The document provides a conceptual framework for understanding safety climate. It defines safety climate as shared employee perceptions about the relative priority of safety versus productivity in their workplace. These perceptions inform employees about management's commitment to safety and guide appropriate work behaviors. The document distinguishes safety climate from safety culture, proposes antecedents and consequences of safety climate, and suggests a multi-level model of safety climate at both the organization and group levels. It concludes by discussing measurement of safety climate and directions for future research.
This article examines differences in safety schemas among upper managers, supervisors, and workers. The study used interviews and text analysis software to analyze safety perceptions. The software identified 10 themes in participants' discussions of safety. Upper managers focused on culture and people, supervisors on corporate values, management practices, and safety communication, and workers on procedures and safety training. The results suggest safety schemas differ between groups and this could impact safety efforts if not addressed.
This document provides a literature review on global occupational safety and health practices and the severity of accidents. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The literature review identifies existing gaps in previous workplace safety and health management research and proposes areas for future study. Many studies have found that risks to occupational safety and health are increasing globally due to industrialization, but developing countries often overlook workplace safety in their economic policies. The review finds gaps in developing multilevel safety models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and approaches that consider multiple health factors, and suggests these areas need further research to improve workplace safety and health management.
A LITERATURE REVIEW ON GLOBAL OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICE ACCID...Justin Knight
This document provides a literature review on global occupational safety and health practices and the severity of accidents. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The literature review identifies existing gaps in previous workplace safety and health management research and proposes areas for future study. Many studies have found that risks to occupational safety and health are increasing globally due to industrialization, but developing countries often overlook workplace safety in their economic policies. The review finds gaps in developing multilevel safety models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and approaches that consider multiple health factors, and suggests these areas need further research to improve workplace safety and health management.
The document presents a case study that tested a safety culture intervention at an industrial plant. The intervention aimed to improve safety culture by creating more and better safety-related interactions through developing the health and safety organization (HSO). Results indicated the HSO's performance and interactions improved, and safety culture indicators and injury rates trended positively. This provides evidence the HSO can impact safety culture when focused on increasing safety-related interactions.
This document describes a case study that aimed to improve safety culture at an industrial plant through interventions targeting the health and safety organization (HSO). Baseline assessments were conducted to map safety culture and the HSO's efficiency. Then three developmental processes were initiated: one focused on the health and safety committee, one on the entire HSO, and one on safety representatives. Follow-up assessments after 23 months found improvements in HSO performance, safety-related interactions, safety culture indicators, and injury rates. These changes suggest a cultural shift occurred as the interventions led to modification of underlying assumptions through organizational double-loop learning. The study provides evidence that focusing an HSO on increasing safety-related interactions can positively impact company safety culture.
The document discusses the importance of using lead indicators like Safety Climate over lag indicators to proactively manage safety. Lead indicators can predict safety outcomes by assessing employee perceptions, while lag indicators only provide retrospective data on past incidents. Safety Climate specifically refers to shared employee perceptions of safety priorities and predicts compliance and participation. Ongoing monitoring of Safety Climate using pulse surveys allows organizations to address potential issues before incidents occur. This enables more effective safety management compared to relying solely on lag indicators.
This document proposes a model for understanding safety culture. It begins by discussing definitions of organizational culture and safety culture. It notes that safety culture is a sub-component of organizational culture that influences attitudes and behaviors related to health and safety. The document then reviews several existing definitions of safety culture. Finally, it proposes defining the "product" of safety culture as "the observable degree of effort with which all organizational members direct their attention and actions towards improving safety on a daily basis." This proposed definition is intended to provide a measurable outcome for assessing safety culture.
Questions for the article ----Safety Climate How can you measure .docxmakdul
Questions for the article ----Safety Climate/ How can you measure it…..
1. What do you think that Jane the truck driver and Joe the lineman should do?
2. You are to describe the difference and similarities between the terms safety culture and safety climate.
3. The authors suggest that employees’ perceptions are influenced by what they see, such as how well supervisors and managers support safety. What do you think influences these perceptions?
a. What specifically would you suggest to a supervisor/manager should do to influence the perceptions of their employees?
b. Why are we paying so much attention to perceptions?
4. What is the difference between validity and reliability? How would I know that my survey is both valid and reliable?
5. The survey shows that safety climate affects safety behavior. What is it that the authors suggest through their research that supports the previous statement?
6. The authors tell us it is important to have all employees be given an opportunity to take the survey. Do you agree with that position, or not? Be prepared to defend your answer.
7. In the event that you have an employee who is illiterate:
a. Would it be important for that/these individuals to participate in the survey?
b. If it were important to have them complete the survey, how would you accommodate their inability to read?
8. What is the ultimate purpose of attempting to measure safety climate in an organization?
9. The author suggests that once the surveys are completed, one of the issues that should be checked are differences between locations and/or departments (IE pilots, mechanics, ATC, etc.). Do you think this is a meaningful analysis? Why or why not?
28 ProfessionalSafety january 2017 www.asse.org
Yueng-Hsiang (Emily) Huang, Ph.D., is a senior research scientist
at Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety (LMRIS) in Hopkin-
ton, MA. She holds a Ph.D. in Industrial-Organizational Psychology/
Systems Science from Portland State University. She conducts both
laboratory and field research in areas such as occupational injury and
accident prevention, and organizational culture and climate. She is a
Fellow of the American Psychological Association and the Society for
Industrial-Organizational Psychology. Huang is an associate editor of
Accident Analysis and Prevention.
Susan Jeffries is a research specialist at LMRIS where she recruits
companies as potential partners in research for field studies and
serves as liaison between the institute and corporate safety profes-
sionals in such initiatives. She conducts qualitative research through
in-depth interviews and focus groups to investigate issues relating to
safety in the trucking industry and other lone worker environments.
Jeffries holds a B.S. in Marketing from Boston College.
George D. (Don) Tolbert, CSP, is technical director, organizational
practices, with Liberty Mutual’s Risk Control Service department.
His responsibilities incl ...
This article examines differences in safety schemas among upper managers, supervisors, and workers. The study used interviews and text analysis software to analyze safety perceptions. The software identified 10 themes in participants' discussions of safety. Upper managers focused on culture and people, supervisors on corporate values, management practices, and safety communication, and workers on procedures and safety training. The results suggest safety schemas differ between groups and this could impact safety efforts if not addressed.
This document provides a literature review on global occupational safety and health practices and the severity of accidents. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The literature review identifies existing gaps in previous workplace safety and health management research and proposes areas for future study. Many studies have found that risks to occupational safety and health are increasing globally due to industrialization, but developing countries often overlook workplace safety in their economic policies. The review finds gaps in developing multilevel safety models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and approaches that consider multiple health factors, and suggests these areas need further research to improve workplace safety and health management.
A LITERATURE REVIEW ON GLOBAL OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICE ACCID...Justin Knight
This document provides a literature review on global occupational safety and health practices and the severity of accidents. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The literature review identifies existing gaps in previous workplace safety and health management research and proposes areas for future study. Many studies have found that risks to occupational safety and health are increasing globally due to industrialization, but developing countries often overlook workplace safety in their economic policies. The review finds gaps in developing multilevel safety models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and approaches that consider multiple health factors, and suggests these areas need further research to improve workplace safety and health management.
The document presents a case study that tested a safety culture intervention at an industrial plant. The intervention aimed to improve safety culture by creating more and better safety-related interactions through developing the health and safety organization (HSO). Results indicated the HSO's performance and interactions improved, and safety culture indicators and injury rates trended positively. This provides evidence the HSO can impact safety culture when focused on increasing safety-related interactions.
This document describes a case study that aimed to improve safety culture at an industrial plant through interventions targeting the health and safety organization (HSO). Baseline assessments were conducted to map safety culture and the HSO's efficiency. Then three developmental processes were initiated: one focused on the health and safety committee, one on the entire HSO, and one on safety representatives. Follow-up assessments after 23 months found improvements in HSO performance, safety-related interactions, safety culture indicators, and injury rates. These changes suggest a cultural shift occurred as the interventions led to modification of underlying assumptions through organizational double-loop learning. The study provides evidence that focusing an HSO on increasing safety-related interactions can positively impact company safety culture.
The document discusses the importance of using lead indicators like Safety Climate over lag indicators to proactively manage safety. Lead indicators can predict safety outcomes by assessing employee perceptions, while lag indicators only provide retrospective data on past incidents. Safety Climate specifically refers to shared employee perceptions of safety priorities and predicts compliance and participation. Ongoing monitoring of Safety Climate using pulse surveys allows organizations to address potential issues before incidents occur. This enables more effective safety management compared to relying solely on lag indicators.
This document proposes a model for understanding safety culture. It begins by discussing definitions of organizational culture and safety culture. It notes that safety culture is a sub-component of organizational culture that influences attitudes and behaviors related to health and safety. The document then reviews several existing definitions of safety culture. Finally, it proposes defining the "product" of safety culture as "the observable degree of effort with which all organizational members direct their attention and actions towards improving safety on a daily basis." This proposed definition is intended to provide a measurable outcome for assessing safety culture.
Questions for the article ----Safety Climate How can you measure .docxmakdul
Questions for the article ----Safety Climate/ How can you measure it…..
1. What do you think that Jane the truck driver and Joe the lineman should do?
2. You are to describe the difference and similarities between the terms safety culture and safety climate.
3. The authors suggest that employees’ perceptions are influenced by what they see, such as how well supervisors and managers support safety. What do you think influences these perceptions?
a. What specifically would you suggest to a supervisor/manager should do to influence the perceptions of their employees?
b. Why are we paying so much attention to perceptions?
4. What is the difference between validity and reliability? How would I know that my survey is both valid and reliable?
5. The survey shows that safety climate affects safety behavior. What is it that the authors suggest through their research that supports the previous statement?
6. The authors tell us it is important to have all employees be given an opportunity to take the survey. Do you agree with that position, or not? Be prepared to defend your answer.
7. In the event that you have an employee who is illiterate:
a. Would it be important for that/these individuals to participate in the survey?
b. If it were important to have them complete the survey, how would you accommodate their inability to read?
8. What is the ultimate purpose of attempting to measure safety climate in an organization?
9. The author suggests that once the surveys are completed, one of the issues that should be checked are differences between locations and/or departments (IE pilots, mechanics, ATC, etc.). Do you think this is a meaningful analysis? Why or why not?
28 ProfessionalSafety january 2017 www.asse.org
Yueng-Hsiang (Emily) Huang, Ph.D., is a senior research scientist
at Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety (LMRIS) in Hopkin-
ton, MA. She holds a Ph.D. in Industrial-Organizational Psychology/
Systems Science from Portland State University. She conducts both
laboratory and field research in areas such as occupational injury and
accident prevention, and organizational culture and climate. She is a
Fellow of the American Psychological Association and the Society for
Industrial-Organizational Psychology. Huang is an associate editor of
Accident Analysis and Prevention.
Susan Jeffries is a research specialist at LMRIS where she recruits
companies as potential partners in research for field studies and
serves as liaison between the institute and corporate safety profes-
sionals in such initiatives. She conducts qualitative research through
in-depth interviews and focus groups to investigate issues relating to
safety in the trucking industry and other lone worker environments.
Jeffries holds a B.S. in Marketing from Boston College.
George D. (Don) Tolbert, CSP, is technical director, organizational
practices, with Liberty Mutual’s Risk Control Service department.
His responsibilities incl ...
This document summarizes a study that assessed and compared the safety cultures of two petrochemical plants in Algeria. A survey was distributed to employees at both plants to evaluate factors of safety culture and safety performance. The results showed that Plant A, managed by British and Norwegian leaders, had higher safety culture maturity and better safety performance than Plant B, as evidenced by lower accident rates. Specifically, Plant B needed most improvement in managers' commitment, training, incentives, communication, and employee involvement. Overall, the study confirms a relationship between strong safety culture and positive safety outcomes in high-risk industries like petrochemical facilities.
