at time of print Paper 5 Advantages of silicones and future challenges in the world of T&D Jens Lambrecht & Michael Bünnig, Wacker Chemie AG, Germany Paper 6 Silicones for technical textile applications Johann Müller & Dr Martin Bortenschlager, Wacker Chemie AG, Germany Paper 7 Silicones for fabric strain and soft pressure sensors Dr Yangyong Wang & Dr Guangfeng Wang, AdvanPro Limited, Hong Kong SESSION 2: PROCESSING OF SILICONES Paper 8 Continuous compounding shown on the example of silicone sealants Johannes Donner & T Stirner , Coperion GmbH, Germany Paper 9 Procedural implementation of superhydrophobic LSR surfaces Clemens Behmenburg, Christian Hopmann, Jan Peter Dering & Maximilian Schöngart, Institute of Plastics Processing (IKV) at RWTH Aachen University, Germany
- 10. Paper 10 Siliconemixing concepts Dr Ubaldo Colombo, COLMEC SpA, Italy Paper 11 Extrusion equipment Christian Köhler, Rubicon, Germany - unavailable at time of print Paper 12 Tailor-made machines for LSR and HTV moulding Leopold Praher, Engel Austria GmbH, Austria Paper 13 Advanced production methods for medium and large-sized silicone articles Harald Schmid, Klöckner DESMA Elastomertechnik GmbH, Germany Paper 14 Processing of LSRs for insulators with silicone vacuum treatment Michel Gehrig, Hübers Verfahrenstechnik Maschinenbau GmbH, Germany Paper 15 Measurements to produce economic high quality parts from LSR Kurt Manigatter, Elmet Elastomere Produktions- und Dienstleistungs GmbH, Germany SESSION 3: MODIFICATION OF SILICONES Paper 16 Protection and marking – a new additive for silicone caoutchoucs Rüdiger Wissemborski, Hendrik Wermter, David Kummet & Rolf Klein, Chemische Fabrik Budenheim, Germany Paper 17 Statil ™ an award winning antimicrobial platform Dr Burkhard Ledig, Momentive Performance Materials GmbH, Germany Paper 18 Mineral flame retardants for silicone elastomers – an option with many features Dr Annika Luks & Dr Oliver Töpfer, Nabaltec AG, Germany Paper 19 Effect of UV/ozone irradiation on the surface properties of thermoplastic silicone elastomer films and fibers Emel Yilgor , Iskender Yilgor,Sevilay Bilgin & Mehmet Isik, Koc University, Turkey
- 11. Silicone Elastomers 201227-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Page 1 of 8 pages Paper 1 - Franssen WINNING AGAINST FUNCTIONAL COMPETITION – THE SUCCESS-STORY OF SILICONES Oliver Franssen, Global Marketing Director Elastomers Transportation Heiko Bayerl, Marketing Manager Elastomers Automotive Europe Momentive Performance Materials GmbH, 51368 Leverkusen, Germany oliver.franssen@momentive.com BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE Oliver Franssen studied Mechanical Engineering and Plastics Technology at the University of Technology RWTH Aachen / IKV and received his engineering degree in 1990. He started his professional career 1990 at Dätwyler / Switzerland as project leader for rubber precision parts for the Automotive Industry. In 1996, Oliver joined DuPont-Dow Elastomers as Market Development Manager for Automotive. Between 2001 and 2003 he was the commercial director at Omnexus in Europe. In 2004 he joined Momentive Performance Materials (formerly GE Bayer Silicones) in Automotive Marketing for Elastomers. Since 2008 he is the Global Marketing Director of this segment. ABSTRACT In the global elastomers market, Silicone Elastomers continue to be a niche with approx. 1.5% of the global demand in rubber. However Silicones grow faster than many industries and economies. Due to megatrends including aging population for healthcare applications, environmental awareness in automotive and energy or consumer perception and legislation for example in consumer good applications. While silicones have an almost universal set of physical properties for rubber applications, based on material cost considerations they are often not immediately selected - instead of judging by system costs. Successful Silicone Elastomer applications can be achieved, when engineers understand the Silicone product features and creatively apply their benefits for new applications and designs. This paper will help to position Silicone Elastomers vs. functionally competing materials including rubber materials like FKM, ACM, EPDM or natural rubber and metal in a spring or thermoplastics and glass in optical applications. Examples show how specific properties of Silicone Elastomers lead to successful new applications winning against functional competition. Overview on Elastomers In comparison to the global rubber market, Silicone Elastomers continues to play a niche role and represent only approx. 1.5% of the global elastomers market. [1,2] Due to their -Si-O- backbone, Silicones are considered as an inorganic elastomers as opposed to all other synthetic elastomers and natural rubber which are based on a –C-C- backbone. This difference is root-cause reason for the various single advantages and disadvantages of silicone elastomers against their functional competitors. 25.8 MM tons in 2011
- 12. 27-28 March 2012– Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012 Paper 1 - Franssen Page 2 of 8 pages Natural Rubber Synthetic Rubber Silicone Elastomers Figure 1 Global rubber market 2011 Figure 2: the structure of silicones Positioning The ASTM D 2000 was created to make elastomeric materials easier to specify and to standardize for a variety of properties and specifications. Plotting typical performance of standard elastomers in the defined classes on heat-stability and oil-resistance, the position of silicones vs. organic elastomers is visualized. The oil-swell test differentiates the elastomers more or less by polarity (and their capability to handle unipolar Figure 3: Graphical position according to ASTM D 2000
- 13. Silicone Elastomers 201227-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Page 3 of 8 pages Paper 1 - Franssen media such as oils, grease or fuel). The heat-resistant position is often a consequence of double-bonds (to the low end) or strong bonding energies (on the high end). A universal elastomer doesn’t exist. Ideal properties like The dynamic flexibility and strength of NR The barrier properties of BR or FKM The heat-stability and acid resistance of FKM The low temperature performance and stable physical properties of a silicone elastomer can’t be realized in one rubber product. However certain design changes and optimization on critical properties of an application often opens a window for material alternatives. Silicone Elastomers are not the optimum material selection for all individual needs. When many different properties are important at the same time and in the same product, there is a good chance that silicone elastomer is a suitable choice for the application. Markets for Silicone applications The main market areas for Silicone Elastomers are Transportation (Automotive, Aviation and Aerospace, Railway and Marine) Energy (High Voltage Insulation, Wire & Cable) Consumer Goods (E&E, Baby-care, Kitchenware and other) Healthcare Within those market segments a variety of specialized formulations have been developed which often add value vs. a standard elastomers. Examples include Self-bonding formulations with primer-less adhesion to many plastic and metal substrates Self-lubricating LSR which exude a bleeding oil to ease assembly Antimicrobial Silicone Elastomers for Healthcare applications Conductive compounds for Energy-applications High transparent Silicone Rubber for optical applications Winning against functional competition The decision drivers for new rubber material can be grouped under these headlines: Integration of functionality Example: A new part design is based on 2-component molding. It safes the manufacturing and assembly of seals or dampening elements as well as assembly mistakes. Silicone LSR is available in self-bonding formulations and is compatible in cycle time to molding of many engineering Thermoplastics. In many cases LSR can outperform lower cost organic elastomer materials. Specification limits Example: Globalization drives part and system specifications to wider application windows. In the transportation sector, functionality has to be maintained at very low and relatively high temperatures (from starting the engine at -40°C to full speed performance on German motorway). Here, the engineers need elastomers which are flexible far below freezing point and have a good heat resistance for under the hood applications, preferably with little change of mechanical properties. Silicone elastomers are the only available products for this range Lower System costs Example: Classical rubber manufacturing is consuming a lot of machine and labor time. The amount of raw material is often much smaller than the costs for conversion, de-flashing, final inspection plus added costs for scrap (of final parts plus the cured material of the runner-systems). Cycle times in the minute range make investment and payoff of decent automation equipment a financial challenge. The LSR- injection molding process enables full automated, flash-less, waste-less molding with short cycle times. For those processes, material costs are the biggest share of a part calculation. For high volume part-series LSR can often outperform organic elastomers
- 14. 27-28 March 2012– Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012 Paper 1 - Franssen Page 4 of 8 pages New Technologies Example: Lighting is one of the global drivers in innovation. Energy saving, CO2-reduction and safety accelerate the transformation to LED light. The share of LED in lighting is forecasted to grow from 15% in 2010 to 45% in 2015, substituting traditional lighting like the historical Edison lamp. [5] The light power of LEDs are developing rapidly, in combination with emission of strong blue light and increasing temperatures. High transparent Silicones combine resistance against high temperatures and against UV-light at high optical transparency. For a winning development with Silicone Elastomers, a pure material replacement calculation from an existing drawing / application is often not enough. In Silicone LSR, elastomer innovations allow redesigning of parts and systems benefitting from values resulting from simple feature differences to individual organic elastomers. Those include Low viscosity enables very thin walls and long thin flow paths Low hardness without plasticizers Easy to color, even glass-clear products are available Silicones mechanics are almost linear / similar to a Hooke-spring Hydrophobicity Excellent insulation properties Those features enhance the number of functional competitors (and application potentials) significantly and Silicone elastomers therefore find usage in insulators for high voltage, replacing porcelain replacements of metal springs replacements of transparent plastics and glass in optical applications as illustrated in following examples. Ultra-transparent LSR vs Glass and Plastics Dispensable, high transparent Silicones replaced engineering thermoplastic resins in packaging of the semiconductors in LEDs for some years. The higher temperatures and the hard blue light radiation of high efficient, new generation LEDs requires UV-light resistance and low yellowing for the optical packaging material. These properties combined with improved crack resistance are provided by silicone based packaging materials which are basically used in LED packaging nowadays. Figure 4: plastics and LSR 7000 after heat aging 6480 h 150°C [6]
