The document provides study notes on ecology and chemistry. It discusses key topics like the atmosphere, weather, climate, climate change arguments, factors that affect climate such as the sun and greenhouse gases. It also covers chemistry topics such as ionic compounds, naming conventions, types of reactions, acids and bases.

1. Ecology Exam Study Notes
CHAPTER 7
What is the atmosphere?
-Layer of gases that surrounds the Earth
-Protects us from environmental conditions and the harsh temperatures of the Sun
What is weather?
Weather is the daily temperatures of a specific area or region at a specific time (wind, temperature,
precipitation)
What is climate?
The average conditions of the atmosphere over a region over a long period of time
What are some climate change arguments?
-Climates around the world have been changing naturally over millions of years of Earth’s history
-Human activity is key in shaping the Earth’s climate
What is the single most important factor that affects climate on Earth? Why?
The Sun. This is because the intensity of that energy determines the temperature of air, water, and land.
What is the amount of solar intensity we receive, determined by?
The angle of Earth’s tilt as well as its orbit around the Sun.
What is the angle of Earth’s tilt?
23.5 degrees
What is Milutin Milankovik’s theory?
-Through Earth’s history, Earth’s orbit, tilt and rotation have varied slightly
-These variations change the solar intensity and climate
How many years does it take for Earth’s orbit to fluctuate?
100 000 years
What happens when Earth’s orbit becomes more elliptical?
The solar energy intensity is not consistent for all parts of the Earth. The equator will receive more solar
energy than those areas in the northern part of the world.
How many years does it take for Earth’s tilt to change? By how much?
41 000 years for a change of 2.4 degrees

2. What does “precession” mean?
Precession is when the wobble of the Earth affects the amount and intensity of solar energy that is received
by the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
What angle do the Sun’s rays strike the equator at? The Northern Hemisphere?
90 degrees; 45 degrees
What changes our seasons?
The combination of Earth’s tilt and orbit
What is the Greenhouse Affect?
-The atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, and smaller concentrations of
other gases
-The atmosphere absorbs thermal energy from the Sun at the surface
What is “specific heat capacity”?
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by a degree celcius
What is wind?
-The movement of air from high pressure to low pressure (convection)
-Result of uneven heating from the Earth’s surface
-Transfers thermal energy around the world
-Surface ocean currents are caused by wind blowing over water
-Winds that blow in a constant direction are called prevailing winds
How is water related to temperature?
With the atmosphere, water transfers heat from one part of the planet to another
Oceans hold more heat than the atmosphere
Water has a large specific heat capacity, so it requires a large amount of heat to raise its temperature
Temperatures of large bodies of water change slowly and by small amounts (opposite to land
masses)
What is the Albedo Affect?
Ice and snow reflect solar radiation
Fraction of energy reflected by surface is known as ALBEDO
Water has low albedo (reflects 7% heat) and snow has high albedo (reflects 90% heat)
Distribution of water, ice and land affects the global average temperature
How do tectonic plates affect the temperature?
Movement of plates changes the shape of the land and oceans thus altering the distribution of energy
around the world
Formation of mountain ranges affects the pattern of the wind and precipitation
How do volcanic eruptions affect the temperature?

3. The aerosols from a volcanic eruption have a cooling affect on climate
Effects of eruption last years to decades and alter the region’s and/or world’s general climate
How do humans affect the climate?
Human technology
Burning fossil fuelsCarbon dioxide emmissions
Climate change is mainly due to humans
What is a climate zone?
A bunch of regions that share similar weather conditions
What are the three major climate zones on Earth?
Polar zones
Tropical Zones
Temperate zones
What does a climatograph show?
Temperature of a region
Average precipitation of a region over a year
What is a biome?
A large region with similar types of climate and living organisms are known as BIOMES
What are Canada’s biomes?
Permanent Ice
Tundra
Boreal forest
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Temperate rainforest
Prairies
Desert
What do scientists use to predict climate change and its possible affects on the economy and society?
Climate classification system
What will happen to Canada’s agriculture in 2050?
Open up areas that are not suitable for growing crops now, in the future
Soil will become more fertile
What is one way that climate affects health?
High temperatureGrowth of dustGrowth of moldRelease of pollenHuman respiratory problems
How do changing winds/precipitation affect the climate?
Bad wind pattern  melting ice
Warming planet  more evaporation  more precipitation