Safety ManagementSafety Management
S
Corporate
Culture
Examining its effects on safety performance
By Judith A. Erickson
SAFETY PERFORMANCE is divided into two
aspects: safety program elements and safety process
elements (Erickson, 2006). The program elements
deal with basic safety functioning: regulations, legis-
lation, training, audits and related items. These ele-
ments are considered hard skills and are under
control of the safety professional. The process ele-
ments are the underlying factors within an organi-
zation that either help or hinder the safety effort.
These soft skills are indicators of the corporate cul-
ture, and they are not under the safety professional’s
control (Erickson, 1994).
To achieve optimal safety functioning, both cultur-
al elements and compliance issues must be
addressed. The scientific evidence is overwhelming
that both hard and soft skills are needed to attain opti-
mal safety and business performance (Erickson, 1994;
2001; Shannon, Mayr & Haines, 1997; DeJoy, Schaffer,
Wilson, et al., 2003; Vredenburgh, 2002; Zohar &
Luria, 2004; Parker, Axtell & Turner, 2001; Hofmann &
Morgeson, 1999; Hofmann, Morgeson & Gerras, 2003;
Turner & Parker, 2003; Maierhofer, Griffin & Sheehan,
2000; Maister, 2001; Drucker, 1954; O’Toole, 1996;
Maister, 1997; Buckingham & Coffman, 1999).
However, some in the technical or engineering
fields believe that soft skills are not measurable by
any standard technique or protocol. Within acade-
mia, natural and physical research scientists often
posit this view when discussing the social sciences.
Yet, with rigorous research design and protocol,
social scientists can conduct scientific research that is
quantitatively and statistically equivalent to that of
natural and physical scientists. Through such meth-
ods, the effects of these soft skills have been statisti-
cally correlated with safety performance and
organizational functioning. These measurements are
available to researchers to help organizations im-
prove their safety and business performance.
When assessing organizational culture, SH&E
professionals must be aware of the scientific bases of
the cultural interventions they select. They must
Abstract: Research
demonstrates that cor-
porate culture influences
an organization’s safety
performance. When
assessing organizational
culture, SH&E profession-
als must be aware of the
scientific bases of the
cultural interventions
they choose. This will
help them decide ration-
ally and logically how
they will assess their cul-
tures and not be influ-
enced by flavor-of
the-month trends. This
will lead to informed,
intelligent decisions
that will provide corpo-
ratewide benefits.
decide rationally and logically how they will assess
their cultures and not be influenced by flavor-of the-
month jargon. This will enable them to make
informed, intelligent decisions that will provide cor-
poratewide benefits.
How Corporate Culture
Affects Safety Performance
Assessing corporate culture as.
Psychology in ergonomics by Jayadeva de SilvaSelf-employed
This document discusses cognitive ergonomics and how understanding cognitive factors can help build a safer, more efficient and productive workplace environment. It covers various cognitive elements like perception, attention, decision making, and attitudes. It provides examples of how companies like Abbott, Intel and Nissan have applied cognitive ergonomics principles to encourage safety, empower employees and link performance metrics to safety. The document emphasizes that both leadership and employees must work together to integrate cognitive ergonomics into company policies, values and culture to create a rewarding workplace.
The document presents a study that examines the relationship between knowledge management, knowledge exchange, and safety compliance in distributed high-risk work environments. It develops and tests hypotheses about how knowledge exchange systems usage, knowledge exchange within and between units, and safety compliance are related. Survey data from over 2000 employees across multiple organizations involved in offshore petroleum operations was analyzed. The results show that safety compliance is positively influenced by both the use of knowledge exchange systems and the degree of knowledge exchange within and between units. System usage had the strongest relationship to safety compliance. Overall, the study demonstrates that knowledge management is important for improving safety behavior in distributed high-risk work.
A new conceptual framework to improve the application of occupational health...Diandra Rosari
This document presents a new conceptual framework for improving the application of occupational health and safety management systems (OHS MS) in organizations. The framework focuses on three key areas: 1) the people in the organization, 2) the physical workplace, and 3) management systems. By examining potential hazards that can arise within, between, and outside each of these three areas, a unique "hazard profile" can be determined for an organization. This hazard profile provides the foundation for a tailored OHS MS that effectively addresses the specific risks faced by that organization. The framework is intended to simplify OHS MS implementation and make the benefits more clear, especially for smaller businesses.
This document provides a review of theoretical models of health behavior and their potential applicability to understanding workplace self-protective behavior. It discusses three categories of models: value-expectancy models like the Health Belief Model which focus on threat perceptions and cost-benefit analysis; environmental/contextual models that consider broader ecological factors; and behavior change models that conceptualize behavior change as occurring in distinct stages. The author proposes an integrative framework for understanding self-protective behavior as consisting of four stages (hazard appraisal, decision making, initiation, adherence) influenced by five key constructs (threat beliefs, response efficacy, self-efficacy, facilitating conditions, safety climate).
SF 470Assignment #3For this assignment you are to read the.docxlesleyryder69361
SF 470
Assignment #3
For this assignment you are to read the article titled “Corporate Culture” by Judith Erickson.
1) You are to read and summarize the article, identifying the key points made in the article. Reflect on the issues you find enlightening.
2) Identify at least three points that you agree and/or disagree with that the author made in her article. Present cogent arguments, from your perspective, with supporting citations. Be sure to cite your support sources.
Safety ManagementSafety Management
S
Corporate
Culture
Examining its effects on safety performance
By Judith A. Erickson
SAFETY PERFORMANCE is divided into two
aspects: safety program elements and safety process
elements (Erickson, 2006). The program elements
deal with basic safety functioning: regulations, legis-
lation, training, audits and related items. These ele-
ments are considered hard skills and are under
control of the safety professional. The process ele-
ments are the underlying factors within an organi-
zation that either help or hinder the safety effort.
These soft skills are indicators of the corporate cul-
ture, and they are not under the safety professional’s
control (Erickson, 1994).
To achieve optimal safety functioning, both cultur-
al elements and compliance issues must be
addressed. The scientific evidence is overwhelming
that both hard and soft skills are needed to attain opti-
mal safety and business performance (Erickson, 1994;
2001; Shannon, Mayr & Haines, 1997; DeJoy, Schaffer,
Wilson, et al., 2003; Vredenburgh, 2002; Zohar &
Luria, 2004; Parker, Axtell & Turner, 2001; Hofmann &
Morgeson, 1999; Hofmann, Morgeson & Gerras, 2003;
Turner & Parker, 2003; Maierhofer, Griffin & Sheehan,
2000; Maister, 2001; Drucker, 1954; O’Toole, 1996;
Maister, 1997; Buckingham & Coffman, 1999).
However, some in the technical or engineering
fields believe that soft skills are not measurable by
any standard technique or protocol. Within acade-
mia, natural and physical research scientists often
posit this view when discussing the social sciences.
Yet, with rigorous research design and protocol,
social scientists can conduct scientific research that is
quantitatively and statistically equivalent to that of
natural and physical scientists. Through such meth-
ods, the effects of these soft skills have been statisti-
cally correlated with safety performance and
organizational functioning. These measurements are
available to researchers to help organizations im-
prove their safety and business performance.
When assessing organizational culture, SH&E
professionals must be aware of the scientific bases of
the cultural interventions they select. They must
Abstract: Research
demonstrates that cor-
porate culture influences
an organization’s safety
performance. When
assessing organizational
culture, SH&E profession-
als must be aware of the
scientific bases of the
cultural interventions
they choose. This will
help them decide ration-
ally and logically how
they w.
This study examined the relationship between perceived organizational values, safety climate, and safety outcomes. The researchers surveyed employees in high risk industries to assess their perceptions of organizational values, safety climate, and safety incidents. Using a statistical technique called Modal Profile Analysis, the researchers identified four commonly perceived profiles of organizational values. The results of the analysis showed that employees who perceived an emphasis on employee well-being or employee well-being and goal attainment reported higher safety climate and fewer incidents. Employees who perceived an emphasis on formal processes/procedures or formal processes/procedures and goal attainment reported lower safety climate and more incidents. The findings suggest that different perceived patterns of organizational values are related to safety climate and outcomes.
This document discusses the health effects of hydraulic fracturing on employees, surrounding communities, and the environment. It examines relevant literature from the disciplines of human resource development and organizational leadership to understand how fracturing has impacted worker health and safety, and what industry leaders are doing to address issues. Studies have found harmful exposure to crystalline silica dust for certain job roles, increasing risks of lung diseases. Air emissions from sites also pose health risks to nearby residents. The document concludes that while fracturing provides benefits, more must be done to protect workers, communities, and the environment from its negative impacts.
Safety culture definition and enhancement process- CANSODigitalPower
The document provides a definition of safety culture and proposes a systematic process for enhancing an organization's safety culture. It defines safety culture as the enduring value, priority and commitment placed on safety by individuals and groups at every level. It also distinguishes safety culture from safety climate. A proposed process for systematically enhancing safety culture includes: 1) defining the safety culture, 2) identifying drivers of the culture, 3) measuring the existing culture, 4) evaluating the measures, and 5) improving the culture. The goal is to establish a closed loop process for continuous enhancement of safety culture over time.
Unit III Annotated BibliographyUsing the CSU Online Library, cho.docxmarilucorr
Unit III Annotated Bibliography
Using the CSU Online Library, choose at least five articles—two of which must be professional, peer-reviewed journal articles—on the effects of accidents on individuals and the importance of safety and health training (including refresher training). After a careful review of these articles, write an annotated bibliography in proper APA format. The annotated bibliography must be around three pages in length.
The CSU Success Center offers a great resource regarding annotated bibliographies. The webinar below is designed to walk you through the process of creating an annotated bibliography. Topics covered will include selecting proper sources, highlighting key points, and summarizing contents of the source.
Annotated Bibliographies:
https://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/_a1174888831/annotatedbib/
Information about accessing the grading rubric for this assignment is provided below.
Relative Effectiveness of Worker Safety and
Health Training Methods
Michael J. Burke, PhD, Sue Ann Sarpy, PhD, Kristin Smith-Crowe, PhD, Suzanne Chan-Serafin, BA, Rommei 0. Salvador, iVIBA, and Gazi Islam, BA
An understanding of how best to implement
worker safety and health training is a critical
public need in light of the tragic events of
September 11, 2001, as well as ongoing ef-
forts to prepare emergency responders and
professionals in related areas to do their jobs
safely and effectively.' The need to gain a
better understanding of the effectiveness of
safety and health training is also apparent in
a broader context given that millions of in-
juries and illnesses are reported annually in
private industry workplaces,^ and health and
safety training is globally recognized as 1
means of reducing the costs assodated with
such events."* Indeed, researchers from differ-
ent fields, including business, psychology, en-
gineering, and public health, have long recog-
nized the need for comprehensive, systematic
evaluations of safety and health training to
address these types of critical public- and
private-sector concerns.''"^
The conclusion from several narrative re-
views has been that most training interven-
tions lead to positive effects on safety knowl-
edge, adoption of safe work behaviors and
practices, and safety and health outcomes.̂ '*'̂
However, these qucditative reviews are specu-
lative as to the specific factors that enhance
the relative effectiveness of safety and health
trsiining interventions in reducing or prevent-
ing worker injury or illness.'°~'^ Notably, a
fundamental question remains unresolved
within the scientific literature: What is the
relative effectiveness of different methods of
safety and health tniining in modifying safety-
related knowledge, behavior, and outcomes?
Attempts to address similar broad-based
questions related to the benefits of work-
related health and safety interventions'^ have
revealed the need for a large-scale, quantita-
tive analysis of the extant literature. Results
from such a ...
Safety management and organizational performance of selected manufacturing fi...AJHSSR Journal
The health and safety (H&S) of employees is a very significant issue to consider with relation to
the attainment of organizational goals. The broad objective of the study is to examine the level of relationship
between safety management system and organizational performance of two plastic industries in Awka
metropolis. Three research questions and hypotheses were formulated in line with the specific objectives. The
study is anchored on Heinrich Theory. In pursuance of the objective of the study, the descriptive survey design
was adopted. The study worked with the population of eighty. Pilot study was conducted using a test retest
method to establish the reliability of the research instrument. The validity of the instrument was also tested. Chi
square was used for data analysis and Z test was also used to test the Chi square at 0.05 level of significance.