- 15. Silicone Elastomers 201227-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Page 5 of 8 pages Paper 1 - Franssen Innovation in lighting design and the success of high efficient LEDs are driving the research for new materials which can be processed by injection molding, enabling high complex design at high production volumes. The new LSR 7000 family by Momentive provides high optical transparency, excellent UV- and blue- light resistance. The new ultra- transparent LSR is a good candidate to replace transparent plastics like PC and PMMA in lighting applications which require high temperature resistance and flexibility in design. An obvious next step is to use high transparent LSR for secondary optical lenses which can be directly assembled to the LED. The light of a semiconductor is spread in a very simple way by the packaging material, e.g. a globe-top. In order to form and to guide the light secondary lenses and light guides are needed. So far such optics are mainly made from PC or PMMA. In order to protect these materials against the high temperature of a high power LED, those optical elements can’t be assembled directly onto the light source - a 1-2 mm gap is necessary to reduce the junction temperature. Resulting reflections from plastic to air and from air to plastic reduce the efficiency of such optical components. Secondary lenses and light guides made out of high transparent, temperature resistant LSRs can be assembled directly to the LED and higher efficiency can be achieved. Additionally LSR allows a higher freedom of design than PC and PMMA. LSR vs NR in Babycare When LSR was brought to the market some 30 years ago, baby bottle nipples were one of the first application, the industry immediately started to work on. LSR brought a transparent appearance, was easy to injection-mold at high yield and neutral in odor and taste. At the time the market was dominated by pacifiers and bottle nipples made from natural rubber latices. Studies show that LSRs not only fulfill necessary food compliancy, their allergene potential is far less than the natural rubber product. LSR is UV-resistant and will survive cooking water without significant change of appearance or physical properties. The decision to choose LSR in baby-care at the end was a decision from many mothers and even more babies, which preferred the silicone elastomer vs. natural rubber. The baby-care market today is amongst the biggest LSR application volumes globally. Also in this mature segment the elastomer innovation continues to fulfill expectations for the next generation of products e.g. with higher tear resistance. A new development is for example Momentive’s LSR 2645 with improved hot tear resistance according to EN 1400-2. Figure 5: Multifunctional Lens based on LSR 7070 [4] Figure 7: LSR 2645 in comparison [6] Figure 6: Transparency over wavelength of LSR 7070 [6]
- 16. 27-28 March 2012– Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012 Paper 1 - Franssen Page 6 of 8 pages Silicone vs Porcelain in High Voltage Applications Silicone Elastomers in High Voltage Applications came up in the late 60s when experts tried to find a lighter and maintenance free solution to replace glass and porcelain in composite insulators like hollow cores. Key expectations for this application are: Low weight - high mechanical strength Easy Handling Pollution performance - low maintenance costs Flexibility / Explosion Safety (seismic behavior) A functional elastomer competitor to Silicones is EPDM with as good weatherability and insulation properties. Silicone insulators benefit from standard silicone features, the most important are: Flexibility Low density Hydrophobicity Low Viscosity Hydrophobicity (which prevents contaminations and flashovers on the insulator surface) and low viscosity (enables casting of big shapes) are key properties differentiating Silicones vs. EPDM. Silicone also has the ability to transfer it’s water repellent properties into contamination layers that might be built up in heavily polluted environments. A good example here is Momentive’s Silopren Electro 242-0, that additionally features excellent tracking and erosion resistance (1A 4.5 kV according to IEC 60587). Looking at manufacturing costs, Silicone leads to the most expensive part. However in system costs which include assembly, long-term maintenance and disassembly, Silicone insulators are the most cost efficient solution. [3] One of the main reasons is the need for regular cleaning of conventional insulators including those made with EPDM which is unnecessary with the hydrophobic Silicones. Heat-resistant LSR against ACM and FKM in charge-air-cooler gaskets The demand for more efficient vehicles continues to drive the share of turbo-charged engines. Since turbochargers are running in a loss-oil lubrication with engine oil, their compressed hot charge air contains oil. The compressed air passes a through a cooler to increase the density. The charge-air-cooler-gasket is normally a big square seal. In manufacturing, the necessary flow length of the thin shape can cause problems in mold and process-design with organic elastomers being high in viscosity. Materials had to combine necessary oil-resistance with high temperature performance and acceptable static low temperature performance. Most specified materials have been FKM (expensive and problematic in low temperatures) and ACM (better in low temperatures and cheaper, but limited in heat-resistance). HCR silicone compounds Figure 9 Silicone Hollow Core Insulator $/YR Figure 8: Life cycle cost for insulators
- 17. Silicone Elastomers 201227-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Page 7 of 8 pages Paper 1 - Franssen came up (modified with mineral fillers to achieve lower oil swell), but also these compounds had same potential scorch-problems in traditional rubber molding. In the early 2000s, a major OEM qualified LSR 2670 black from Momentive. The LSR features fit perfectly to the difficult to manufacture geometry, however LSR has higher swell in oil than any of the mentioned functional competitors. The very low viscosity of the shear-thinning LSR allows fast filling The inhibition of LSR prevents scorch of the material The platinum catalyzed addition cure makes full automation affordable No material losses with automated a waste-less and trim-free molding system Good high temperature resistance and compression set LSR 2670 contributed to significant cost savings in this application and is in successful mass-production. LSR against a metal spring - Silicone HCR against NR in engine mounts Movement is creating vibration and noise. Electrical motors as well as combustion engines need to be fixed and in the same time decoupled. The ideal material provides constant rebound resilience combined with good mechanical properties along the working temperature range of the application. Silicone Elastomers are relatively constant in modulus and spring properties from very low temperatures –40°C and up to high temperatures above 150 °C. Thanks to such outstanding properties LSR substituted thermoplastic TPE as the decoupling element in the fixing device of the electrical cooling van under the hood. A special self-bonding LSR allows the 2K-injection molding of a thermoplastic fixing device with chemically bonded dampening elements made out of silicone rubber to keep the device in place to dampen the noise and vibration over a wide range of temperature. Another example is the substitution of NR by a special, low dampening Silicone Rubber used in the engine mount of the combustion engine of a power station. NR is destroyed at temperatures above 120 °C, high efficient combustion engines have to be encapsulated for noise reduction. As a consequence the temperatures around the engine are increasing and new materials are required to replace NR as dampening material. Engine mounts made out of Silicone Elastomer work consistently at temperatures of 150 °C. Outlook The next successful application of Silicone replacing a functional competitor requires bright engineers and innovative raw material suppliers teaming up with each other. Unique Silicone formulations can add value in use above and beyond just higher processing efficiency. More important are creative innovators who can think outside of the box and utilize necessary freedom of design to function.. Figure 12: Dampening cage for cooling fan motor Figure 11: DMA LIM 8040 [6] Figure 10´: Silicone Engine Mounts
- 18. 27-28 March 2012– Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012 Paper 1 - Franssen Page 8 of 8 pages References [1] Dr. Stephen Evans, IRSG, Presentation on China Rubber Conference, Mar 2011 [2] Momentive Market Estimates 2011 [3] EPRI, Transmission Line Reference Book, 115-138kV Compact Line Design, RP 260, pp:29. [4] Foto by KIMW Lüdenscheid / Germany [5] Philips Global Lighting Market Study [6] Momentive Lab Data DISCLAIMER: THE MATERIALS, PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF MOMENTIVE PERFORMANCE MATERIALS INC., MOMENTIVE PERFORMANCE MATERIALS USA INC., MOMENTIVE PERFORMANCE MATERIALS ASIA PACIFIC PTE. LTD., MOMENTIVE PERFORMANCE MATERIALS WORLDWIDE INC., MOMENTIVE PERFORMANCE MATERIALS GmbH, THEIR SUBSIDIARIES AND AFFILIATES DOING BUSINESS IN LOCAL JURISDICTIONS (collectively “SUPPLIERS”), ARE SOLD BY THE RESPECTIVE LEGAL ENTITY OF THE SUPPLIER SUBJECT TO SUPPLIERS’ STANDARD CONDITIONS OF SALE, WHICH ARE INCLUDED IN THE APPLICABLE DISTRIBUTOR OR OTHER SALES AGREEMENT, PRINTED ON THE BACK OF ORDER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND INVOICES, AND AVAILABLE UPON REQUEST. ALTHOUGH ANY INFORMATION, RECOMMENDATIONS, OR ADVICE CONTAINED HEREIN IS GIVEN IN GOOD FAITH, SUPPLIERS MAKE NO WARRANTY OR GUARANTEE, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (i) THAT THE RESULTS DESCRIBED HEREIN WILL BE OBTAINED UNDER END-USE CONDITIONS, OR (ii) AS TO THE EFFECTIVENESS OR SAFETY OF ANY DESIGN INCORPORATING SUPPLIERS’ PRODUCTS, MATERIALS, SERVICES, RECOMMENDATIONS OR ADVICE. AFOREMENTIONED EXCLUSIONS OR LIMITATION OF LIABILITY ARE NOT APPLICABLE TO THE EXTENT THAT THE END-USE CONDITIONS AND/OR INCORPORATION CONDITIONS CORRESPOND TO THE RECOMMENDED CONDITIONS OF USE AND/OR OF INCORPORATION AS DESCRIBED BY SUPPLIER IN ITS PRODUCT DATA SHEET AND/OR PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS. EXCEPT AS PROVIDED IN SUPPLIERS’ STANDARD CONDITIONS OF SALE, SUPPLIERS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIVES SHALL IN NO EVENT BE RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY LOSS RESULTING FROM ANY USE OF ITS MATERIALS, PRODUCTS OR SERVICES DESCRIBED HEREIN. Each user bears full responsibility for making its own determination as to the suitability of Suppliers’ materials, services, recommendations, or advice for its own particular use. Each user must identify and perform all tests and analyses necessary to assure that its finished parts incorporating Suppliers’ products, materials, or services will be safe and suitable for use under end-use conditions. Nothing in this or any other document, nor any oral recommendation or advice, shall be deemed to alter, vary, supersede, or waive any provision of Suppliers’ Standard Conditions of Sale or this Disclaimer, unless any such modification is specifically agreed to in a writing signed by Suppliers. No statement contained herein concerning a possible or suggested use of any material, product, service or design is intended, or should be construed, to grant any license under any patent or other intellectual property right of Suppliers or any of its subsidiaries or affiliates covering such use or design, or as a recommendation for the use of such material, product, service or design in the infringement of any patent or other intellectual property right.