4. How does deforestation affect the climate?
Less trees  More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Can be natural or anthropogenic
Can inhabit or kill wildlife
How does climate affect wetlands?
Temperature increases  Evaporation increases  Wetlands dry up  Source of water disappears
 Animals die due to inhabitation
How does melting ice affect the climate?
Ice melts  Albedo decreases  Surface of land begins to warm
Ice melts  High sea levels  More ice melts  Animals inhabited
Ice melts  High sea levels  Floods
How does climate affect desertification and drought?
No precipitation  Drying land  Dust storms  Desertification
How does climate change affect storm intensity and frequency?
Warm planets  warm water  hurricanes
CHAPTER 8:
What is a closed system and what is an open system?
Closed system: Allows energy in, but no matter
Open system: Allows both energy and matter in
What is a positive feedback loop?
Acts to increase affects of parts
Small changes lead to larger changes
Decrease in
Albedo
Increase rate of Increase in global
melting ice temp
EXAMPLE:
What is a negative feedback loop?
Decreases affects of parts

5. Maintains balance (equilibrium)
Example:
Descrease
Increase in Increase Increase Increase
global
GW evaporation cloud cover albedo
temperature
What is radiation?
Transfer of heat energy as “electromagnetic” waves
What is conduction?
Heat transfer by physical contact
What is convection?
Transfer of thermal energy by highly energized molecules from one place to another (wind)
Why is the Greenhouse Affect important to Earth’s energy budget?
Without it, earth would be too cold
Too much would make earth too warm
What is PPM used to measure?
Parts per million of CONCENTRATION
What are the main Greenhouse Gases?
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Nitrous oxide
Water vapour
Ozone
What are the main sources of CO2?
Organic respiration  First two RELEASE CO2
Combustion of fossil fuels
Photosynthesis  Second two TAKE IN CO2
Phytoplankton in the oceans
What are some sources of methane (CH4)?
Wetlands
Cattle (digestive processes)
Human sources (decomposing)

6. What are some sources of nitrous oxide (N20)?
Damp tropical soil + oceans
Fertilizers, sewage detergent…
What is ozone depletion (O3)?
Since 1970, total volume of ozone decreased. Ozone protects us from harmful UV rays.
What is ozone?
Vehicle exhaust creates too much ozone (through production of hydrocarbons + nitrous oxides)
• Traps thermal energy
• Increases global warming
Can remain in atmosphere for thousands of years (GWP)
What is Global Warming Potential?
Global Warming Potential is how long a gas particle can last in the atmosphere before destroying itself
How does energy transfer in the atmosphere?
Convection currents in the air
How does energy transfer in the oceans?
Convection currents
•Thermohaline circulation (heat and salt)
Currents move as a result of density (which is attracted by salinity of salt concentration)
How does GLOBAL WARMING affect thermohaline circulation?
1. Increase in temp
2. Increase in rate of melting ice
3. Increase in fresh water
4. Decrease in salinity
5. Decrease in density
6. Decrease circulation of water
• Can affect upwelling (nutrients coming to ocean surface)
What are the major disruptions of wind + ocean current patterns?
EL NINO
EL NINA
What are halocarbons?
Not found naturally, found industrially
Accounts for less than 2% of all G.G emissions by humans
Contain one or more halogen
Better than CO2 at trapping thermal energy
Can remain in atmosphere for thousands of years

7. What are CFCs?
Chlorofluorocarbons were banned in 1987 because they lasted in the atmosphere for an indefinite amount of
years.
What are the five main stores of carbon in the carbon cycle?
Vegetation, soil, and organic matter
The atmosphere
The oceans
Marine sediments an sedimentary rocks
Fossil fuels
What are three ways nitrogen gas is changed into nitrogen molecules by living things?
Lightning  Nitrogen and oxygen bond
Bacteria  Converts nitrogen from the soil into a form of nitrogen that a plant can use
Human activity (fertilizer)
Chapter 9:
What is a person who studies past climates, called?
A paleoclimatologist
How are tree rings related to climate?
As a tree grows, rings of new growth form within the trunk
Affected by temp and rainfall
Size and color of ring  Amount tree grows per season
Wide ride  wet + cool
Thin ring  dry + hot
Dark ring  late summer growth
Light right  spring growth
A tree grows an additional ring every year
How are ice cores related to climate?
Cylindrical shapes of ice samples
Evidence includes
•Dissolved and particulate matter
-(eg. Dust, ashes, salts, plant pollen, etc.)
-Volcanic euption, forest fire
•Physical characteristics
- Different forms of ice provide info on temp and humidity
How is the composition of bubbles in ice related to climate?