The findings revealed that safety management has a positive influence on firm’s profitability, that there is a
relationship between safety management and customer satisfaction, that safety management has influence on
employee commitment and that safety management reduces cost for organization. The study recommends that
Safety should therefore be afforded the highest priority, taking precedence over commercial, operational,
environmental or social pressures, in that staff must be given responsibility for their own actions, and managers
held responsible for the safety performance of their organisations.
This document provides a comprehensive literature review on the causes of accidents in industries, with a focus on three primary factors: human factors, work environment, and management.
The review examines numerous studies that have investigated: (1) how human errors are a leading cause of accidents due to factors like behavior, training and motivation; (2) how the physical work environment and safety protocols can influence accident frequency; and (3) how management decisions around issues like procedures, communication and leadership impact workplace safety culture. The literature demonstrates that accidents typically result from complex interactions among human, environmental and management factors, and emphasizes the need for organizations to adopt comprehensive prevention strategies that consider all of these dimensions.
ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL SUPP...PrinceEwudzieQuansah1
We examined the effects of career development and perceived organizational support on the two dimensions of safety performance (safety compliance and safety participation) of 208 truck operators in the Ghanaian mining
industry using correlation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis. The results revealed that career development has a significant positive influence on perceived organizational support and both safety compliance.
Answer Introduction A safe working environment is required for both.pdfbkbk37
1) ABC Organization, a construction company in Australia, is facing legal action after a worker fell from the second floor of a building and was seriously injured due to a lack of proper safety protocols.
2) The responsibilities of stakeholders such as ensuring safety protocols are followed and workers are trained were not fulfilled, contributing to the accident.
3) The case analysis recommends ABC Organization focus on stakeholder responsibilities and provide all workers with proper safety training on hazards and equipment usage to prevent future accidents.
www.occupationalhazards.com May 2005 Occupational Hazards 43.docxericbrooks84875
www.occupationalhazards.com May 2005 / Occupational Hazards 43
Want to create world-class safety
performance in your organization?
The answer isn’t more safety programs
and it won’t be easy, but you can
do it – now!
STEPPING UP
TO OPERATIONAL
SAFETY EXCELLENCE
I
n 1985, I dared to ask one single question that
ended my 18-year career as a safety practitioner. It
also, however, impacted how safety would be
managed in companies throughout this country,
and marked the beginning of a second, more produc-
tive career as an organizational performance consult-
ant specializing in pre-emptive risk management. That
question was presented to the profession in March
1993 in Professional Safety’s cover story titled: “Safety
Management: A Call for Revolution.” Now, some 10
years later, it is being asked across five (known) conti-
nents impacting the thinking of academics and the
practices of many global institutions and organiza-
tions. That critical question was – and remains –
“Why?”
Inquiring minds want to know:
☛ Why... are all industry LWD incident rates only
marginally improved, in spite of 30 years of federal reg-
ulation and enforcement?
☛ Why ... do workers’ compensation costs continue
to escalate in many business segments in spite of these
incident rate declines?
☛ Why ... do multi-location companies with one
centralized safety program have such diverse results
across their organizations?
☛ Why ... did NIOSH researchers find that compa-
nies with better safety efforts had higher accident
rates?
☛ Why ... did a Department of Energy study con-
clude that sites that invested more (percent of budget)
in safety incurred higher loss costs?
☛ Why, in many organizations, is safety managed dif-
ferently than all other business functions? And most im-
portantly,
☛ Why ... did HR executives of the Conference
Board cite “safety” when asked what function could
be eliminated due to failure to add value?
These questions frame the bigger question: “If safety
programs are a common denominator to organizations
that both fail and succeed, what then is the “X Factor,”
BY LARRY L. HANSEN
In his October 2003 OCCUPA-
TIONAL HAZARDS article, “Get-
ting the Culture Right,” Don
Eckenfelder contends that or-
ganizational attitude ulti-
mately determines whether
safety initiatives succeed or
fail, and proposes three core
truths: “1 – Culture predicts
performance; 2 – Culture can
be measured; and 3 – Nothing
is more important than get-
ting the culture right!” The cul-
ture of an organization – its
basic beliefs and values con-
cerning people – is what
drives safety excellence.
Tom Peters and Bob Waterman spent a
decade In Search of Excellence, attempt-
ing to discover what lies at the core of op-
erational excellence. After years of re-
search, they summarized their findings in
a simple, yet powerful message to Ameri-
can management: “Figure out your values
system!” Values lie at the core of an orga-
nization’s culture, and are the predictors
of, an.
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of many efforts t.docxduketjoy27252
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of many efforts to
improve patient safety and care quality. This systematic review
identifies and assesses interventions used to promote safety culture
or climate in acute care settings. The authors searched MEDLINE,
CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane, and EMBASE to identify relevant
English-language studies published from January 2000 to October
2012. They selected studies that targeted health care workers practicing
in inpatient settings and included data about change in patient
safety culture or climate after a targeted intervention. Two
raters independently screened 3679 abstracts (which yielded 33
eligible studies in 35 articles), extracted study data, and rated study
quality and strength of evidence. Eight studies included executive
walk rounds or interdisciplinary rounds; 8 evaluated multicomponent,
unit-based interventions; and 20 included team training or
communication initiatives. Twenty-nine studies reported some improvement
in safety culture or patient outcomes, but measured
outcomes were highly heterogeneous. Strength of evidence was
low, and most studies were pre–post evaluations of low to moderate
quality. Within these limits, evidence suggests that interventions
can improve perceptions of safety culture and potentially
reduce patient harm.
Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:369-374. www.annals.org
For author affiliations, see end of text.
THE PROBLEM
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of
many efforts to improve patient safety and care quality in
acute care settings (1, 2). Several studies show that safety
culture and the related concept of safety climate are related
to such clinician behaviors as error reporting (3), reductions
in adverse events (4, 5), and reduced mortality (6, 7).
Accreditation bodies identify leadership standards for
safety culture measurement and improvement (8), and promoting
a culture of safety is a designated National Patient
Safety Foundation Safe Practice (9). A search of the Agency
for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Patient
Safety Net (www.psnet.ahrq.gov) yields more than 5665
articles, tips, and fact sheets related to improving safety
culture. Although much work has focused on promoting a
culture of safety, understanding which approaches are most
effective and the implementation factors that may influence
effectiveness are critical to achieving meaningful improvement
(10).
Drawing on the social, organizational, and safety sciences,
patient safety culture can be defined as 1 aspect of an
organization’s culture (11, 12). Specifically, it can be personified
by the shared values, beliefs, norms, and procedures
related to patient safety among members of an organization,
unit, or team (13, 14). It influences clinician and
staff behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions on the job by
providing cues about the relative priority of patient safety
compared with other goals (for example, throughput or
efficiency) (11). Culture also shapes clinician and staff perce.
Shekelle et. al 2011 advancing the science of patient safetyJoya Smit
Despite efforts over the past decade, patient safety has improved slowly due to the limited evidence base for developing and disseminating successful practices. An international group of experts developed criteria to improve the design, evaluation, and reporting of patient safety research. The criteria include using theory and logic models, providing detailed descriptions of interventions and implementation processes, explaining intended and unintended outcomes, and better describing how context influences interventions. Adopting these criteria would strengthen the science underlying efforts to improve patient safety.
Bachelor of Science (Honours) Safety, Health and Environmental Man.docxwilcockiris
Bachelor of Science (Honours) Safety, Health and Environmental Management
Module: Understanding the Research Process (UTRP)
Proposed Research Topic:
“STUDY OF SAFETY CULTURE IMPLEMENTATION: CASE STUDY OF SAFETY CONSULTANCY PROSAFE PTE. LTD.”
Submitted By :
Fin No : G7228033X
Student ID : 77189773
Batch : BSHE21702A
(UNDERSTANDING THE RESEARCH PROCESS_UTRP)
Lecture(s) :
Abstract
The aim behind this research is to understand the safety culture in the construction and field. The purpose is to understand the extent of successful infusion of culture versus outcome. We need to understand how the research can assist with future implementation and intervention with regards to this industry.
Acknowledgements
This research will be having participation from the management and organization staffs. A big thank you to our safety worker Mr. Aksarul, safety supervisor Mr. Sheak and Safety Training Manager Mr. Faizul, who was involved in the process of research for their invaluable input, which was necessary for the successful completion of this project. Especially thank for Mr. Rosman Abdul Halek for assistance with the lectures on Understanding the Research Process (UTRP) and for the comments that greatly improved the research.
Table of content
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Introduction
a. Background
b. Current problem
c. Research question
d. Research objective(s)
e.Research hypotheses
f. Definition of terms
g. Past related research articles (at least 20)
g.1 table of past research articles / journals
(use table with columns of title of article, publication number & publication date, description of
article, difference between your research and article) (20 articles)
h. Rationale of research and research ethics
Chapter 2: Literature Review
a. Concept of Safety Culture
b. Statistics of Injuries on Safety Culture
c. Effects of Working With Poor Safety Culture
d. Types of Safety Cultural Injuries
e. Types of measurements on Safety Culture
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
a. Types of Research Method
b. Respondents Analysis
c. Technique of Data Collection
d. Technique of Data Analysis
Chapter 4: Project Costing & Timeline
a. Project Costing
b. Project Schedule
Chapter 5: Study Two
Chapter 6: Study Three
Chapter 7: Conclusion & Recommendation
a. Conclusion
b. Recommendation
Bibliography
Appendixes
Chapter 1: Introduction
Here in this chapter, we will discuss the introductory phase and look at the background to occupational safety and health. This will include the application of the processes to the direct reduction in incidents and accidents. Thereafter, we will tackle the research aims and objectives.
a. Background
Hundreds and perhaps even thousands of people suffer from injuries both minor and major throughout all industries. These effec.
Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
This document summarizes a study that assessed and compared the safety cultures of two petrochemical plants in Algeria. A survey was distributed to employees at both plants to evaluate factors of safety culture and safety performance. The results showed that Plant A, managed by British and Norwegian leaders, had higher safety culture maturity and better safety performance than Plant B, as evidenced by lower accident rates. Specifically, Plant B needed most improvement in managers' commitment, training, incentives, communication, and employee involvement. Overall, the study confirms a relationship between strong safety culture and positive safety outcomes in high-risk industries like petrochemical facilities.
Safety ManagementSafety Management
S
Corporate
Culture
Examining its effects on safety performance
By Judith A. Erickson
SAFETY PERFORMANCE is divided into two
aspects: safety program elements and safety process
elements (Erickson, 2006). The program elements
deal with basic safety functioning: regulations, legis-
lation, training, audits and related items. These ele-
ments are considered hard skills and are under
control of the safety professional. The process ele-
ments are the underlying factors within an organi-
zation that either help or hinder the safety effort.
These soft skills are indicators of the corporate cul-
ture, and they are not under the safety professional’s
control (Erickson, 1994).
To achieve optimal safety functioning, both cultur-
al elements and compliance issues must be
addressed. The scientific evidence is overwhelming
that both hard and soft skills are needed to attain opti-
mal safety and business performance (Erickson, 1994;
2001; Shannon, Mayr & Haines, 1997; DeJoy, Schaffer,
Wilson, et al., 2003; Vredenburgh, 2002; Zohar &
Luria, 2004; Parker, Axtell & Turner, 2001; Hofmann &
Morgeson, 1999; Hofmann, Morgeson & Gerras, 2003;
Turner & Parker, 2003; Maierhofer, Griffin & Sheehan,
2000; Maister, 2001; Drucker, 1954; O’Toole, 1996;
Maister, 1997; Buckingham & Coffman, 1999).
However, some in the technical or engineering
fields believe that soft skills are not measurable by
any standard technique or protocol. Within acade-
mia, natural and physical research scientists often
posit this view when discussing the social sciences.
Yet, with rigorous research design and protocol,
social scientists can conduct scientific research that is
quantitatively and statistically equivalent to that of
natural and physical scientists. Through such meth-
ods, the effects of these soft skills have been statisti-
cally correlated with safety performance and
organizational functioning. These measurements are
available to researchers to help organizations im-
prove their safety and business performance.