- 19. Silicone Elastomers 201227-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Page 1 of 6 pages Paper 2 - Kaup APPLICATION OF HIGHLY TRANSPARENT LIQUID SILICONE RUBBER IN AUTOMOTIVE HEADLAMPS Marc Kaup L-LAB / Hella KGaA Hueck & Co. Rixbecker Straße 75, 59552 Lippstadt, Germany Tel.: +49 (0) 2941 38 31267, Fax: +49 (0) 2941 38 47 31267, e-mail: Marc.Kaup@L-LAB.de BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE Marc Kaup studied mechanical engineering with focus on polymer and process engineering at the University of Paderborn and already wrote his thesis (diploma) in the L-LAB, short for “light laboratory”. The L-LAB is a research institute concerned with automotive lighting and mechatronics that is supported by the University of Paderborn and Hella KGaA in a Public Private Partnership. Since January 2011 Kaup is employee of Hella KGaA Hueck & Co. and works in the L-LAB with the aim of doing a doctor's degree. Kaup evaluates adaptive headlight distributions and checks e.g. the potential usage of flexible lens systems, consisting of highly transparent liquid silicone rubber (LSR). ABSTRACT Dynamic light distributions, adjusting adaptively and automatically to different driving and lighting conditions, are already state of the art. One way to implement variable light distributions in one system is a projection module with a shaped cylinder. This cylinder, rotating around its longitudinal axis, has different outlines on its lateral surface. The cylinder is located in the pathway of rays between the module’s reflector and its lens. Thus, it uses a subtractive way to implement different light distributions. In contrast, future cars will feature adaptive and active light functions realized by activating additional light sources in LED matrix headlamps. To implement variable light functions such as glare-free high beam, marking light or bending light, in LED matrix headlamps the luminous flux emitted is being split up into discrete solid angles. This way, the illumination of the motor vehicle’s foreground is not forced into fixed patterns but can be adjusted freely to fit the demands of the particular driving situation. So-called primary optics, directly put onto the LED-chip, are being used to prevent the Lambert characteristic of the light-emitting diodes in a close matrix structure. This paper should prove LED matrix systems do not only enhance the possibilities with regards to light distribution and appearance of headlamps. They also demand the application of “new” materials and concepts. Among those, liquid silicone rubber (LSR) stands out for being resistant against high temperatures, violet and ultraviolet radiation while at the same time providing excellent transmission characteristics. When used as light guidance elements LSRs can directly be exposed to white LEDs. Compared to glass, transparent LSRs offer further technical advantages, especially for industrial mass production. On top of the afore mentioned advantages of LSRs compared to glass and thermoplastic polymers, the flexibility of the elastomer can be used to control optical characteristics of secondary optics in a headlamp mechanically. Light distributions could be controlled by flexible lens systems. The lens in the human eye serves as a natural prototype, changing its focal length by contracting a circular muscle. An actuator system similar to the human eye could therefore contribute to the realization of an accommodating headlamp. Key words: automotive headlamp, light functions, adaptive light distributions, LED, primary optics, secondary optics, highly transparent liquid silicone rubber (LSR), light guide, flexible lenses.
- 20. 27-28 March 2012– Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012 Paper 2 - Kaup Page 2 of 6 pages INTRODUCTION The development of automotive headlamps was affected by important enhancements of technologies, particularly with regard on the last decade. There were different directions of development since the beginning of the century. Functionalities like AFS (Adaptive Front-lighting System) were integrated. Afterwards with the usage of more and more sensor technology, e.g. cameras, it was possible to implement high beam assistant, adaptive and vertical cut-off-lines. The implementation of AFS based on the discussions of the EUREKA Workgroup 1403 was divided in two steps. First, 2003 bend lighting functionalities were integrated in the existing regulations and separated from overall AFS discussion. Close to this, first cars with dynamic and static bend lighting entered the market. Since initiation of the AFS regulation ECE123 in 2007 several cars integrated Full-AFS headlamps, containing motorway light, country light, town light and even a light distribution for severe weather conditions (Figure 1). Bend light and AFS light distributions enable a road situation adapted illumination. Those Front- lighting systems use standard car sensor signals like steering wheel angle, speed, gear level etc. for system control. The possibility to use GPS data for headlamp control is not integrated in most AFS systems. Thus, light distributions are not direct associated to the environment [ECE, 2007], [Schmidt, 2011]. Figure 1 - AFS light distributions & VarioX projection module [Hella, 2011] Next tremendous step was the launch of camera technologies in headlamp functionalities. If the sensor detects other road users, it is possible to switch between high and low beam automatically, so called high beam assistant. Further development offers the ‘Adaptive Cut-Off Line’. The aCOL controls the light range depending on the distance to oncoming traffic and to traffic ahead. The visibility range of the driver is increased and glare of the traffic is avoided. With an additional ‘Vertical Cut-Off Line’ glare-free high beam and in most traffic situations a light distribution comparable to high beam is available for the driver. In case of oncoming or heading traffic the glaring parts of the high beam lighting distribution are automatically faded out. Today such functions are realized by leveling and swiveling projection modules (Figure 1). HID-lamps with high luminous flux are usually the medium of choice. In recent years, the luminous efficiency of phosphor-based white light-emitting diodes has improved rapidly. Moreover LEDs have many features including energy-savings, long life, short rise and fall times and low impact on the environment. Thus, they are well suited to be one of the main light sources in the current and next generation of automotive headlamps. Furthermore design freedom is an advantage LEDs and polymer optics have in common. In this context Figure 2 illustrates the milestones of headlamp development since the beginning of the 21 st century.
- 21. Silicone Elastomers 201227-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Page 3 of 6 pages Paper 2 - Kaup Figure 2 - Headlamp-Milestones from 2000 on [Hella, 2011] The chain of reasoning is the conclusion of adaptive light functionalities and the integration of LED light sources and polymer optics. One high-end solution can be LED-array headlamps. The core is a matrix of high-power LED-chips. Each chip has an own power supply. It can be activated or deactivated without interacting with other chips. By turning on certain regions of the matrix, various light distributions can be generated. Thus, it is possible to realize e.g. glare-free high beam or marking light with a non-mechanical unit. TRANSPARENT POLYMER OPTICS IN AUTOMOTIVE HEADLAMPS The automotive industry and its suppliers know how to make use of new technologies. With the introduction of Full-LED headlamps the car’s frontend styling changes obviously, like e.g. Audi A8 an A6 have shown. With the LED as a “cold” light source the use of plastic material for thick, high precision lenses is now possible. This offers a wide range of styling freedom. There are also advantages in weight, complexity and integration compared to glass lenses. Adaptive headlamps utilizing LED-arrays represent a special challenge. Well known are PC and PMMA materials. On the one hand injection moulding and injection-compression moulding allow a comparatively cheap one-step-manufacturing of high precision optical polymer lenses. On the other hand thermoplastic polymers reach their limits relating to temperatures beyond 100°C or high irradiance. A promising material for high precision and high performance optics is optical silicone. Highly transparent liquid silicone rubber (LSR) stands out for being resistant against high temperatures, violet and ultraviolet radiation while providing excellent transmission characteristics at the same time. When used as light guidance elements or primary optics LSRs can directly be exposed to white LEDs. In contrast to that thermoplastics have to keep a safety distance to the light source, so optical disadvantages are the result. Silicone lenses can withstand permanent temperatures beyond 150°C. Obviously, LSR is the only transparent polymeric material capable to withstand the high temperatures occurring at and close to the LED junction (Figure 3).
- 22. 27-28 March 2012– Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012 Paper 2 - Kaup Page 4 of 6 pages Figure 3 - Transparency behavior of various transparent polymers during and after aging at elevated temperatures [Luce, 2009]. Furthermore LSR’s injection mouldability is excellent, even undercuts can be demoulded with this flexible material. In comparison to thermoplastics the injection moulding process of LSR gets by without high post pressure, long cooling time and anisotropic end product properties. A significant cycle time advantage can be realized when manufacturing LSR-parts even with excellent isotropic properties [Luce, 2009], [Bayerl, 2010]. LUCE ET AL. already proofed the suitability of LSR lenses under very severe conditions in a headlamp. But they did not consider the thermal expansion and the fact that the refractive index is a function of temperature (dn/dT ≈ -0,0003 K-1 ). In case of imaging secondary optics the change of optical performance has a wide influence on resulting light distribution. Thus, a sharply bounded cut-off line can be destructed. In case of collecting primary optics it is less critical from optical point of view. FLEXIBLE LENSES Expansion with rising temperature and simultaneous decreasing refractive index are polymeric properties. In a wide range of temperature you have to deform a lens exactly so that the thermally induced change in the refractive index and the shape of the optically active surfaces are compensated. On top of that, it can be possible to control light distributions in this manner. Already described adaptive front-lighting systems enable generation of different light functions in automotive applications by use of only one projection module and a halogen or HID-lamp. Usually subtractive systems are used as in the case of variable apertures. By contrast, the use of white LEDs offers new possibilities for additive AFS functions. For example you can combine LEDs with primary optics and projection lenses consisting of LSR. A change in focal distance is obtained by deforming the elastomer. This is the decisive step to the realization of an accommodating headlamp. In order to apply the specific force on the side surface of the lens an appropriate actuator is needed. But first of all there is an iterative process of optical and mechanical simulation. Figure 4 - Simulation of deformation with the finite elements method [ABAQUS, 2012]
- 23. Silicone Elastomers 201227-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Page 5 of 6 pages Paper 2 - Kaup Simulations with the finite elements method (FEM) have shown that spherical lens surfaces keep up after deformation under compressive force, only their curvature radiuses change. A continuously vertical and/or horizontal modification of automotive light distributions will be possible in this manner. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK In first applications thermoplastic lenses for headlamp main functions have already proven their capability to provide optical quality while braving the high environmental stress in an automotive headlamp. Polycarbonate is actual the material of choice. For primary optics, thermoplastics are suitable as well, but depending on the LED performance. By the use of high power LED-Chips it is often inevitable to employ transparent silicones with their superior temperature and radiation stability. In a feasibility study the main principle of an accommodating headlamp will be proven by deformable LSR- lenses. Test setups have to corroborate the promising results of simulation now. REFERENCES Bayerl, H., 2010 Ultratransparente Flüssigsilikone – ein neuer Werkstoff für optische Technologien. VDI-Konferenz Technologien in der Fahrzeugtechnik, Karlsruhe. ECE, 2007 Uniform provisions concerning the approval of adaptive front-lighting systems (AFS) for motor vehicles. Economic Commission for Europe, Regulation No. 123 Luce, T., 2009 The Advent of Polymer Projector Headlamp Lenses. 8 th International Symposium on Automotive Lighting (ISAL), Darmstadt. Schmidt, C., 2011 Fully Adaptive Headlamp, the next step in intelligent lighting functionality. 9th International Symposium on Automotive Lighting (ISAL), Darmstadt.