8. Provides information on atmospheric conditions
How is the composition of ice related to climate?
“Isotopes” of H2 and O2 in water and their concentration provide information on temoerature
Oldest ice on earth is approximately 1 000 000 years old
To obtain evidence or climate change older than that, we use sedimentary rock
Chemical composition of sediment core gives clues about temperature
What information do fossils provide about past climates?
Composition of fish and how many fish
Temperature of water
Depth of water

9. Chemistry Exam Study Notes
What is an ionic compound?
An ionic compound is a compound consisting of oppositely charged ions (a metal and a non-metal)
What is an ion?
An ion is a positively or negatively charged element due to a loss or gain of electrons.
What is a cation?
A cation is a positively charged ion
What is an anion?
An anion is a negatively charged ion
What is a valence electron?
A valence electron is any electron on the outermost energy level of the atom.
What is a binary ionic compound?
A compound composed of a metal cation and a non-metal anion
What are the rules for naming a binary ionic compound?
The first part of the name is the metal cation, with no changed suffix
The second part of the name identifies the anion, and the name ends with the suffix –ide
What is the chemical formula of the following binary ionic compound? Draw the Bohr-Rutherford and
Lewis diagrams for it. [MAGNESIUM PHOSPHIDE]
What are the multivalent metals?
Form different ions, depending on the chemical reaction they undergo
What is a binary molecular compound?
A compound composed of two non-metals joined by one or more covalent bonds
What are the prefixes used when naming binary molecular compounds?
1. Mono 5. Penta

10. 2. Di 6. Hexa
3. Tri 7. Hepta
4. Tetra 8. Octa
What is the Law of Conservation of Mass?
In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is always the same as the total mass of the reactants
What are the diatomic molecules?
Iodine • Chlorine
Hydrogen • Bromine
Nitrogen • Oxygen
Fluorine
What is a synthesis reaction?
A chemical reaction in which two or more reactants combine to produce a new product
What is a precipitate?
An insoluble solid formed in a chemical reaction.
What is a decomposition reaction?
A chemical reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler compounds or elements
What is a single displacement reaction?
A chemical reaction in which one element takes place of another element in a compound
What is the activity series?
A list of elements organized according to their chemical reactivity, the most reactive at the top, the least
reactive at the bottom.
1. Lithium
2. Potassium
3. Calcium
4. Sodium
5. Magnesium
6. Aluminum
7. Zinc
8. Iron
9. Nickel
10. Tin
11. Hydrogen
12. Copper
13. Silver
14. Platinum
15. Gold
What is a double displacement reaction?

11. A chemical reaction in which the positive ions of two different compounds exchange places, resulting in the
formation of two new compounds—one of which may be a precipitate.
What is an incomplete combustion?
An incomplete combustion occurs when there is not enough oxygen present
What is a complete combustion?
A complete combustion is when there is enough oxygen to complete the reaction
What is a catalyst?
A substance that increases the rate of a reaction and is regenerated at the end of the reaction
What is a catalytic converter?
A device used to help reduce the harmful emissions in a car’s exhaust.
What is an acid?
A compound that produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water
What are the two types of acids?
Oxyacid and binary acid
What is a binary acid?
An acid composed of hydrogen and a non-metal
How to name a binary acid?
Write the root of the non-metal name
Add the prefix –hydroto the root name
Add the ending –ic acid to the root name
What is an oxyacid?
An acid composed of hydrogen, oxygen and another element
How to name an oxyacid?
Write the name of the anion without the –ate or the –ite ending
If the anion name ended in –ate replace it with –ic at the end of the name
If the anion ended with –ic, replace it with –ous at the end of the name
Add the word acid
What is a base?
A compound that forms hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water
How to name a base?
The name of the metal and then hydroxide (ie; sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide)
What is the pH scale?

12. A numerical scale ranging from 0-14 that is used to classify a solution as acidic, basic, or neutral
What is an example of an acid, a base, and a neutral solution?
Acid: Stomach acid Base: Bleach Neutral: Water!
What are the possible results of red litmus paper? What do they mean?
If red litmus paper turns blue when it is dipped in a solution, that solution is a base. If It does not change
color, it is an acid.
What are the possible results of blue litmus paper? What do they mean?
If blue litmus paper turns red, then the solution is acidic. If it does not change color, it is basic.
What is a Universal Indicator?
A mixture of several indicators that produce different colors at different pH values.
(Purple to green to blue)
Acid-Base indicators…?
Bromothymol Blue  yellow to blue
Phenolphthalein  colorless to pink
Indigo carmine  blue to yellow
What is neutralization?
A reaction of an acid and a base to produce a salt and water
What is liming?
The application of basic materials, typically lime-based, to renew acidified lakes and regions
What are antacids?
Tablets to neutralize excess stomach acids with bases such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum
hydroxide.
What is acid precipitation?
Caused by sulfur and nitrogen oxides that react with rain water