When assessing organizational culture, SH&E
professionals must be aware of the scientific bases of
the cultural interventions they select. They must
Abstract: Research
demonstrates that cor-
porate culture influences
an organization’s safety
performance. When
assessing organizational
culture, SH&E profession-
als must be aware of the
scientific bases of the
cultural interventions
they choose. This will
help them decide ration-
ally and logically how
they will assess their cul-
tures and not be influ-
enced by flavor-of
the-month trends. This
will lead to informed,
intelligent decisions
that will provide corpo-
ratewide benefits.
decide rationally and logically how they will assess
their cultures and not be influenced by flavor-of the-
month jargon. This will enable them to make
informed, intelligent decisions that will provide cor-
poratewide benefits.
How Corporate Culture
Affects Safety Performance
Assessing corporate culture as.
Psychology in ergonomics by Jayadeva de SilvaSelf-employed
This document discusses cognitive ergonomics and how understanding cognitive factors can help build a safer, more efficient and productive workplace environment. It covers various cognitive elements like perception, attention, decision making, and attitudes. It provides examples of how companies like Abbott, Intel and Nissan have applied cognitive ergonomics principles to encourage safety, empower employees and link performance metrics to safety. The document emphasizes that both leadership and employees must work together to integrate cognitive ergonomics into company policies, values and culture to create a rewarding workplace.
The document presents a study that examines the relationship between knowledge management, knowledge exchange, and safety compliance in distributed high-risk work environments. It develops and tests hypotheses about how knowledge exchange systems usage, knowledge exchange within and between units, and safety compliance are related. Survey data from over 2000 employees across multiple organizations involved in offshore petroleum operations was analyzed. The results show that safety compliance is positively influenced by both the use of knowledge exchange systems and the degree of knowledge exchange within and between units. System usage had the strongest relationship to safety compliance. Overall, the study demonstrates that knowledge management is important for improving safety behavior in distributed high-risk work.
A new conceptual framework to improve the application of occupational health...Diandra Rosari
This document presents a new conceptual framework for improving the application of occupational health and safety management systems (OHS MS) in organizations. The framework focuses on three key areas: 1) the people in the organization, 2) the physical workplace, and 3) management systems. By examining potential hazards that can arise within, between, and outside each of these three areas, a unique "hazard profile" can be determined for an organization. This hazard profile provides the foundation for a tailored OHS MS that effectively addresses the specific risks faced by that organization. The framework is intended to simplify OHS MS implementation and make the benefits more clear, especially for smaller businesses.
This document provides a review of theoretical models of health behavior and their potential applicability to understanding workplace self-protective behavior. It discusses three categories of models: value-expectancy models like the Health Belief Model which focus on threat perceptions and cost-benefit analysis; environmental/contextual models that consider broader ecological factors; and behavior change models that conceptualize behavior change as occurring in distinct stages. The author proposes an integrative framework for understanding self-protective behavior as consisting of four stages (hazard appraisal, decision making, initiation, adherence) influenced by five key constructs (threat beliefs, response efficacy, self-efficacy, facilitating conditions, safety climate).
SF 470Assignment #3For this assignment you are to read the.docxlesleyryder69361
SF 470
Assignment #3
For this assignment you are to read the article titled “Corporate Culture” by Judith Erickson.
1) You are to read and summarize the article, identifying the key points made in the article. Reflect on the issues you find enlightening.
2) Identify at least three points that you agree and/or disagree with that the author made in her article. Present cogent arguments, from your perspective, with supporting citations. Be sure to cite your support sources.
Safety ManagementSafety Management
S
Corporate
Culture
Examining its effects on safety performance
By Judith A. Erickson
SAFETY PERFORMANCE is divided into two
aspects: safety program elements and safety process
elements (Erickson, 2006). The program elements
deal with basic safety functioning: regulations, legis-
lation, training, audits and related items. These ele-
ments are considered hard skills and are under
control of the safety professional. The process ele-
ments are the underlying factors within an organi-
zation that either help or hinder the safety effort.
These soft skills are indicators of the corporate cul-
ture, and they are not under the safety professional’s
control (Erickson, 1994).
To achieve optimal safety functioning, both cultur-
al elements and compliance issues must be
addressed. The scientific evidence is overwhelming
that both hard and soft skills are needed to attain opti-
mal safety and business performance (Erickson, 1994;
2001; Shannon, Mayr & Haines, 1997; DeJoy, Schaffer,
Wilson, et al., 2003; Vredenburgh, 2002; Zohar &
Luria, 2004; Parker, Axtell & Turner, 2001; Hofmann &
Morgeson, 1999; Hofmann, Morgeson & Gerras, 2003;
Turner & Parker, 2003; Maierhofer, Griffin & Sheehan,
2000; Maister, 2001; Drucker, 1954; O’Toole, 1996;
Maister, 1997; Buckingham & Coffman, 1999).
However, some in the technical or engineering
fields believe that soft skills are not measurable by
any standard technique or protocol. Within acade-
mia, natural and physical research scientists often
posit this view when discussing the social sciences.
Yet, with rigorous research design and protocol,
social scientists can conduct scientific research that is
quantitatively and statistically equivalent to that of
natural and physical scientists. Through such meth-
ods, the effects of these soft skills have been statisti-
cally correlated with safety performance and
organizational functioning. These measurements are
available to researchers to help organizations im-
prove their safety and business performance.
When assessing organizational culture, SH&E
professionals must be aware of the scientific bases of
the cultural interventions they select. They must
Abstract: Research
demonstrates that cor-
porate culture influences
an organization’s safety
performance. When
assessing organizational
culture, SH&E profession-
als must be aware of the
scientific bases of the
cultural interventions
they choose. This will
help them decide ration-
ally and logically how
they w.
This study examined the relationship between perceived organizational values, safety climate, and safety outcomes. The researchers surveyed employees in high risk industries to assess their perceptions of organizational values, safety climate, and safety incidents. Using a statistical technique called Modal Profile Analysis, the researchers identified four commonly perceived profiles of organizational values. The results of the analysis showed that employees who perceived an emphasis on employee well-being or employee well-being and goal attainment reported higher safety climate and fewer incidents. Employees who perceived an emphasis on formal processes/procedures or formal processes/procedures and goal attainment reported lower safety climate and more incidents. The findings suggest that different perceived patterns of organizational values are related to safety climate and outcomes.
This document discusses the health effects of hydraulic fracturing on employees, surrounding communities, and the environment. It examines relevant literature from the disciplines of human resource development and organizational leadership to understand how fracturing has impacted worker health and safety, and what industry leaders are doing to address issues. Studies have found harmful exposure to crystalline silica dust for certain job roles, increasing risks of lung diseases. Air emissions from sites also pose health risks to nearby residents. The document concludes that while fracturing provides benefits, more must be done to protect workers, communities, and the environment from its negative impacts.
Safety culture definition and enhancement process- CANSODigitalPower
The document provides a definition of safety culture and proposes a systematic process for enhancing an organization's safety culture. It defines safety culture as the enduring value, priority and commitment placed on safety by individuals and groups at every level. It also distinguishes safety culture from safety climate. A proposed process for systematically enhancing safety culture includes: 1) defining the safety culture, 2) identifying drivers of the culture, 3) measuring the existing culture, 4) evaluating the measures, and 5) improving the culture. The goal is to establish a closed loop process for continuous enhancement of safety culture over time.
Unit III Annotated BibliographyUsing the CSU Online Library, cho.docxmarilucorr
Unit III Annotated Bibliography
Using the CSU Online Library, choose at least five articles—two of which must be professional, peer-reviewed journal articles—on the effects of accidents on individuals and the importance of safety and health training (including refresher training). After a careful review of these articles, write an annotated bibliography in proper APA format. The annotated bibliography must be around three pages in length.
The CSU Success Center offers a great resource regarding annotated bibliographies. The webinar below is designed to walk you through the process of creating an annotated bibliography. Topics covered will include selecting proper sources, highlighting key points, and summarizing contents of the source.
Annotated Bibliographies:
https://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/_a1174888831/annotatedbib/
Information about accessing the grading rubric for this assignment is provided below.
Relative Effectiveness of Worker Safety and
Health Training Methods
Michael J. Burke, PhD, Sue Ann Sarpy, PhD, Kristin Smith-Crowe, PhD, Suzanne Chan-Serafin, BA, Rommei 0. Salvador, iVIBA, and Gazi Islam, BA
An understanding of how best to implement
worker safety and health training is a critical
public need in light of the tragic events of
September 11, 2001, as well as ongoing ef-
forts to prepare emergency responders and
professionals in related areas to do their jobs
safely and effectively.' The need to gain a
better understanding of the effectiveness of
safety and health training is also apparent in
a broader context given that millions of in-
juries and illnesses are reported annually in
private industry workplaces,^ and health and
safety training is globally recognized as 1
means of reducing the costs assodated with
such events."* Indeed, researchers from differ-
ent fields, including business, psychology, en-
gineering, and public health, have long recog-
nized the need for comprehensive, systematic
evaluations of safety and health training to
address these types of critical public- and
private-sector concerns.''"^
The conclusion from several narrative re-
views has been that most training interven-
tions lead to positive effects on safety knowl-
edge, adoption of safe work behaviors and
practices, and safety and health outcomes.̂ '*'̂
However, these qucditative reviews are specu-
lative as to the specific factors that enhance
the relative effectiveness of safety and health
trsiining interventions in reducing or prevent-
ing worker injury or illness.'°~'^ Notably, a
fundamental question remains unresolved
within the scientific literature: What is the
relative effectiveness of different methods of
safety and health tniining in modifying safety-
related knowledge, behavior, and outcomes?
Attempts to address similar broad-based
questions related to the benefits of work-
related health and safety interventions'^ have
revealed the need for a large-scale, quantita-
tive analysis of the extant literature. Results
from such a ...
Safety management and organizational performance of selected manufacturing fi...AJHSSR Journal
The health and safety (H&S) of employees is a very significant issue to consider with relation to
the attainment of organizational goals. The broad objective of the study is to examine the level of relationship
between safety management system and organizational performance of two plastic industries in Awka
metropolis. Three research questions and hypotheses were formulated in line with the specific objectives. The
study is anchored on Heinrich Theory. In pursuance of the objective of the study, the descriptive survey design
was adopted. The study worked with the population of eighty. Pilot study was conducted using a test retest
method to establish the reliability of the research instrument. The validity of the instrument was also tested. Chi
square was used for data analysis and Z test was also used to test the Chi square at 0.05 level of significance.
The findings revealed that safety management has a positive influence on firm’s profitability, that there is a
relationship between safety management and customer satisfaction, that safety management has influence on
employee commitment and that safety management reduces cost for organization. The study recommends that
Safety should therefore be afforded the highest priority, taking precedence over commercial, operational,
environmental or social pressures, in that staff must be given responsibility for their own actions, and managers
held responsible for the safety performance of their organisations.
This document provides a comprehensive literature review on the causes of accidents in industries, with a focus on three primary factors: human factors, work environment, and management.
The review examines numerous studies that have investigated: (1) how human errors are a leading cause of accidents due to factors like behavior, training and motivation; (2) how the physical work environment and safety protocols can influence accident frequency; and (3) how management decisions around issues like procedures, communication and leadership impact workplace safety culture. The literature demonstrates that accidents typically result from complex interactions among human, environmental and management factors, and emphasizes the need for organizations to adopt comprehensive prevention strategies that consider all of these dimensions.
ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL SUPP...PrinceEwudzieQuansah1
We examined the effects of career development and perceived organizational support on the two dimensions of safety performance (safety compliance and safety participation) of 208 truck operators in the Ghanaian mining
industry using correlation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis. The results revealed that career development has a significant positive influence on perceived organizational support and both safety compliance.
Answer Introduction A safe working environment is required for both.pdfbkbk37
1) ABC Organization, a construction company in Australia, is facing legal action after a worker fell from the second floor of a building and was seriously injured due to a lack of proper safety protocols.
2) The responsibilities of stakeholders such as ensuring safety protocols are followed and workers are trained were not fulfilled, contributing to the accident.