- 24. 27-28 March 2012– Berlin, Germany Silicone Elastomers 2012 Paper 2 - Kaup Page 6 of 6 pages
- 25. Silicone Elastomers 201227-28 March 2012 – Berlin, Germany Page 1 of 12 pages Paper 3 – Wolf FLUOROSILICONE ELASTOMERS – INNOVATIONS FOR AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY CHALLENGES Dr Hans Peter Wolf, P Beyer, F Magnan and B Cuocci Dow Corning GmbH Rheingaustr.34, D 65201 Wiesbaden, Germany Tel: 0049(0)611-237-293 Fax: 0049(0)611-237-627 Email: hans.peter.wolf@dowcorning.com BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE Dr. Hans Peter Wolf studied Chemistry at the University Frankfurt and completed his Ph-D. in inorganic Chemistry 1988 with the dissertation work about „Gasphase reactions on Raney Nickel and with shock cooled zinc“. He started his career at Dow Corning in November 1988 and worked as research and TS&D chemist for direct process and automotive market until 1991. From 1992 -1996 he worked in the supply chain organization as Upgrade Engineer and later as Elastomer Production Leader in Wiesbaden. Between 1997- 2007 he was Manager of the application technology and technical service team for silicone rubber in Europe. Since 2008 he is Global Research and Development Manager for Silicone Rubber. ABSTRACT This presentation aims to demonstrate the various ways Fluorosilicone Elastomers can offer innovations to the Automotive Industry and provide answers for new challenges. After an introduction of Fluorosilicone chemistry and definitions, we will present benefits of this material class and show typical applications in the automotive industry that can make the most out of this technology, in the current environments and in the future. To design emission reduction technologies, we need new materials, such as the new Silastic 100% F-LSR: a range of products combining Fluorosilicone rubber properties (broad temperature range + fluid resistance) and Liquid Injection molding technologies (LSR productivity). Developments for Turbo charger Hoses and Exhaust gas Recirculation will demonstrate the progress made in terms of fluid and temperature resistance in combination with optimized processing behavior. Sustainable Innovation is not only a matter of offering new products or improved material performances, it should combine material improvements and intimate market understanding to offer solutions responding exactly to new application challenges. I. FVMQ DEFINITION AND BENEFITS Fluorosilicone elastomers are very competitive in applications operating under wide ranges of temperatures and in contact with aggressive fluids. In applications like turbocharger hose liners, the combined needs of high temperature stability, adhesion to dimethyl silicones and fluid resistance make fluorosilicone elastomers the natural choice. They are equally competitive in harsh application environments that combine low temperatures and presence of fluids. Replacing one CH3 with CH2CH2CF3 gives: Improved resistance to non-polar hydrocarbon fuels, oils, and solvents Increased specific gravity Improved solubility in polar fluids such as esters and ketones Improved lubricity Lower use temperature by eliminating polymer Tm crystallization
- 26. Discovering Diverse ContentThrough Random Scribd Documents
- 27. About the yearof our Lord 1496, when James IV. King of Scotland, upon a truce with King Henry VII. of England, had expulsed from Scotland that counterfeit sham Prince, Perkin Warbeck (the pretended Richard of Shrewsbury, youngest son of King Edward IV. who had before been murdered in the Tower), to whom he had given in marriage his near kinswoman the Lady Katherine Gordon; he, together with his wife and family, sailed from thence over into Ireland, to seek friendship there of the rebels and all others well affected to the House of York; where being arrived, and fortune favouring him according to his expectation, news was brought him there that the Cornish rebels were ready to renew their former hostility, and venture their lives in battle upon the title of the house of York against that of Lancaster, had they a valiant and able General to lead them, notwithstanding Flammock and his confederates under the same engagement were defeated and executed in 1495. These tidings were very acceptable to Perkin; who thereupon consulted his privy councillors, Hearn, Astley, and Skelton, a mercer, a tailor, and a scrivener, all bankrupts; these all agree, nemine contradicente, that his four ships of war should forthwith be rigged and manned for an expedition into Cornwall; which accordingly being prepared, himself with his lady, and 120 soldiers, embarked thereon, and being favoured with a fair wind, took his leave of his Irish friends, and in the month of September, 1499, 15th Henry VII. (Carew’s Survey of Cornwall, p. 98,) came safely to anchor in St. Michael’s Mount’s Bay; where soon after he landed, and went up to the Mount, and made himself known to the monks and other inhabitants, publishing himself to be the true and real Richard of Shrewsbury aforesaid, the true heir of the House of York; which the monks, greatly affected to that title, were so very ready to believe, that they yielded the Mount and garrison without resistance into his hands; who presently renewed the old fortifications, and put the same into a better posture of defence.
- 28. Which having done,himself with a band of soldiers marched from thence to Bodmin (where the rendezvous of Flammock’s rebels in those parts formerly was,) in which place, by false words and promises, he so prevailed with the discontented rebels of that town and contiguous country, that he soon got together, without money or reward, at least three thousand men that could bear arms; these he divided into companies, and bands, and regiments, under Captains, Majors, and Colonels expert in war to instruct them in military discipline, till at length his army grew to six thousand well-armed soldiers. Whereupon King Henry VII. having notice of Perkin’s landing and formidableness in these parts, ordered Sir Peter Edgecombe, Knight, then Sheriff of Cornwall (whose father, Sir Richard Edgecombe, Knight, was one of that King’s Privy Councillors, and had comparatively been raised to his great estate by his boon and favour), that he should forthwith, by virtue of his office, raise the country, and give battle to this counterfeit Richard of Shrewsbury and his confederate rebels. Whereupon, the Sheriff did as he was commanded, and raised an army of twenty thousand men, as tradition saith, and led them towards Bodmin; but when they approached near, and saw Perkin entrenched at Castle Keynock, on the east hill of Bodmin Downs, with the body of his army, and divers troops of horse and bands of foot placed towards Lanhydrock and the roads from Cardenham, in order to resist and oppose the Sheriff, his men resolved to march no further, but to return from whence they came without giving battle. Which accordingly they did (notwithstanding the Sheriff’s threats and commands to the contrary), in great terror and confusion and astonishment; but whether this fear proceeded from the cowardice of the Sheriff and his men, or their disaffection to the Lancastrian dominion of King Henry, is uncertain, for the like fact was committed two years before by the posse comitatus of John Basset, of Tehidy, then Sheriff, which he had raised to suppress Flammock’s rebellion. Upon news of this flight and disbanding of the Sheriff’s men, Perkin was saluted by his soldiers and confederates as King of England: and soon after, not only in his camp, but in divers places of
- 29. Bodmin town, wasproclaimed by a trumpeter and others, King of England and France, and Lord of Ireland, with great shouts and acclamations of the people, and bonefires, by the name of Richard IV. And it is reported he assumed majesty with such a boon grace and affable deportment, that immediately he won the affections and admiration of all who made addresses unto him; in which art of kingship he had long before been educated and instructed by his pretended aunt, Margaret Duchess of Burgundy, sister to King Edward IV. which he had also acted to the good liking of all that saw him in Burgundian, Irish, Scots, and French courts. And, moreover, besides his magisterial port and mien, being an incomparable counterfeit, natural crafty, liar and dissembler, “Qui nescit dissimulare, nescit regnare,” as the old proverb saith; so that in short time he grew to be so popular and formidable about Bodmin that no power durst oppose him there. But, alas! this Cornish regniculum gave him not content, for his pride and ambition put him upon further expedients, viz. to get possession of the whole kingdom of England, and reduce it also to his obedience; in order to which, with a well-prepared army of four thousand men and two thousand of other sorts, he marched out of Cornwall into Devon, where met him also great numbers of volunteers of that county and Somerset, that joined with his forces; the dread whereof so terrified James Chudleigh, Esq. then Sheriff of Devon, and the power of his bailiwick raised to stop his march to Exeter, that they durst not give him battle or obstruct his passage till he came before that city, pitched his camp, and laid siege thereto. Upon whose approaches the citizens shut their gates and prepared to defend themselves; when soon after he sent a message or summons to them in the name of Richard IV. King of England, commanding them to surrender the same to him upon their allegiance: but the citizens so ridiculed his pretended title, and slighted his summons, that by his own messenger they gave him defiance; at which time Dr. Richard Redman was Lord Bishop of Exeter; William Burgoigne, Esq. Recorder; William Frost, Mayor; Francis Gilbert, Sword-bearer; John Bucknam, William Wilkinson,