3) The case analysis recommends ABC Organization focus on stakeholder responsibilities and provide all workers with proper safety training on hazards and equipment usage to prevent future accidents.
www.occupationalhazards.com May 2005 Occupational Hazards 43.docxericbrooks84875
www.occupationalhazards.com May 2005 / Occupational Hazards 43
Want to create world-class safety
performance in your organization?
The answer isn’t more safety programs
and it won’t be easy, but you can
do it – now!
STEPPING UP
TO OPERATIONAL
SAFETY EXCELLENCE
I
n 1985, I dared to ask one single question that
ended my 18-year career as a safety practitioner. It
also, however, impacted how safety would be
managed in companies throughout this country,
and marked the beginning of a second, more produc-
tive career as an organizational performance consult-
ant specializing in pre-emptive risk management. That
question was presented to the profession in March
1993 in Professional Safety’s cover story titled: “Safety
Management: A Call for Revolution.” Now, some 10
years later, it is being asked across five (known) conti-
nents impacting the thinking of academics and the
practices of many global institutions and organiza-
tions. That critical question was – and remains –
“Why?”
Inquiring minds want to know:
☛ Why... are all industry LWD incident rates only
marginally improved, in spite of 30 years of federal reg-
ulation and enforcement?
☛ Why ... do workers’ compensation costs continue
to escalate in many business segments in spite of these
incident rate declines?
☛ Why ... do multi-location companies with one
centralized safety program have such diverse results
across their organizations?
☛ Why ... did NIOSH researchers find that compa-
nies with better safety efforts had higher accident
rates?
☛ Why ... did a Department of Energy study con-
clude that sites that invested more (percent of budget)
in safety incurred higher loss costs?
☛ Why, in many organizations, is safety managed dif-
ferently than all other business functions? And most im-
portantly,
☛ Why ... did HR executives of the Conference
Board cite “safety” when asked what function could
be eliminated due to failure to add value?
These questions frame the bigger question: “If safety
programs are a common denominator to organizations
that both fail and succeed, what then is the “X Factor,”
BY LARRY L. HANSEN
In his October 2003 OCCUPA-
TIONAL HAZARDS article, “Get-
ting the Culture Right,” Don
Eckenfelder contends that or-
ganizational attitude ulti-
mately determines whether
safety initiatives succeed or
fail, and proposes three core
truths: “1 – Culture predicts
performance; 2 – Culture can
be measured; and 3 – Nothing
is more important than get-
ting the culture right!” The cul-
ture of an organization – its
basic beliefs and values con-
cerning people – is what
drives safety excellence.
Tom Peters and Bob Waterman spent a
decade In Search of Excellence, attempt-
ing to discover what lies at the core of op-
erational excellence. After years of re-
search, they summarized their findings in
a simple, yet powerful message to Ameri-
can management: “Figure out your values
system!” Values lie at the core of an orga-
nization’s culture, and are the predictors
of, an.
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of many efforts t.docxduketjoy27252
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of many efforts to
improve patient safety and care quality. This systematic review
identifies and assesses interventions used to promote safety culture
or climate in acute care settings. The authors searched MEDLINE,
CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane, and EMBASE to identify relevant
English-language studies published from January 2000 to October
2012. They selected studies that targeted health care workers practicing
in inpatient settings and included data about change in patient
safety culture or climate after a targeted intervention. Two
raters independently screened 3679 abstracts (which yielded 33
eligible studies in 35 articles), extracted study data, and rated study
quality and strength of evidence. Eight studies included executive
walk rounds or interdisciplinary rounds; 8 evaluated multicomponent,
unit-based interventions; and 20 included team training or
communication initiatives. Twenty-nine studies reported some improvement
in safety culture or patient outcomes, but measured
outcomes were highly heterogeneous. Strength of evidence was
low, and most studies were pre–post evaluations of low to moderate
quality. Within these limits, evidence suggests that interventions
can improve perceptions of safety culture and potentially
reduce patient harm.
Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:369-374. www.annals.org
For author affiliations, see end of text.
THE PROBLEM
Developing a culture of safety is a core element of
many efforts to improve patient safety and care quality in
acute care settings (1, 2). Several studies show that safety
culture and the related concept of safety climate are related
to such clinician behaviors as error reporting (3), reductions
in adverse events (4, 5), and reduced mortality (6, 7).
Accreditation bodies identify leadership standards for
safety culture measurement and improvement (8), and promoting
a culture of safety is a designated National Patient
Safety Foundation Safe Practice (9). A search of the Agency
for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Patient
Safety Net (www.psnet.ahrq.gov) yields more than 5665
articles, tips, and fact sheets related to improving safety
culture. Although much work has focused on promoting a
culture of safety, understanding which approaches are most
effective and the implementation factors that may influence
effectiveness are critical to achieving meaningful improvement
(10).
Drawing on the social, organizational, and safety sciences,
patient safety culture can be defined as 1 aspect of an
organization’s culture (11, 12). Specifically, it can be personified
by the shared values, beliefs, norms, and procedures
related to patient safety among members of an organization,
unit, or team (13, 14). It influences clinician and
staff behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions on the job by
providing cues about the relative priority of patient safety
compared with other goals (for example, throughput or
efficiency) (11). Culture also shapes clinician and staff perce.
Shekelle et. al 2011 advancing the science of patient safetyJoya Smit
Despite efforts over the past decade, patient safety has improved slowly due to the limited evidence base for developing and disseminating successful practices. An international group of experts developed criteria to improve the design, evaluation, and reporting of patient safety research. The criteria include using theory and logic models, providing detailed descriptions of interventions and implementation processes, explaining intended and unintended outcomes, and better describing how context influences interventions. Adopting these criteria would strengthen the science underlying efforts to improve patient safety.
Bachelor of Science (Honours) Safety, Health and Environmental Man.docxwilcockiris
Bachelor of Science (Honours) Safety, Health and Environmental Management
Module: Understanding the Research Process (UTRP)
Proposed Research Topic:
“STUDY OF SAFETY CULTURE IMPLEMENTATION: CASE STUDY OF SAFETY CONSULTANCY PROSAFE PTE. LTD.”
Submitted By :
Fin No : G7228033X
Student ID : 77189773
Batch : BSHE21702A
(UNDERSTANDING THE RESEARCH PROCESS_UTRP)
Lecture(s) :
Abstract
The aim behind this research is to understand the safety culture in the construction and field. The purpose is to understand the extent of successful infusion of culture versus outcome. We need to understand how the research can assist with future implementation and intervention with regards to this industry.
Acknowledgements
This research will be having participation from the management and organization staffs. A big thank you to our safety worker Mr. Aksarul, safety supervisor Mr. Sheak and Safety Training Manager Mr. Faizul, who was involved in the process of research for their invaluable input, which was necessary for the successful completion of this project. Especially thank for Mr. Rosman Abdul Halek for assistance with the lectures on Understanding the Research Process (UTRP) and for the comments that greatly improved the research.
Table of content
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Introduction
a. Background
b. Current problem
c. Research question
d. Research objective(s)
e.Research hypotheses
f. Definition of terms
g. Past related research articles (at least 20)
g.1 table of past research articles / journals
(use table with columns of title of article, publication number & publication date, description of
article, difference between your research and article) (20 articles)
h. Rationale of research and research ethics
Chapter 2: Literature Review
a. Concept of Safety Culture
b. Statistics of Injuries on Safety Culture
c. Effects of Working With Poor Safety Culture
d. Types of Safety Cultural Injuries
e. Types of measurements on Safety Culture
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
a. Types of Research Method
b. Respondents Analysis
c. Technique of Data Collection
d. Technique of Data Analysis
Chapter 4: Project Costing & Timeline
a. Project Costing
b. Project Schedule
Chapter 5: Study Two
Chapter 6: Study Three
Chapter 7: Conclusion & Recommendation
a. Conclusion
b. Recommendation
Bibliography
Appendixes
Chapter 1: Introduction
Here in this chapter, we will discuss the introductory phase and look at the background to occupational safety and health. This will include the application of the processes to the direct reduction in incidents and accidents. Thereafter, we will tackle the research aims and objectives.
a. Background
Hundreds and perhaps even thousands of people suffer from injuries both minor and major throughout all industries. These effec.
Similar to Safety climate_Conceptual and measurement issues.pdf (20)
Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...Joshua Orris
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
Presented by The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action at GLF Peatlands 2024 - The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action
ENVIRONMENT~ Renewable Energy Sources and their future prospects.tiwarimanvi3129
This presentation is for us to know that how our Environment need Attention for protection of our natural resources which are depleted day by day that's why we need to take time and shift our attention to renewable energy sources instead of non-renewable sources which are better and Eco-friendly for our environment. these renewable energy sources are so helpful for our planet and for every living organism which depends on environment.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Recycling and Disposal on SWM Raymond Einyu pptxRayLetai1
Increasing urbanization, rural–urban migration, rising standards of living, and rapid development associated with population growth have resulted in increased solid waste generation by industrial, domestic and other activities in Nairobi City. It has been noted in other contexts too that increasing population, changing consumption patterns, economic development, changing income, urbanization and industrialization all contribute to the increased generation of waste.
With the increasing urban population in Kenya, which is estimated to be growing at a rate higher than that of the country’s general population, waste generation and management is already a major challenge. The industrialization and urbanization process in the country, dominated by one major city – Nairobi, which has around four times the population of the next largest urban centre (Mombasa) – has witnessed an exponential increase in the generation of solid waste. It is projected that by 2030, about 50 per cent of the Kenyan population will be urban.
Aim:
A healthy, safe, secure and sustainable solid waste management system fit for a world – class city.
Improve and protect the public health of Nairobi residents and visitors.
Ecological health, diversity and productivity and maximize resource recovery through the participatory approach.
Goals:
Build awareness and capacity for source separation as essential components of sustainable waste management.
Build new environmentally sound infrastructure and systems for safe disposal of residual waste and replacing current dumpsites which should be commissioned.
Current solid waste management situation:
The status.
Solid waste generation rate is at 2240 tones / day
collection efficiently is at about 50%.
Actors i.e. city authorities, CBO’s , private firms and self-disposal
Current SWM Situation in Nairobi City:
Solid waste generation – collection – dumping
Good Practices:
• Separation – recycling – marketing.
• Open dumpsite dandora dump site through public education on source separation of waste, of which the situation can be reversed.
• Nairobi is one of the C40 cities in this respect , various actors in the solid waste management space have adopted a variety of technologies to reduce short lived climate pollutants including source separation , recycling , marketing of the recycled products.
• Through the network, it should expect to benefit from expertise of the different actors in the network in terms of applicable technologies and practices in reducing the short-lived climate pollutants.
Good practices:
Despite the dismal collection of solid waste in Nairobi city, there are practices and activities of informal actors (CBOs, CBO-SACCOs and yard shop operators) and other formal industrial actors on solid waste collection, recycling and waste reduction.
Practices and activities of these actor groups are viewed as innovations with the potential to change the way solid waste is handled.
CHALLENGES:
• Resource Allocation.
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies.EpconLP
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies. With over 4000 installations worldwide, EPCON has been pioneering new techniques since 1977 that have become industry standards now. Founded in 1977, Epcon has grown from a one-man operation to a global leader in developing and manufacturing innovative air pollution control technology and industrial heating equipment.
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Enhanced action and stakeholder engagement for sustainable peatland management
Safety climate_Conceptual and measurement issues.pdf
1. See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232584128
Safety climate: Conceptual and measurement issues.
Article · January 2003
DOI: 10.1037/10474-006
CITATIONS
390
READS
8,787
1 author:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Systematic review of The effect of Safety interventions on work injuries http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/222/ View project
Safety Climate Lone Worker project View project
Dov Zohar
Technion - Israel Institute of Technology
58 PUBLICATIONS 11,938 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Dov Zohar on 15 December 2014.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
2. C H A P T E R
317
Introduction
Workplace injuries and illnesses result in about
5% loss of Gross Domestic Product (World Health
Organization, 2008). Such a loss is expected to cost
the American economy an estimated $550 billion a
year (Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2008), in addi-
tion to human suffering and loss of life. A fatal work
injury occurs every 115 minutes (i.e., less than 2
hours) in the United States, and a disabling injury
every 10 seconds (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010).
Large-scale accidents such as the Chernobyl nuclear
plant in Russia, Deepwater Horizon, and BP Texas
City refinery in the United States, Westray coal
mine in Canada, Piper Alpha oil platform in Great
Britain, Bhopal Union Carbide gas plant in India,
or Waterfall Rail accident in Australia have pro-
vided dramatic evidence of the human, economic,
and environmental costs of industrial accidents
(Chiles, 2001). However, despite the economic and
social significance of safety issues, they have received
only cursory attention by management scholars
(Fahlbruch & Wilpert, 1999; Glendon, Clarke, &
McKenna, 2006).
Two notable exceptions include the qualitative,
case study–based literature on high-reliability orga-
nizations (Weick, Sutcliffe, & Obstfeld, 1999) and
the larger and fast-growing body of research on
safety climate and/or culture, which has captured
increasing attention since the international inquiry
into the Chernobyl nuclear disaster identified inad-
equate safety culture as a major underlying factor
for the accident (IAEA, 2005). A recent review
indicated that the number of scientific publications
in this field has been increasing exponentially over
the last decade (Huang, Chen, & Grosch, 2010).
Furthermore, four recent meta-analyses, cover-
ing up to 202 studies (Beus, Payne, Bergman, &
Arthur, 2010; Christian, Bradley, Wallace, &
Abstract
The chapter offers a conceptual framework for safety climate research, using the organizational climate
literature to generate a number of attributes qualifying climate perceptions as opposed to other
perception-based constructs in organizational behavior research.These attributes serve as guidelines for
construing both the core meaning of safety climate and its operationalization with congruent scale items.
Subsequently, the chapter reviews known antecedents and consequences of safety climate, resulting in
a conceptual model integrating the entire set of variables in the nomological network of this construct.
Next, the chapter expands this nomological network by offering some new antecedent and consequence
variables as well as a multi-level conceptualization of safety climate.The chapter concludes with a review
of intervention studies aimed at safety climate improvement, suggesting ideas for future research.
Key Words: espoused vs. enacted value, generic and industry-specific climate scales, management
commitment, multi-level climate, safety climate, safety climate antecedents, safety climate consequences,
safety-climate dimensions, safety performance
Dov Zohar
17 Safety Climate: Conceptualization,
Measurement, and Improvement
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 317
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 317 11/4/2013 9:11:49 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:49 PM
3. 318 Safety Climate
whereby climate perceptions refer to the mean-
ing employees attach to policies, procedures, and
practices they experience and the behaviors being
expected and rewarded (Reichers & Schneider,
1990; Schneider, 1975; Weick, 1995). According
to Zohar and Hofmann (in press), climate percep-
tions differ from other organizational perceptions
in that their objective is to uncover the (implicit)
order in the organizational environment as a means
for better adapting or adjusting to that environ-
ment. Because policies, procedures, and practices
constitute the building blocks of the organizational
environment, climate perceptions as order-seeking
interpretations of the environment refer to the
nature of relationships between or the relative pri-
orities among these elements rather than to the
interpretation of individual elements in isolation.
Thus, safety climate relates to shared perceptions
with regard to the priority of safety policies, proce-
dures, and practices and the extent to which safety
compliant or enhancing behavior is supported and
rewarded at the workplace (Zohar, 2000). The more
coherent and comprehensive safety policies are and
the more frequently they are communicated and
implemented during production processes, the
greater is perceived management commitment to
employee protection, constituting the core meaning
of safety climate.
Safety Climate versus Safety Culture
Although a comprehensive discussion of differ-
ences between safety climate and culture is beyond
the scope of this chapter, the fact that scholars
and practitioners alike often use both constructs
interchangeably requires a brief note. Scientifically
speaking, such a practice threatens discriminant
validity of both constructs, especially under con-
ditions in which published measurement scales
include a mixture of items relating to both con-
structs, resulting in conceptual ambiguity. Using
the organizational climate and culture literatures
as guidelines, safety climate items should refer to
employee perceptions regarding the priority of
safety, as discussed. The targets or referents of such
climate perceptions, according to the organizational
culture literature relate to surface-level expressions,
or artifacts of underlying, deeper-level elements
such as safety-related beliefs and values. However,
because each deep-level element can express itself by
a large number of artifacts, there is a few-to-many
mapping such that few deeper-level elements can
produce a large variety of surface-level elements.
As a result, perceptions of surface-level elements
Burke, 2009; Clarke, 2010; Nahrgang, Morgeson,
& Hofmann, 2011), indicated that safety climate is
a robust predictor of subjective and objective safety
outcomes across industries and countries. However,
scientific progress is beset by lingering conceptual
ambiguity, evident in the fact that many authors fail
to discriminate between safety climate and culture
(Cox & Flin, 1998; Glendon, 2008), in addition to
including a host of variables that belong neither to
climate nor culture as defined in the organizational
behavior literature.
The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to offer
a conceptual model of safety climate that clarifies its
nature, taking into account the qualifying attributes
of the organizational climate construct in general
and the facet of occupational safety in particular.
Subsequently, the chapter presents and discusses
variables in the nomological network of safety
climate, suggesting an expansion of known ante-
cedents and consequences as well as a multi-level
model specifying distinctions between organization
and group-level safety climate perceptions. Finally,
the chapter will discuss measurement implications,
including the distinction between universal and
industry-specific climate scales, highlighting direc-
tions for future research.
The Core Meaning of Safety Climate
The original paper on safety climate defined it
as “shared employee perceptions about the relative
importance of safe conduct in their occupational
behavior” (Zohar, 1980, p. 96). This definition iden-
tifies safety climate as consensual or shared social
cognition regarding the relative importance or pri-
ority of safety versus productivity at the workplace.
Such socially shared perceptions inform employees
of management commitment to their safety and
health, guiding appropriate task behaviors during
work involving physical risks. Safety climate per-
ceptions emerge by sharing personal experiences
that inform employees of the extent to which man-
agement invests in their protection (as opposed to
production), leading them to develop congruent
behavior-outcome expectations and act accordingly.
Namely, safety climate informs employees about
the priority of safety during production processes
involving physical or health risks, resulting in com-
patibly adjusted role behavior. A positive safety cli-
mate will increase the frequency of safety behavior
among employees working in hazardous environ-
ment and vice versa.
The preceding definition follows the concep-
tual framework of organizational climate research
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 318
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 318 11/4/2013 9:11:49 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:49 PM
4. ZOHAR 319
safety climate perceptions include any source of
individually experienced or socially shared infor-
mation about the extent of such investment. Such
information, however, is not easy to acquire or
assess because although employee protection in
physically risky work is universally espoused or
institutionalized, it competes with productivity
and profitability considerations, requiring manage-
ment to find the middle ground between the two.
Institutionalization of employee protection as a
formally espoused strategic goal or organizational
value can be easily demonstrated by examining
a randomly chosen sample of company websites
(given, of course, that their employees are exposed
to physical risk). See, for example, the following
statements: “Safety first and always” (Schneider
National), “Safety is critical to our business per-
formance and company culture” (National Grid),
or “We are committed to conducting business in
a manner that protects and promotes the safety
and health of our employees, those involved with
our operations, and the communities where we
work” (Exxon-Mobil). By default, therefore, formal
policies and procedures in virtually all companies
exposing employees to physical risk espouse the pri-
ority of safety. Such espousals, however, are often
compromised or misaligned with actual action
because of the competing demands of production
and profitability, as evidenced, for example, by the
mentioned abundance of safety shortcuts or cutting
down on proactive maintenance or refresher train-
ing schedules (Halbesleben, 2010). As a result, the
emergence of safety climate depends on employees’
assessment of the real priority of safety, using the
misalignment between formal espousals and actual
practices as a metric for management commitment.
Challenges in Detecting Real
Management Commitment
Given possible misalignment between formal
espousals and actual practices at work, assessment of
management true or real commitment to employee
protection can be quite complex, requiring, among
other things, establishment of differences between
formally declared policies and procedures and their
enforced or enacted counterparts (i.e., manage-
rial practices). Formal policy is explicit and stable,
relating to overt statements and formal procedures
applicable across situations, whereas enforced
policy or enacted practices are dynamic and situ-
ation dependent. The former is publicly available
and is often communicated in written documents,
training courses, or scheduled meetings. The latter,
cannot be used to decipher the identity of deep-level
(and subconscious) elements. By default, therefore,
using perception or attitude items in safety culture
scales, as is commonly the case, results in a logical
error. Development and validation of such a scale
(including its discriminant validity vis-à-vis safety
climate) remains a theoretical and methodologi-
cal challenge (see further discussion in Zohar &
Hofmann, 2012).
Investment in Safety as a Discretionary
Decision
An important attribute of safety as a specific per-
formance facet stems from the fact that work tasks
involving physical risks can be performed at dif-
ferent levels of safety; that is, safety constitutes an
independent performance dimension. Such inde-
pendence poses competing operational demands
for management and workers alike. Occupational
accident statistics such as the ones reported in the
preceding, coupled with observations indicating
abundance of safety shortcuts and workarounds
across industries and countries (Halbesleben,
2010), imply that, given small injury likelihood
during routine work, companies often choose the
path offering lesser investment in employee pro-
tection in order to meet short-term profitability
goals (Madsen, 2013). The same logic holds true
for customer and/or environment protection (i.e.,
product- or environment safety). Given that produc-
tion can proceed while assuming different levels of
employee protection, company management must
make choices concerning the extent of investment
in nonproductive safety programs. Such programs
may require investment of significant resources in
employee protection, focusing on defenses such
as: installation of redundant protective equipment
in safety-critical operations; proactive mainte-
nance schedules (i.e., frequent equipment inspec-
tions and replacement); continual safety refresher
training; in-depth investigation of accidents and
near-misses; and incentives to safety performance.
Because such investments imply “non-productive”
financial expenditures, decision makers must decide
how to allocate their resources between protection-
and production-related objectives. Such a choice is
characterized by a tradeoff between immediate (if
modest) “non-productive” financial investments
with increased, yet low-likelihood risk of a costly
accident (Madsen, 2013).
Given that investment in employee protection
depends on discretionary choice by company man-
agement, it follows that the referents or targets of
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 319
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 319 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
5. 320 Safety Climate
climate perceptions on behalf of company employ-
ees. Given the potentially catastrophic outcomes of
accidents stemming from human error on behalf
of mechanics, pilots or air-traffic controllers in the
aviation industry in terms of human lives, it can be
assumed that such difficulties are amplified in other
industries in which occupational accidents are asso-
ciated with less catastrophic outcomes. A second
factor contributing to the difficulty in unraveling
true management commitment concerns variabil-
ity of tradeoffs between the pursuit of protection
and production goals. Given that both goal types
are being espoused as equally legitimate, situations
presenting a conflict between the two (i.e., when-
ever investment of resources in one domain under-
mines the other), require unit managers or workers
to prioritize one over the other. Because such situ-
ations may vary in terms of contextual attributes,
such choices are likely to vary. For example, whereas
the extent of (mis)alignment between safety espous-
als and enactments may remain relatively stable
under routine conditions, an increase in produc-
tion demands due to internal or external factors
may change such alignment (Humphrey, Moon,
Conlon, & Hofmann, 2004). Consequently, safety
climate perceptions must include assessments of
situational attributes under which safety com-
mitment is being compromised. Observing how
often and under which conditions organizational
and unit leaders overlook safety policies and pro-
cedures constitute an (implicit) signal informing
employees the true (vs. espoused) priority of safety.
Practically speaking, if production is favored across
a variety of situations, it implies that productivity is
prioritized over employee safety. Given such expe-
riences, employees will align their safety climate
perceptions, resulting in more frequent safety rule
violations. For example, if production delays lead
management to turn a blind eye to safety shortcuts,
yet this happens only rarely in situations involving
one particular customer or a single product of stra-
tegic importance, this will result in a smaller mis-
alignment (and higher safety climate) than having
management turn a blind eye for safety violations
under circumstances involving a variety of custom-
ers and/or products; also see chapter 7 by Keyton
on issues concerning the role of communication).