- 30. John Doncaster, andRichard Howse, were Stewards, or Bailiffs; John Clodworthy, John Bonifant, Philip Bullock, John Wilkin, Nicholas Auburne, John Atwell, William York, Thomas Lanwordaby, Philip Binks, John Slugg, Thomas Andrews, Thomas Oliver, and others, Aldermen. See Isaack’s Memorials of Exeter, 1499. Soon after this defiance given, Perkin and his soldiers surrounded the city walls, and attempted to scale the same in several places daily for some time, but always were repulsed with considerable loss by the valour of the citizens. During which siege they sent to King Henry for his aid and assistance in this great distress; whereupon the Lord Daubeny was ordered to raise forces and march towards Exeter therewith, in order to remove the siege thereof; but before he came, Edward Courtenay, sixteenth Earl of Devon, and the Lord William his son, accompanied with Sir Edmund Carew, Sir Thomas Fulford, Sir William Courtenay, Sir John Halwell, Sir John Croker, Walter Courtenay, Peter Edgecombe, William St. Maur, Richard Whiteleigh of Efford (Sheriff of Devon the year after), Richard Hals of Kenedon, John Fortescue of Vallapit, James Chudleigh aforesaid, and other gentlemen of those parts, had raised a considerable army of soldiers, with which they marched towards the rebels. At the sight of whose approach Perkin and his host were as much dispirited then as they were elevated before; whereupon he called a council of war, in which it was unanimously agreed upon, that it was not advisable to give them battle, being at least ten thousand fighting men, but to dislodge from their trenches, and leave the siege of that place, and forthwith to march into Somersetshire, a country better affected to King Perkin, where he might raise more soldiers. Accordingly, this order of council was observed and put in practice, so that the night after Perkin and all his army marched towards Taunton; where he mustered his men as if he intended to give battle; but when, by the muster-roll, he saw what numbers of men had deserted him in his nightly march from Exeter, falling then much short of six thousand, and further, notice being brought him that King Henry was in pursuit of him with a much greater army, he foresaw the worst, and doubted that fortune would favour him no longer in his military and
- 31. regal practices; andtherefore contrived, for the preservation of himself, with sixty horse troopers, to forsake his army by night, and fly to the Abbey of Beauley, in Southampton, as resting upon the name and privilege of the place, where he took sanctuary. As soon as King Henry understood Perkin had deserted his soldiers and had taken sanctuary at Beauley, he forthwith ordered a band of soldiers to guard and surround that Abbey to prevent his escape beyond the seas (from whence it appears that at that time the privilege of sanctuary was allowed to traitors). So that Perkin, despairing of getting thence, submitted to the King’s mercy, and was committed prisoner to the Tower of London; from whence he made an escape, and fled to the Priory of Sheen, at Richmond; where, on condition of making a true confession who he was, in a pair of stocks set before Westminster Hall door, and true answer make to such questions as should be demanded of him, the Prior got the King’s pardon for him. And accordingly, he sat in the stocks a whole day before Westminster Hall door, afterwards on a scaffold in Cheapside, openly reading, declaring, and giving manuscripts under his own hand, wherein he told his parentage, the place of his birth, the passages of his life; that he was a cheat, an impostor, and by what ways and means he was drawn into those treasonable and bloody attempts and practices, &c. After which he was again committed to the Tower of London, where endeavouring to make an escape, he was afterwards, with others, executed at Tyburn. After Perkin took sanctuary at Beauley, his soldiers from about Taunton and elsewhere, were all brought to Exeter; where King Henry, in St. Peter’s church-yard, pardoned them all, on their promise of being good subjects afterwards. But some of them were not so good as their word. King Henry also then sent the Lord Daubeny to St. Michael’s Mount for Perkin’s wife, the Lady Katherine Gordon, whom he brought to King Henry; who commiserating her youth, birth, and beauty, bestowed a competent maintenance upon her, which she enjoyed during that King’s life and long after, to her dying day.
- 32. PART V. This Priory,or Abbey, being dissolved by act of Parliament, and given to the King, 33d Henry VIII. 1542, he gave the revenues and government of the place to Humphry Arundell, Esq. of the Lanherne family, who enjoyed the same till the first year of King Edward VI. 1549; at which time that King set forth several injunctions about religion: amongst others, this was one, viz. that all images found in churches, for divine worship or otherwise, should be pulled down and cast forth out of those churches; and that all preachers should perswade the people from praying to saints or for the dead; and from the use of beads, ashes, processions, masses, dirges, and praying to God publicly in an unknown tongue; and least there should be a defect of preachers as to those points, homilies were made and ordered to be read in all churches. Pursuant to this injunction one Mr. Body, a commissioner for pulling down images in the churches of Cornwall, going to do his duty in Helston church, a priest, in company with Killtor of Kevorne and others, at unawares stabbed him in the body with a knife; of which wound he instantly fell dead in that place. And though the murderer was taken and sent up to London, tried, found guilty of wilful murder in Westminster Hall, and executed in Smithfield, yet the Cornish people flocked together in a tumultuous and rebellious manner by the instigation of their priests in diverse parts of the shire or county, and committed many barbarities and outrages in the same; and though the justices of the peace apprehended several of them, and sent them to jail, yet they could not with all their power suppress the growth of their insurrection; for soon after Humphry Arundell aforesaid, Governor of this Mount, sided with those mutineers, and broke out into actual rebellion against his and their Prince. The mutineers chose him for the General of their army, and for inferior officers as Captains, Majors, and Colonels,—John Rosogan, James Rosogan, Will. Winslade of Tregarrick or St. Agnes at Mithian, John Payne of St. Ives, Robert Bochym of Bochym, and his brother, Thomas Underhill, John Salmon, William Segar; together with several priests, rectors, vicars, and curates of churches, as John Thompson, Roger Barret,
- 33. John Woolcock, WilliamAsa, James Mourton, John Barrow, Richard Bennet, and others, who mustered their soldiers according to the rules of military discipline at Bodmin, where the general rendezvous was appointed. But no sooner was the General Arundell departed from St. Michael’s Mount to exert his power in the camp and field aforesaid, but diverse gentlemen, with their wives and families, in his absence possessed themselves thereof; whereupon he dispatched a party of horse and foot to reduce his old garrison; which quickly they effected, by reason the besieged wanted provision and ammunition, and were distracted with the women and children’s fears and cries, and so they yielded the possession to their enemies on condition of free liberty of departing forthwith from thence with life, though not without being plundered. The retaking of St. Michael’s Mount by the general Arundell proved much to the content and satisfaction of his army at Bodmin, consisting of about six thousand men, which they looked upon as a good omen of their future success, and the first-fruits of the valour and conduct of their general. Whereupon the confederates daily increased his army with great numbers of men from all parts, who listed themselves under his banner, which was not only pourtrayed, but by a cart brought into the field for their encouragement, viz. the pyx under its canopy, that is to say, the vessel containing the Roman host, or sacramental sacrifice, or body of Christ, together with crosses, banners, candlesticks, holy bread and water, to defend them from devils and the adverse power; (see Fox’s Martyrology, p. 669,) which was carried wheresoever the camp removed; which camp grew so tremendously formidable at Bodmin, that Job Militon, Esq. then Sheriff of Cornwall, with all the power of his bailiwick, durst not encounter with it during the time of the general’s stay in that place, which gave him and his rebels opportunity to consult together for the good of their public interest, and to make out a declaration, or manifesto, of the justice of their cause, and grounds of taking up arms; but the army, in general, consisting of a mixed multitude of men of diverse professions, trades, and employments, could not easily agree upon the subject matter and form thereof. Some would
- 34. have no justiceof the peace, for that generally they were ignorant of the laws, and could not construe or English a Latin bill of indictment without the clerk of the peace’s assistance, who imposed upon them, with other attornies, for gain, wrong sense, and judgment; besides, in themselves, they were corrupt and partial in determining cases; others would have no lawyers nor attornies, for that the one cheated the people in wrong advice or counsel, and the other of their money by extravagant bills of costs; others would have no court leets, or court barons, for that the cost and expense in prosecuting an action at law therein was many times greater than the debt or profit. But generally it was agreed upon amongst them, that no inclosure should be left standing, but that all lands should be held in common; yet what expedients should be found out and placed in the room of those several orders and degrees of men and officers, none could prescribe. However, the priests, rectors, vicars, and curates, the priors, monks, friars, and other dissolved collegiates, hammered out seven articles of address for the King’s majesty; upon grant of which they declared their bodies, arms, and goods should all be at his disposal, viz. 1. That curates should administer baptism at all times of need, as well week days as holy days. 2. That their children might be confirmed by the Bishop. 3. That mass might be celebrated, no man communicating with the priest. 4. That they might have reservation of the Lord’s body in churches. 5. That they might have holy bread and water in remembrance of Christ’s body and blood. 6. That priests might not be married.