This line of reasoning was tested in a study using
a series of scripts describing supervisory safety prac-
tices in the context of different competing demands
(Zohar & Luria, 2004). Results indicated that when
supervisors restrict safety compromises for condi-
tions involving the accomplishment of high-stake
contrariwise, must be derived from one’s own or
others’ experiences and observations of senior, mid-
dle, and lower management patterns of action con-
cerning safety issues across a variety of situations.
This distinction is akin to that made by Argyris and
Schon (1996) between formally espoused theories
of action, or policies, and theories-in-use. A simi-
lar distinction is associated with leader behavioral
integrity (Simons, 2002), referring to the alignment
between words and deeds on behalf of organiza-
tional managers.
Safety climate perceptions must assess such
misalignment because it is only policies-in-use, or
enacted policies, rather than their formal counter-
parts, that can inform employees of (true) mana-
gerial commitment and the probable consequences
of safety behavior. Considering that climate is an
emergent construct referring to shared social per-
ceptions, its emergence depends on the extent to
which management displays an internally consis-
tent pattern of action concerning safety. Climate
level would reflect the particular commitment level
exemplified by managerial action, which may dif-
fer from formally declared policy. For example, site
managers might expect workers to bend company
safety rules, except in life-threatening situations,
whenever production falls behind schedule, despite
official policies to the contrary. If this is done con-
sistently, it will promote a low or poor safety cli-
mate, as described in most accident investigations
(e.g., Baker, 2007; Pate-Cornell, 1990).
Misalignment between safety espousals and
enactments increases the difficulty of assessing
management commitment for a number of rea-
sons. First, rather than being a stable attribute of
the workplace, the extent of misalignment is likely
to be affected by changing financial considerations.
Analyzing the profitability-safety relationship in the
aviation industry, Madsen (2013) reported a cur-
vilinear relationship indicating that, despite formal
universal espousal of safety, the extent of airline
investments in safety depends on the gap between
their current financial situation and their profitabil-
ity goals. Safety investments fluctuate with aspired
profitability such that it goes up for companies
performing well above or below profitability goals,
reaching the lowermost level the nearer they are to
their profitability goals. Given that profit goals in
most companies are adjusted quarterly or semian-
nually, it follows that the gap or misalignment
between safety espousals and enactments under-
goes continual change. Such fluctuation increases
the difficulty of coming up with consensual safety
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 320
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 320 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
6. ZOHAR 321
commitment to their protection (hence, safety cli-
mate level). Given the complexity of such a process,
employees must share and compare personal expe-
riences with those of other coworkers, engaging in
social symbolic interaction, a primary antecedent
of organizational climate (Schneider & Reichers,
1983; Stryker, 2008). It is to antecedents of safety
climate that we turn next.
Antecedents of Safety Climate
As discussed, climate perceptions emerge out of
a sense-making process in which employees try and
identify the meaning or logics of action underlying
the web of formal policies and informal practices
and role expectations characterizing their place of
work (Weick, 2005). Assessment of the personal
meaning of safety policies and practices is con-
ducted in terms of perceived priorities of protection
versus production goals, focusing on situations that
inform employees of misalignment between safety
espousal and enactment. Safety climate perceptions
inform employees about the likelihood that safety
behavior will be rewarded and supported under a
variety of work conditions in which investments
in employee safety compete with those associated
with production and/or profit. Previous literature
reviews identified a number of antecedents likely
to promote the emergence of organizational cli-
mate perceptions (Ostroff, Kinicki, & Muhammad,
2012; Schneider, Ehrhart, & Macey, 2011; Zohar
& Hofmann, 2012). These antecedents, followed
by newly tested ones, are discussed in the following
using safety climate as case in point.
Structural Attributes of the Work
Environment
One antecedent concerns the fact that, since
structural features of organizations (i.e., ways of
doing things) can be observed or experienced by
every employee, it creates a mechanism for emer-
gence of shared climate perceptions. Namely,
despite its inherent complexity, the organizational
environment must have a functional, nonarbitrary
structure allowing adaptation to the external envi-
ronment coupled with internal stability, order and
control (Cameron & Quinn, 1999). Consequently,
organizational policies and practices are likely to
form a recognizable pattern rather than occur inde-
pendently of each other (i.e., assume a natural rather
than arbitrary order), promoting the emergence of
shared climate perceptions.
In the context of safety climate, structural fea-
tures refer to both physical and procedural attributes
goals, it resulted in higher safety climate and lower
injury rate in the 6-month period following the cli-
mate survey, by comparison with perceived safety
compromises involving a wider range of competing
demands. Similar data were reported by a number
of accident investigation committees. For example,
Baker’s (2007) report of the BP Texas City refinery
explosion concluded that refinery workers widely
believed that production was a higher priority than
process safety. Workers believed that “getting the
job done by doing whatever was necessary to keep
the refinery running” (p. 62) took precedence over
the company’s official “Safety First” and “Safety Is
Number One” messages, increasing cynicism within
the refinery that resulted in a poor safety climate.
A third factor affecting misalignment (and post-
ing challenges for the emergence of safety climate)
concerns change across the organizational hierar-
chy due to managerial discretion in implementing
organizational policies. Safety policies and proce-
dures that have been established by senior manage-
ment must be implemented or executed by unit
managers all over the organizational hierarchy.
Such a process creates a potential for discrepancy
between formal and executed policy. Policy execu-
tion is likely to be affected by supervisory beliefs
and attitudes as well as job design, equipment reli-
ability, and social-demographic characteristics of
work units. For example, the level of work routi-
nization is likely to affect policy versus practice
misalignment because lower routinization requires
greater discretion in policy implementation due to
the fact that procedures cannot cover all possible
situation-specific contingencies (Hage & Aiken,
1969; Perrow, 1967). Furthermore, supervisors
who tend to underestimate injury likelihood are
likely to be more permissive of safety rule viola-
tions than those who overestimate it. Such personal
and job-design factors will result in misalignment
between formal policies and unit-level practices,
resulting in group-level climates that exceed or fall
short of the organization level climate (see subse-
quent discussion of a multi-level climate model).
In summary, given that safety constitutes an
independent performance dimension entailing
nonproductive expenditures, employees must
attend to misalignments between its espoused and
enacted expressions in order to assess management
commitment, the core meaning of safety climate.
Such assessment requires employees to try and
identify the underlying or implicit logics of mana-
gerial action across situations and organizational
levels in order to assess the actual or true level of
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 321
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 321 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
7. 322 Safety Climate
of the work environment indicative of the extent of
investment in employee protection. Such attributes
represent layers of defenses, barriers and safeguards
designed to stop the accident trajectory by block-
ing hazards from damaging contact with people and
assets (Reason, 1997). Safety management systems
refer to a hierarchy of barriers starting with hazard
elimination as the most comprehensive control
method, moving down to hazard substitution, engi-
neering controls, procedural controls, and personal
protective equipment (OSHAS 18001, 2000). This
hierarchy reflects not only a layering of hazard con-
trol methods in terms of risk management but a
gradient of investment in employee protection. For
example, hazard elimination often requires equip-
ment or raw-material replacement, entailing greater
financial investment than the introduction of new
safety procedures or procurement of better personal
protective equipment.
Given that continuing investment in employee
protection inform employees of true (vs. espoused)
management commitment, such investments are
assumed to serve as targets or referents of safety
climate perceptions. In fact, such targets provide
a metric for assessing the extent of management
commitment such that the larger the perceived
investment in hazard control or risk management,
the higher the perceived commitment (i.e., higher
safety climate). For this reason, available safety cli-
mate scales often include items asking respondents
to rate safety-related investments as indicators of
management commitment (e.g., DeJoy, Schaffer,
Wilson, Vandenberg, Butts, 2004; Neal & Griffin,
2006; Zohar, 1980; Zohar & Luria, 2005). Such
a measurement approach is akin to the study of
observable artifacts as indicators of underlying
values in organizational culture research (Schein,
2004). Additional support for such an approach is
offered by accident investigation panels. For exam-
ple, the summary report on the BP Texas City refin-
ery explosion (Baker, 2007) indicates a poor safety
“culture” (operationalized with climate items) stem-
ming from the fact that management chose to invest
in safety procedures and personal protective equip-
ment (i.e., the lower end of the risk-management
hierarchy), rather than in hazard elimination that
would have required greater investment in replac-
ing corroded pipes or conducting frequent pressure
tests of liquid storage tanks.
Symbolic Social Interaction
A second antecedent involves symbolic social
interaction. Symbolic interactionism or sense-making
is the philosophical view that meaning and reality is
socially construed, arising from cognitive exchanges
among people seeking to comprehend the underlying
logics of action in their environment (Stryker, 2008;
Weick, 1995, 2005). In other words, the meaning of
things and the interpretation of events arise from the
interplay between one’s own experiences and those of
others in the same situation. During such a process,
one’s perceptions are being checked and modified
in light of those reported by others. Symbolic inter-
action at the workplace involves comparing bits of
information and cues, discussing possible interpreta-
tions, and attempting to reach consensual interpreta-
tion of the meaning of events and practices at the
workplace. As a result of such a process, over time,
employee perceptions tend to converge, resembling
processes of newcomer socialization (Brown, 2000;
Schneider & Reichers, 1983).
However, unlike the socialization process, con-
vergence of climate perceptions serves the function
of offering social verification to the outcomes of the
sense-making process, given that the complexity
of the organizational environment and ambiguity
of contextual cues offer limited opportunities for
empirical verification (Festinger, 1954). According
to this view, the definition of climate as socially
shared perceptions of the organizational environ-
ment is congruent with the shared-reality model
(Hardin & Higgins, 1995), postulating that subjec-
tive experiences survive as reliable and valid inter-
pretations by virtue of being reproduced in others
and accepted by them as the veridical interpretation
of the group’s external world. Symbolic social inter-
action serves, thus the dual function of promoting
both the collection of experience-based perceptions
of the (implicit and complex) structure of the orga-
nizational environment and the convergence of such
perceptions as a means for their social verification.
As noted, prevalence of misalignment between
safety espousals and actions increases the complexity
of assessing true management commitment. Using
signal detection theory as a framework (Green &
Swets, 1966/1988), signals indicative of the true
priority of safety are embedded in noise created and
sustained by the wealth of formal communications
concerning its espoused priority. Given that the sig-
nal and noise distributions partially overlap, safety
climate perceptions must discriminate between the
two, maximizing correct identification (i.e., Hits)
and minimizing False Alarms (Wickens, 1992).
Such discrimination, which is functionally equiva-
lent to discriminating between espousal and enact-
ment of safety policies, poses a significant cognitive
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 322
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 322 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
8. ZOHAR 323
for sharing and clarifying perceptions (Kozlowski &
Doherty, 1989), and offer better articulation of task
cues (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996). These features
provide group members with better information for
assessing what is prioritized, valued, and supported
under a variety of conditions, promoting the devel-
opment of shared climate perceptions; see chapter 6
by Day and colleagues for more on leadership).
Most of the empirical evidence for the leader-
climate relationship has been based on safety cli-
mate research, using both leader-member exchange
(LMX) and full-range leadership theories and related
measurement scales (e.g., Barling, Loughlin, &
Kelloway, 2002; Gonzalez-Roma, Peiro, & Tordera,
2002; Hofmann & Morgeson, 2004; Hofmann,
Morgeson, & Gerras, 2003; Kozlowski & Doherty,
1989; Zohar, 2002a, 2003; Zohar & Tenne-Gazit,
2008). A meta-analysis covering 59 studies sug-
gests that the corrected correlation estimate between
leadership quality and safety climate level is 0.61,
indicating a strong relationship between the two
variables (Nahrgang, Morgeson, & Hofmann,
2008). The strong leadership-safety climate rela-
tionship was explained as an outcome of the fact
that when work involves heightened physical risks,
increased commitment of high-LMX or transfor-
mational leaders to members’ growth and profes-
sional development extends to the protection or
prioritization of their physical welfare (Barling et al.,
2002; Gonzalez-Roma et al., 2002; Hofmann &
Morgeson, 1999; Hofmann, Morgeson, & Gerras,
2003; Zohar, 2002a, 2011; Zohar & Luria, 2004).