- 35. 7. That thesix articles set forth by King Henry VIII. might be continued at least till the King came of age. Now those six articles were invented by Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester (who was the bastard son of Lionel Woodvill, Bishop of Salisbury, by his concubine, Elizabeth Gardiner; the which Lionel was fifth son of Richard Woodvill, Earl Rivers, 1470), and therefore called his creed, viz. 1. That the body of Christ is really present in the sacrament after consecration. 2. That the sacrament cannot truly be administered under both kinds. 3. That priests entered into holy orders might not marry. 4. That vows of chastity entered into upon mature deliberation, were to be kept. 5. That private masses were not to be omitted. 6. That auricular confession was necessary in the church of God. To those demands of the Cornish rebels the King so far condescended as to send an answer in writing to every article, and also a general pardon to every one of them if they would lay down arms. (See Fox’s Acts and Monuments, Book ix. p. 668.) But, alas! those overtures of the King were not only rejected by the rebels, but made them the more bold and desperate; especially finding themselves unable longer to subsist upon their own estates and money, or the bounty of the country, which hitherto they had done. The general therefore resolved, as the fox who seldom chucks at home, to prey upon other men’s goods and estates further off, for his army’s better subsistence. Whereupon he dislodged from Bodmin, and marched with his soldiers into Devon, where Sir Peter Carew, Knight, was ready to obstruct their passage with his posse comitatus. But when they saw the order and discipline of the rebels, and that their army consisted of above six thousand fighting men,
- 36. desperate, well-armed, andprepared for battle, the Sheriff and his troops permitted them quietly to pass through the heart of that country to Exeter; where the citizens, upon notice of their approaches (as formerly done), shut the gates, and put themselves in a posture of defence. At which time Dr. John Voysey was Bishop of Exeter, viz. 10th July, 1549, John Blacaler was Mayor, William Tothill was Sheriff, Lewis Pollard, Recorder, William Beaumont, Sword-bearer; John Drake, Geffery Arundell, Henry Maunder, and John Tooker, were Bailiffs or Stewards; Thomas Prestwood, John Maynard, John Webb, William Hals, Hugh Pope, William Hurst, Nicholas Limmet, Robert Midwinter, Henry Booth, John Berry, John Britnall, John Tuckfield, John Stawell, Edward Bridgman, Thomas Grigg, John Drake, Thomas Skidmore, John Bodley, and others (all which had before that time been Mayors), Stewards or Bailiffs of the city.—See Isaack’s Memorials of Exeter, p. 122. Things being in this posture, the general Arundell summoned the citizens to deliver their town and castle to his dominion; but they sent him a flat denial. Whereupon, forthwith he ordered his men to fire the gates of the city, which accordingly they did; but the citizens on the inside supplied those fires with such quantities of combustible matter, so long till they had cast up a half-moon on the inside thereof, upon which, when the rebels attempted to enter, they were shot to death or cut in pieces. Their entrance being thus obstructed at the gates, they put in practice other expedients, viz. either to undermine the walls or blow them up with barrels of gunpowder, which they had placed in the same; but the citizens also prevented this their design, by countermining their mines and casting so much water on the places where their powder barrels were lodged, that the powder would not take fire. Thus stratagems of war were daily practised between the besieged and besiegers, to the great hurt and damage of each other. King Edward being informed by his council of this siege, and that there was little or no dependance upon the valour and conduct of the Sheriff of Devon, and his bailiwick, to suppress this rebellion or
- 37. raise the siegeof Exeter, granted his commission to John Lord Russell, created Baron Russell of Tavistock by King Henry, and Lord High Admiral and Lord Privy Seal, an old experienced soldier who had lost an eye at the siege of Montrueil in France, to be his general for raising soldiers to fight those rebels; who forthwith, pursuant thereto, raised a considerable army and marched with them to Honiton; but when he came there he was informed that the enemy consisted of ten thousand able fighting men armed; which occasioned his halting there longer than he intended, expecting greater supplies of men, that were coming to his aid under conduct of the Lord Grey; which at length arrived and joined his forces, whereupon he dislodged from thence and marched towards Exeter; where on the way he had several sharp conflicts with the rebels with various success, sometimes the better and sometimes the worse; though at length, after much fatigue of war, maugre all opposition and resistance of the rebels, he forced them to raise their siege, and entered the city of Exeter with relief, 6th August, 1549, after thirty- two days’ siege; wherein the inhabitants had valiantly defended themselves, though in that extremity they were necessitated by famine to eat horses, moulded cloth, and bread made of bran; in reward of whose loyalty King Edward gave to the city for ever the manor of Evyland, since sold by the city for making the river Exe navigable. After raising the siege as aforesaid, the general Arundell rallied his routed forces of rebels, and gave battle to the Lord Russell and the King’s army, with that inveterate courage, animosity, and resolution, that the greatest part of his men were slain upon the spot, others threw down their arms on mercy, the remainder fled, and were afterwards many of them taken and executed. Sir Anthony Kingston, Knight, a Gloucestershire man, after this rebellion was made Provost Marshal for executing such western rebels as could be taken, or were made prisoners in Cornwall and Devon, together with all such who had been aiders or assisters of them in that rebellion; upon whom, according to his power and office, he executed martial law with sport and justice (as Mr. Carew and other historians tell us);
- 38. and the principalpersons that have come to my knowledge, over whose misery he triumphed, was Boyer the Mayor of Bodmin; Mayow of Clevyan, in St. Colomb Major, whom he hanged at the tavern sign-post in that town, of whom tradition saith his crime was not capital; and therefore his wife was advised by her friends to hasten to the town after the Marshal and his men, who had him in custody, and beg his life. Which accordingly she prepared to do, and to render herself the more amiable petitioner before the Marshal’s eyes, this dame spent so much time in attiring herself and putting on her French hood then in fashion, that her husband was put to death before her arrival. In like manner the Marshal hanged one John Payne, the Mayor, or Portreeve of St. Ives, on a gallows erected in the middle of that town, whose arms are still to be seen in one of the fore-seats in that church, viz. in a plain field three pine apples. Besides those he executed many more in other places in Cornwall, that had been actors, assisters, or promoters of this rebellion. Lastly, it is further memorable of this Sir Anthony Kingston, that in Sir John Heywood’s Chronicle he is taxed of extreme cruelty in doing his Marshal’s office aforesaid. Of whom Fuller, in Gloucestershire, gives us this further account of him: that afterwards, in the reign of Queen Mary, being detected, with several others, of a design to rob her exchequer, though he made his escape and fled into his own country, yet there he was apprehended and taken into custody by a messenger, who was bringing him up to London in order to have justice done upon him for his crime, but he being conscious of his guilt, and despairing of pardon, so effectually poisoned himself that he died on the way, without having the due reward of his desert. After the death of Humphrey Arundell, Governor of St. Michael’s Mount, executed for treason as aforesaid, King Edward VI. sold or gave the government and revenues thereof to Job Militon, Esq. aforesaid, then Sheriff of Cornwall, during his life; but his son dying without issue male, the government, by what title I know not, devolved upon the Bassets of Tihidy, from some of whom, as I am informed, it came by purchase to Sir John St. Aubyn, Bart. now in possession thereof.
- 39. In the monthof July, 1676, at St. Michael’s Mount, about four of the clock in the afternoon, came from the British ocean, or sea, a ball of fire, seen by the inhabitants and fishermen at sea, which struck against the south moorstone wall of this Mount’s church or chapel; where, meeting resistance from the wall, it glanced through the stones thereof with some rebounds, making a path, or strake, through the same, in some places about four inches broad and two inches deep, from one end of the long side wall almost to the other; and from thence, by another rebound, it struck the strong oak durns of the dwelling-house entry, and broke the same in two or three pieces, and so flew into the hall, where it fell to the ground, having spent its force and strength as aforesaid, and then brake asunder in pieces, by the side of Mrs. Catherine St. Aubyn, without doing her any manner of hurt, leaving a sulphurous smoke behind it in the room; which ball of fire then appeared to consist of a black-blue metally matter, congealed or melted by fire like as coal and cinders may be, as Sir John St. Aubyn, the elder, and other spectators told me. TONKIN. Mr. Tonkin has not any thing in addition to Mr. Hals, except an uninteresting dissertation to prove that St. Michael’s Mount is not the Ocrinum of Ptolemy. WHITAKER. Mr. Whitaker has given several notes and comments on the narrative of Mr. Hals, which will here be placed, together with references to the passages to which they relate. p. 170. (a) The name is Mara-zion, or zien, on the sea, I believe, and Market-Jew is merely a similar appellation in English. A Jew, in Cornish language, is Ethow, and Edheuon, Ethchan, are Jews. p. 170. (b) This corrects Mr. Willis, in ii. 3, who there says of the Market-Jew, and other towns expressly, “none of them ever sent
- 40. Members to Parliament,or were ever summoned so to do.” Yet it coincides exactly with what Dr. Brady remarks in his very valuable treatise on Boroughs, p. 57, 59, and adds one more to his few returns, and instances of very many more which might have been produced “if needful,” p. 59. p. 172. (c) Sel, sil, or sul is merely a view, or prospect, from the Welsh sylly, to look or behold, and the Armorick sell, a look or sight; and din-sil, or din-sul, means only the hill of prospect. (d) The real name of St. Michael’s Mount in Cornish is this, Carreg luz en kuz, a hoary rock in a wood. Borlase’s Scilly Isles, p. 94. p. 178. (e) This notice, unobserved by the noticer himself, lets us into a part of the history of this Mount, which has never been unfolded yet. There was plainly a nunnery here, as well as a monastery. Accordingly we find before what this circumstance alone explains, that there were two chapels upon the Mount. One is described before as “a little chapel yet standing, and dedicated to the Archangel St. Michael, part whereof is now converted to a dwelling-house.” The other is thus, as “that which renders this place most famous, the present church or chapel, yet extant, and kept in good repair with pews; upon the tower of this church or chapel, for it is bigger than many other Cornish parish churches, is that celebrated place called Kader-Migell, i. e. Michael’s chair.” So distinct are these chapels! The monastery I apprehend to have been, “where, towards the north-west, is a kind of level plain about four or six landyards,” with “a downright precipice of rocks towards the sea, at least twenty fathoms high.” And where, about the greater chapel, are “cells cut in the rocks for hermitical monks of the aforesaid order.” And the nunnery I suppose to have been where, “from this little square, or plain, there is an artificial kind of ascent going towards the east, which offers you a full sight of the outer walls of the castle, and brings you to Porth Horne (Hourn), part of which is yet to be seen.”
- 41. Thus do weget a glimpse of a nunnery that is invisible from every other point. Tanner, that witness for all other authors upon monastic notices, gives us no intimation from any of them concerning this nunnery. Yet Leland confirms what I have observed in Mr. Hals before, the existence of two churches, or chapels, upon the summit of the Mount. “The way to the church,” he says, concerning the ascent to the top, “entereth at the north side from half ebb to half flood, to the foot of the Mount, and so ascendeth by steps and grices westward, and thence returneth eastward to the utterward of the church,” or Mount. Within the said ward is a court strongly walled, “wherein on the south side is the Chapel of St. Michael, and in the east side a chapel of our Lady. The Captain and priest’s lodgings be in the south side of St. Michael’s Chapel.” (Itin. VII. 118.) When this Captain was fixed there with a garrison, as we shall soon see when he was, the nuns were obliged to relinquish their cells to him and them. For this reason we have not a hint in all the ages afterwards of a nunnery here. Only the chapel was continued for the use of the garrison, while the church itself was still left to the monks. Such an union as this, of a monastery and a nunnery upon the summit of a pyramidal hill, and amid the sequestrations of solitude, carries a strange appearance with it to our Protestant suspiciousness; yet it was not very uncommon in the reign of popery. It seems to have been peculiarly calculated for that purpose for which both monastery and nunnery were generally calculated, to shew the triumph of faith over the impulses of sense, and to shew that triumph more conspicuously, by the association of monks and nuns in monastic vicinity to each other. “This little fortress,” as Mr. Hals has told us before, “comprehendeth sufficient rooms and lodgings for the Captain, or Governor, and his soldiers to reside in,” which I have supposed above “to have been the original habitations of the nuns and their Abbess; to which adjoining are several other houses, or cells, heretofore pertaining to the monks that dwell here, all admirable for their strength, buildings, and contrivance,” and all probably therefore contemporary or nearly so.
- 42. p. 180. (f)This account of St. Michael’s Mount is in a strain of intelligence and judiciousness much superior to the general tenor of Mr. Hals’s writings. To it I wish to add some useful notices, in accompaniment of some that I have given before. Upon the very crown and summit of this pyramidal hill, stands proudly eminent the church, stretching from east to west, and having a tower in the middle. It was built by Edward the Confessor, who was the first to consecrate the Mount to religion, and erected the church on the little plain at the top of it. Having done this, and erected habitations for the clergy attending it, he gave them, by charter still existing in recital, the whole of the Mount, and many lands beside. “Ego Edwardus, Dei gracia Anglorum Rex, dare volans pretium redemptionis animæ meæ vel parentum meorum, sub consensu et testimonio bonorum virorum, tradidi Sancto Michaeli Archangelo, in usum fratrum Deo servientium in eodem loco, Sanctum Michaelem,” the church, “qui est juxta mare.” He also gives them “totam terram de Venefire;” and proceeds “portum addere qui vocatur Ruminella.” Romney, in Kent. Then came Robert Earl of Mortaigne, the falsely reputed founder, merely to associate this church with another of the same appellation in Normandy, and to enlarge its endowments. In a new charter, equally as the old without a date, he, “habens in bello Sancti Michaelis vexillum,” says, “do et concedo Montem Sancti Michaelis de Cornubiâ Deo et monachis ecclesiæ Sancti Michaelis de Periculo Maris servientibus, cum dimidiâ terræ hidâ.” But, as he adds, “postea autem ut certissime comperi, Beati Michaelis meritis monachorumque suffragiis michi a Deo ex propriâ conjuge mea filio concesso, auxi donum ipsi beato militiæ celestis principi, dedi et dono in Amaneth (Quere, where?) tres acras terræ, Travalaboth videlicet, Lismanoch, Trequaners, Carmailoc,” &c. 2. And, finally, comes the Bishop of Exeter, in a charter dated expressly 1085, to free “ecclesiam Beati Michaelis Archangeli de Cornubiâ,” from all episcopal jurisdiction. 3. Thus erected and thus privileged, the church remained till the day of William of Worcester, and he thus notes the dimensions of it: “Memorandum, longitudo ecclesiæ Montis Sancti Michaelis continet 30 steppys, latitudo
- 43. continet 12 steppys.”4. Carew also speaks of it as “a chapel for devotion, builded by William Earl of Morton,” (Carew so speaking with the multitude, when he ought to have given the building to the Confessor,) “and greatly haunted while folk endured (endeared) their merits by farre travailing.” 5. Carew thus refers obscurely, perhaps unconsciously, to a particular privilege annexed to the church, which was given by one decree from Pope Gregory, and confirmed by another from Bishop Leofric. “Universis Sanctæ Matris ecclesiæ presentes literas inspecturis vel audituris salutem,” cries the former, “noverit universitas vestra quod sanctissimus Papa Gregorius, anno ab incarnatione Domini millesimo septuagesimo,” the very year, therefore, in which Earl Montaign gave this church to the other in Normandy, “ad ecclesiam Montis Sancti Michaelis, in comitatu Cornubiæ, gerens eximiæ devocionis affectum, piè concessit ecclesiæ predictæ, [et] omnibus fidelibus, qui illam cum suis beneficiis et elemosinis,” (with alms and oblations, so that “folke endeared their merits,” not merely “by farre travailing,” but by a tax upon their purse,) “exepecierint seu visitaverint, tertiam partem penetenciarum suarum eis condonari,” a third of all those acts being remitted, which penitents were enjoined to perform, in order to prove the sincerity of their penitence to God, and to themselves. The same privilege is repeated by the Bishop of Exeter in 1085, thus: “omnibus illis, qui illum ecclesiam suis cum beneficiis et elemosinis expetierint et visitaverint, tertiam partem penitentiarum condonamus.” Yet, what is surprising, the privilege became nearly as much unknown afterwards as it is at present, and was therefore promulgated by the clergy of the church at the beginning of the fifteenth century: “Tota verba,” adds the reciter, “in antiquis registris de novo,” a little before William’s visit, “in hâc ecclesiâ repertis, inventa,” being then unknown to the very clergy themselves, and only discovered by the discovery of some registers equally unknown, “prout his in valvis ecclesiæ publicè ponuntur,” were exhibited to public view by being posted upon the folding-doors of the church. “Et quia pluribus istud est incognitum, ideo nos, in Christo Dei famuli et ministri hujus ecclesiæ, universitatem vestram qui regimen animarum possidetis,” all the rectors and vicars of the kingdom, “ob
- 44. mutuæ vicissitudinis obtentumrequirimus et rogamus, quatenus ista publicetis in ecclesiis vestris, ut vestri subditi et subjecti ad majorem exoracionem devocionis attentius animentur, et locum istum gloriosius peregrinando frequentent ad dona et indulgencias predicta graciosè consequenda.” From this republication of the privilege, undoubtedly, did the numerous resort of pilgrims to the church begin. Then too was formed assuredly that seat on the tower, which is so ridiculously described by Carew, as “a little without the castle— a bad seat in a craggy place—somewhat dangerous for access;” when it is only a chair, composed of stones, projecting from the two sides of the tower battlements, and uniting into a seat without the south-western angle, but elevated above the battlements on each side. It thus appears somewhat dangerous from the elevation or projection only, is an evident addition to the tower, and was assuredly made at this period for the pilgrims, that they might complete their devotions at the Mount by sitting in this St. Michael’s Chair, as denominated, and by showing themselves as pilgrims to the country round. Hence, in an author[6] who alludes to customs without feeling the force of his allusion, we read this intimation: Who knowes not Michael’s Mount and Chaire, The pilgrim’s holy vaunt? We thus find a reason for the construction of such a chair, that comports with all the purposes of the church on the tower of which it is constructed, and that shows it ministered equally with this to the uses of religion then predominant; making it not, as Carew most extravagantly makes it, “somewhat dangerous for access, and therefore holy for the adventure,” but holy in itself, as on the church- tower, holy in its purposes, as the seat of the pilgrims, and doubly holy as the seat of accomplishment to all their vows, as the seat of invitation to all the country. And the whole church remains to this day, beaten by the rains and buffeted by the winds, yet a venerable monument of Saxon architecture. This Mount appears decisively, from the charter of the Confessor, to have been in his time not surrounded with the sea during all the
- 45. flood tide, andnot accessible by land only during some hours of the ebb-tide, as it is at present. It was then not surrounded at all. It was only near the sea then. Thus the Confessor describes it expressly, as “Sanctum Michaelem qui est juxta mare.” But as Worcestre adds, with a range back into the past that is very striking, yet is in general confirmed by the charter above, “the space of ground upon Mount St. Michael is two hundred cubits, surrounded with the ocean,” at flood tide; “the place aforesaid was originally inclosed with a very thick wood, distant from the ocean six miles, affording the finest shelter for wild beasts.” THE EDITOR. Nothing is known with any certainty respecting the ancient state of St. Michael’s Mount. It may have been the seat of a Celtic superstition somewhat similar to that imagined and described by Dr. William Borlase. Sir Christopher Hawkins has adduced many arguments for proving this semi-island to have been the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus; and its situation, united to its sea-port, may well have recommended such a place for a factory to the merchants of any civilized nation engaged in commercial transactions with people so rude as were the Britons of those remote times. The universal practice in our days, is to establish fortified stations under similar circumstances, since neither person or property can be effectually protected in any other way. The earliest definite tradition of a Christian establishment dates with the pilgrimage of St. Kenna, in consequence of the appearance of the Arch-angel at that place. No particular circumstances are ever related of this extraordinary vision, neither as to the occasion nor as to the persons so eminently favoured as to behold the celestial glory, nor as to the time, nor of the exact spot, since it could not have taken place on the top of the tower, that building having been constructed in honour of the vision itself.
- 46. It may beremarked that lofty and elevated situations throughout Europe are dedicated to St. Michael, probably on account of the Archangel being uniformly painted with wings, and therefore tacitly imagined to have habits similar to birds; and perhaps the dedication of the largest of our domestic fowls to the celebration of his festival, may owe its origin to a similar analogy. Saint Kenna is believed to have imparted the same identical virtue to the chair which overhangs the tower, as she bestowed on the celebrated well near Liskeard, and since no one obtains a seat in this chair without much resolution and steadiness of head, one may be inclined to anticipate the supposed effect with greater certainty from the achievement of sitting in St. Michael’s chair, than from drinking water from St. Kenna’s well. The time of St. Kenna’s visitation is not accurately known. She is supposed to be the same St. Keyna, daughter of a prince of Brecknockshire, who lived a recluse life for many years near a town situated midway between Bristol and Bath, since called Cainsbarn, after her name, where she founded a monastery in the beginning of the sixth century, and cleaned the neighbourhood from snakes and vipers by converting them all into Cornua Ammonis, which have abounded there ever since, in testimony of her sanctity and of the fervour of her prayers. The supposed ancient site of St. Michael’s Mount, its being the hoary monk in a wood surrounded by forests, is deduced from arguments very similar to those which prove the miraculous power of St. Kenna in converting serpents into stones. Trees have been found buried under the sand and silt in the Mount’s Bay, as they are frequently found in every similar inlet of the sea on the southern coast of England. And the tradition, if a term so respectable may be applied to such vague conjectures, applies equally to Mount St. Michael; or they may have been derived from a common origin. See Le Grand Dictionaire Historique, par M. Moreri, Paris edition of 1188, with the Supplement of 1735. In the 5th folio volume of the Dictionary, p. 193, and in the 2d. folio volume of the Supplement, p. 261, will be found these passages:
- 47. “Saint Michel ouMont Saint Michel, en Latin Mons Sancti Michaelis in periculo Maris. Bourg de France en Normandie, avec une Abbaie celebre et un chateau. Sa situation est assez particuliere, sur un rocher qui s’etend au milieu d’une grand greve, que la mer couvre de son reflux. On dit qu’ Augustin, evêque d’Avranches, qui vivait au commencement du huitieme siecle, y suit des chanoines apres une apparition de l’Archange Seint Michel. “Ce mont s’appelloit le Mont de Tombe à cause de sa figure. On pretend qu’une foret occupoit autrefois sont le terrain depuis le mont jusques aux Paroisses de Tanis et d’Ardevon; que la mer a detruit cette foret, et qu’elle en a pris la place; et c’est de la, dit on, que le Mont Saint Michel est surnomme, ‘Au peril de la mer,’ Mons in periculo Maris.” The first authentic document relative to St. Michael’s Mount is the charter of Saint Edward the Confessor, the original of which remained among the archives of Mount St. Michael. In the recent edition of Dugdale’s Monasticon Anglicanum, vol. vii. p. 988: Priory of St. Michael’s Mount, in Cornwall.—A priory of Benedictine monks was placed here by King Edward the Confessor. Before A.D. 1085, however, it was annexed by Robert Earl of Moreton and Cornwall, to the Abbey of St. Michael in Periculo Maris, in Normandy. The following entry relating to the property of St. Michael’s Priory, in Cornwall, occurs in the Domesday Survey: “Terra Sancti Michaelis.—Ecclesia S. Michaelis tenet Treiwal, Brismar tenebat tempore regis Edwardi. Ibi sunt ii hidæ quæ numquam geldaverunt. Terra est viii car. Ibi est i. car. cum uno villano, et ii. bord. et x. acr. pasturæ. Val. xx. solid. De hiis ii. hid. abstulit Comes Moriton i. hidam. Val. xx. sol.”
- 48. In Hampshire, Domesday,tom. i. fol. 43, there is another entry concerning St. Michael’s Priory: In Basingstoches Hund.—Ecclesia S. Michaelis de Monte tenet de lege unam ecclesiam cum i. hida et decima M. de Basingestoches. Ibi est presbyter et ii. villani et iiii. bord. cum i. car. et molin. de xx. sol. et ii. acr. prati. Tot. val. iiii. lib. et v. sol. Oliver, in his Historic Collections relating to the monasteries of Devon, p. 147, gives the following list of Priors of St. Michael’s Mount:— Ralph de Carteret, admitted Dec. 21, 1260. Richard Perer, April 11, 1275. Geoffrey de Gernon, July 8, 1283. Peter de Cara Villa, Sept. 12, 1316. John Hardy, Oct. 3, 1349. John de Volant, April 24, 1362. Richard Auncell, Dec. 7, 1385. William Lambert, Oct. 1, 1410. As the alien priories were suppressed by Henry V. who began his reign in 1413, William Lambert was probably the last Prior. Bishop Tanner says, in his Notitia Monastica:—After the suppression of the alien priories, this was first given by King Henry VI. to King’s College, Cambridge, and afterwards by King Edward IV. to the nunnery of Sion, in Middlesex. At the first seizure by King Edward III. the farm was rated but at 10l. per annum, but at the general dissolution by Henry VIII. the lands belonging to this house, as parcel of Sion Abbey, were valued at 110l. 12s. per annum. The charter of Saint Edward may be thus translated:
- 49. “In the nameof the holy and indivisible Trinity. I Edward, by the grace of God King of the English, willing to give the price of the redemption of my own soul, or of the souls of my parents, with the consent and attestation of good men, have delivered to St. Michael the Archangel, for the use of the brethren serving God in that place, Saint Michael, which is near the sea, with all its appendages, that is to say, with its towns, castles, lands, and other appurtenances. I have added, moreover, all the land of Vennefire, with its towns, villages, fields, meadows, and grounds, cultivated or uncultivated, with their proceeds. And I have joined, as an addition to the things already given, the harbour called Ruminella, with all things belonging to it, that is, with mills and establishments for fisheries and with their proceeds. “But if any one shall endeavour to interpose subtile impediments against these gifts, let him be made an anathema, and incur the perpetual anger of God. “And that the authority of our donation may be held the more truly and firmly hereafter, I have, in confirming it, underwritten with my own hand, which many also of the witnesses have done. Signum Regis Edwardi ✠ Roberti Archiepiscopi Rothomagensis ✠ Herberti Episcopi Lexoviensis ✠ Roberti Episcopi Constantiensis ✠ Radulphi ✠ Vinfredi ✠ Nigelli Vicecomitis. Anschitelli Choschet. Turstini. The next charter: “In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity, I Robert, by the grace of God Earl of Moriton, influenced with the fire of divine love, supporting in battle the standard of St. Michael,
- 50. do make knownto all the sons of our holy mother church, that for the salvation of the souls of myself and of my wife, also for the salvation, the prosperity, and safety of the most glorious King William, and for obtaining the reward of eternal life, do give and grant Mount Saint Michael, of Cornwall, to God and to the monks serving (God) of the church of Saint Michael in danger of the sea; with half a hide of land, so unbound, and peaceable and free from all customs, complaints, and suits, as I hold them. And I appoint, the King my Lord consenting, that they may hold a market on every Friday. Lastly, as I have most certainly ascertained that a son has been given me from God by my wife, through the merits of the blessed Michael, by the prayers of the monks, I have increased the gift to him the blessed chief of the heavenly host. I have given and do give in Amaneth three acres of land; that is to say, Trevelaboth, Lismanoch, Trequaners, Carmailoc, my most pious Lord King William assenting, together with the Queen Mathilde, and their noble sons the Earl Robert, William Rufus, and Henry yet a boy, to be quiet and free from all pleas, complaints, and forfeits, so that the monks shall not answer in any matter to the King’s justice, homicide alone excepted. “And I Robert Earl of Moriton have made this donation, which William the glorious King of the English, and the Queen, and their children, have permitted and testified. Signum Willielmi Regis ✠ Reginæ Mathildis ✠ Roberti Comitis ✠ Willielmi Rufi filii Regis ✠ Henrici Pueri ✠ Roberti Comitis Moritoni ✠ Matildis Comitissæ ✠ Willielmi filii eorum ✠
- 51. This charter isratified and confirmed in the year one thousand and eighty-five from the Incarnation of our Lord. Signum Liurici Essecestriæ Episcopi ✠” Among several other charters there is one from Richard King of the Romans, granting to the Prior three annual fairs, to be holden near their Grange, now the Long Barn. “Richard by the grace of God King of the Romans, and always Augustus, to the Bishops, Abbats, Priors, Earls, Barons, and to all holding free tenures, and to others his lieges in the county of Cornwall, health, and every good. May you all know that we, by this our present confirmation, have granted and confirmed to the Prior of the blessed Michael, in Cornwall, and to his successors, that they may have and hold, and for ever possess, the three fairs and three markets on their own proper ground in Marchadyon, near their Barn; which three fairs and three markets they have hitherto held by the concession of our predecessors Kings of England, in Marghasbigan, on ground belonging to others; that is to say, on the middle day in Lent, and on the following day; and on the eve of the blessed Michael, and on the following day; and on the eve of the blessed Michael in monte tumbæ, and on the following day, provided that these fairs and markets may not cause any damage or injury to other fairs or markets, in conformity with the laws and customs of this kingdom of England. “In witness of all which things we have thought fit to certify this present confirmation with our royal seal.” There is also a bull of Pope Adrian, in the year 1155, confirming all their possessions to the Abbat and monks of Mount St. Michael, and among them Saint Michael’s Mount, in Cornwall; which, previously to its subjugation, had been exempted from all episcopal interference by Liuricus Bishop of Exeter, as he states by the
- 52. exhortation and commandof his Lord, Pope Gregory, and in compliance with the wishes of the King, of the Queen, and of all the magnates in the realm. And he also grants a release from a third part of their penances to all such persons as may visit this church of St. Michael with oblations and alms. The Mount appears never to have received a religious society after its suppression as an alien priory in the reign of King Henry the Fifth. At the period of the general dissolution it must have been let at an annual rent, for in the abstract roll preserved in the Augmentation Office this entry occurs under Syon Abbey: “Cornub.— S. Michael. ad Montem, Firma 26l. 13s. 4d.” The history of St. Michael’s Mount since its dissolution, as a parcel of Sion Abbey, is very far from being clear. It appears to have been granted at first for terms of years to different gentlemen of the neighbourhood. To Millington, supposed of Pengersick, in Breage; to Harris, of Kenegie, in Gulval; and perhaps jointly with Millington to a Billett or Bennett. A person of that name, half-deranged, who died about the middle of the last century, continued during the whole of his life to shoot rabbits on the Mount one day in the year by way of maintaining a supposed right, which, being utterly groundless, was humanely allowed to pass unobserved. Queen Elizabeth, or King James I. appears to have granted the whole in fee to Robert Cecil, created Earl of Salisbury May 4, 1605. But the Mount was seised into his own hands by King Charles I. just at the breaking out of the civil war, probably on account of the great military importance of this hold, when William Cecil, son of the former, having subscribed the Declaration made at York, on the 13th of June, 1642, left the party of which the King was at the head, and joined the opposite party in London. An order was soon after given to Sir Francis Basset, then Sheriff of Cornwall, to place the Mount in a state of defence, and to supply it with ammunition and provisions; and it is not improbable that a grant was made of the castle and Mount to Sir Francis Basset at
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