Although the role of leadership as a climate
antecedent has been well established, there is only
limited research concerning underlying mecha-
nisms. Such mechanisms should explain how lead-
ers promote a more positive and/or stronger safety
climate. Barling and colleagues suggested that trans-
formational leaders integrate employee safety with
their proactive leadership style, promoting mem-
bers’ safety engagement, participation, and voice
over compliance-based behavior (Barling et al.,
2002). Using social-network analysis, Zohar and
Tenne-Gazit (2008) indicated that transformational
leaders promote higher density of group commu-
nication, offering more opportunities for social
symbolic interaction that leads to emergence of a
stronger safety climate. Furthermore, transforma-
tional leaders also act as gatekeepers, maintaining
higher priority for safety issues in their work teams
or units, especially in organizations in which safety
assumes a lower priority (Zohar & Luria, 2010).
In this study, group-level safety climate in units
challenge. Given such a challenge, symbolic social
interaction offers the advantage of expanding the
amount and quality of cognitive-interpretative
resources available to group members. Thus,
whereas social symbolic interaction has been postu-
lated to affect emergence of organizational climate
at large, it seems to play an especially important role
in safety climate emergence due to the context of
misalignment between declared and enacted invest-
ments in employee protection.
Despite the key role of symbolic social interac-
tion as antecedent of climate emergence, there is a
lingering need for supportive empirical evidence.
The emerging field of social network research offers
some interesting possibilities in this regard due to
the availability of analytic techniques for measuring
social network parameters as predictors of climate
emergence. One such study indicated that density
of group communication network (i.e., frequency
of task-related exchanges among group members)
predicted safety climate strength, whereas centrality
of the communication network (i.e., skewedness of
the exchange distribution focusing on a few group
members) was inversely related to safety climate
strength (Zohar & Tenne-Gazit, 2008). Research
along these lines should be high on the agenda
of organizational and safety climate scholars (see
chapter 26 by González-Romá and Peiró on issues
of strength).
Group and Organization Leadership
A third antecedent for climate emergence con-
cerns (organizational and group) leadership. The
effect of leadership on organizational climate has
captured scholars’ attention ever since Kurt Lewin
made the well-known proposition that “leaders cre-
ate climate” (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939). The
leadership-climate relationship can be explained as
a social learning process in which group members
repeatedly observe and exchange information with
their leader as a means for interpreting the orga-
nizational environment (Dragoni, 2005). Group
leader practices are relatively easy to observe due
to the leader’s proximity and availability, and they
routinely inform group members as to relative pri-
orities. Verbal exchanges with the leader can also
inform members regarding the kinds of behavior
that are valued and supported at the workplace
(Ashforth, 1985). High-quality relationships are
characterized by mutual trust and openness (House
& Shamir, 1993), and by the richness of verbal com-
munication between leader and members (Klauss &
Bass, 1982). Such leaders create more opportunities
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 323
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 323 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
9. 324 Safety Climate
characterized by such attributes increase the likeli-
hood that tools, products, or processes of one’s work
will become psychologically owned.
Psychological work ownership has been shown to
result in role-enhancing outcomes such as increased
role responsibility and accountability, extra-role or
citizenship behaviors (helping and voice), organi-
zational commitment, and protective or defensive
behaviors toward owned possessions (Avey, Avolio,
Crossley, & Luthans, 2009; O’Driscoll et al., 2006;
Pierce et al., 2009). Based on social exchange the-
ory (Blau, 1964; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005),
such role behaviors are likely to be reciprocated by
organizational support for owned objects, includ-
ing its protection and augmentation. In work envi-
ronments characterized by physical risk and work
hazards, such reciprocity will include protection of
owned objects from damage incurred by such risks
(Brown et al., 2005). Given that perceived manage-
rial commitment to employee safety constitutes the
core meaning of safety climate, such reciprocity is
likely to result in positive safety climate.
In addition to promoting managerial commit-
ment, work ownership is also likely to promote safety
climate emergence by means of object-protective
behaviors on behalf of individual coworkers. As
noted by Belk (1988), because owned possessions are
considered parts of the self, its conservation offers a
means for defending the self against harm or diminu-
tion. When object-protective behaviors are common
in a work team, the perceived priority of safety prac-
tices during job performance will be shared among
team members. Such sharing should simplify social
symbolic interaction and sense-making processes
among team members, constituting, as noted, key
climate antecedents (Schneider & Reichers, 1983).
Recent studies conducted in a number of industries
by Zohar and colleagues offered empirical support
for this line of arguments (Zohar & Faraj, 2011;
Zohar, Huang, Robertson, & Lee, 2011). These
studies indicated that work ownership is strongly
related to safety climate, offering both main effects
and acting as mediator of high-LMX leadership.
Altogether, therefore, given organizational contexts
promoting development of work ownership, it will
serve as an additional antecedent for safety climate
emergence. Figure 17.1 presents a description of
safety climate antecedents and its consequences, to
be discussed next.
Consequences of Safety Climate
Safety climate as a facet-specific construct is
expected to predict congruent outcomes, that is,
managed by transformational leaders was both
higher and stronger than the organization-level cli-
mate under conditions in which the organization
climate was low or weak, indicating that transfor-
mational leaders offer better protection to mem-
bers than warranted by company-level policies and
practices. An additional study by Clarke and Ward
(2006) indicated that the leadership-safety climate
relationship was mediated by three influence tactics
signifying high-quality exchanges, that is, persua-
sion (vs. obedience), inspirational appeals and con-
sultation or participation. Given the robustness of
the leadership-climate relationship, further research
into explanatory variables and underlying mecha-
nisms associated with this relationship is warranted.
Psychological Work Ownership
The final safety climate antecedent is based on
research about psychological work ownership,
which is based on the postulate that an individual’s
self is perceived as the sum of his or her possessions,
consisting of whatever is being viewed as belonging
to oneself (legally or psychologically). Owned pos-
sessions offer the means for knowing who we are
(Epstein, 1973; James, 1890; Marsh, 2006). Work
ownership was thus defined as an occupational
condition in which one feels as though an aspect
of one’s work has become part, or extension of the
self, that is, becoming “mine” or “ours” (Belk, 1988;
Pierce, Kostova, & Dirks, 2001, 2003). In which
case, one might come to (psychologically) own
tools or equipment, work processes or products,
or an organizational entity (e.g., “This workstation
is mine”; “Being an expert mechanic has become
who I am.”). Given that work has become part of
one’s (professional) self, employees are likely to act
in ways leading coworkers and managers to protect
or defend their owned possessions, stimulating the
emergence of safety climate.
Research on work ownership has followed
McClelland’s control proposition (1951), whereby
the ability to exercise control over valuable external
objects is a necessary condition for turning them into
parts of one’s self. A series of studies by Pierce and
colleagues identified a number of work characteris-
tics affecting control over valuable objects at work,
that is, low routinization, high autonomy, and par-
ticipation and voice (O’Driscoll, Pierce, & Coghlan,
2006; Pierce et al., 2001, 2003; Van Dyne & Pierce,
2004). Other relevant work characteristics include
task meaningfulness or significance, skill variety,
and task feedback (O’Driscoll et al., 2006; Pierce,
Jussila, & Cummings, 2009). Work environments
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 324
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 324 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
10. ZOHAR 325
recognition or support for safety performance
is high enough and the valence or reward value
of such outcomes is large enough to exceed the
expected costs associated with such behavior (e.g.,
slower speed, greater effort, lesser comfort). This is
a rational choice model based on payoff maximiza-
tion, highlighting the functional or adaptive value
of organizational climate. Such a model explicates
that employees, acting as individuals or members in
larger organizational units, engage in sense-making
activities in order to uncover the underlying or
implicit payoff matrices for different role behav-
iors, letting them choose role behaviors associated
with more positive outcomes or better benefits.
Safety climate demonstrates, therefore, that social
construction of reality, resulting in the emergence
of any facet-specific organizational climate, has a
functional value, enhancing employee adjustment
to complex environments characterizing work
organizations.
In addition to explaining the safety climate–
behavior relationship in expectancy theory terms,
using extrinsic safety motivation as a climate-driven
mediator variable, a second mediator variable, safety
knowledge has been used to explain this relation-
ship (Griffin & Neal, 2000; Neal & Griffin, 2004,
2006). The addition of this variable is based on a
generic model of job performance, identifying
three determinants: knowledge, skill, and motiva-
tion (Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager, 1993).
Safety performance, therefore, must be affected by
knowledge and skills required for executing the
requisite actions and by (intrinsic and/or extrin-
sic) motivation to perform such actions despite
the extra, nonproductive costs they incur. Safety
climate, indicative of the perceived prioritization
safety performance and occupational accidents
resulting in bodily injury and/or property or envi-
ronmental damages. Because routine task perfor-
mance can be accomplished at different levels of
safety, safety behavior must be motivated by intrin-
sic or extrinsic factors. Person-related, or intrinsic
factors that have been shown in recent meta-analytic
studies to affect safety behavior include personality
dispositions such as conscientiousness (Christian
et al., 2009) and agreeableness (Clarke, 2006),
organizational commitment and job satisfaction
(Clarke, 2010), and occupational stress and burn-
out (Nahrgang et al., 2011). Path models tested
by the preceding group of meta-analytic studies
indicated, however, that safety climate perceptions,
relating to extrinsic or contextual factors, offered
significantly stronger prediction of safety behav-
ior and subsequent accidents. Furthermore, other
person-related factors that have long been assumed
to predict safety behavior, such as fatalistic safety
beliefs and attitudes (e.g., “Accidents will hap-
pen no matter what I do”; see Williamson, Feyer,
Cairns, & Biancotti, 1997), failed to be supported
in meta-analytic path models.
Safety climate perceptions, as noted, inform
employees of the real priority of safety at the work-
place, that is, the extent to which safe performance
is going to be supported and rewarded in the con-
text of competing demands such as on-time product
delivery, manufacturing costs, or financial profit.
Such perceptions offer an extrinsic source for safety
motivation through its effect on behavior-outcome
expectations. Using expectancy theory as a con-
ceptual framework (Lawler, 1971; Vroom, 1964),
this explanation implies that positive safety climate
perceptions indicate that the likelihood for getting
Antecedent variables:
* Structural attributes
* Symbolic interaction
* Group/Org. leadership
* Psych work ownership
* Org. commitment
* Job stress & burnout
* Personality: C & A
Org. & Group
safety climate
Safety
knowledge
Safety
motivation
Outcome
expectations
Safety
behavior
Injury
Near misses
Safety
compliance
Safety
citizenship
g factor: Org.
Commitment
First-order
factors
Employee
engagement
Figure 17.1 Conceptual model of safety climate with antecedent and outcome variables (see explanations in text).
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 325
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 325 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11. 326 Safety Climate
involvement, experiencing a sense of personal sig-
nificance and pride. Absorption, the third compo-
nent, implies being engrossed in one’s work (i.e.,
finding it hard to detach oneself from work).
According to this idea, a positive safety climate,
indicating managerial commitment and higher
priority of employee protection over competing
demands such as delivery timeliness or produc-
tion costs, is likely to be reciprocated by employ-
ees, leading to engagement and role enhancing
behaviors extending beyond safety performance,
benefiting the organization at large. Some support-
ive evidence for such a relationship was reported
in a recent meta-analysis of 113 studies indicating
that safety climate affects a number of generic (i.e.,
nonsafety) outcomes such as organizational com-
mitment and citizenship behavior (Clarke, 2010).
This meta-analysis expands previous research find-
ings focusing on proactive safety-specific outcomes
of safety climate such as safety citizenship behav-
ior (Hofmann et al., 2003), suggesting that safety
climate outcomes may also include generic (i.e.,
nonsafety) facets such as organizational commit-
ment and citizenship. Given that employee engage-
ment leads, among other things, to the very same
outcomes (Macey & Schneider, 2008), indicating
semantic proximity, it can be argued that safety
climate promotes or increases work-related vigor
and dedication, the primary markers of employee
engagement. The safety climate-engagement rela-
tionship was tested and supported recently by Zohar
and colleagues (Zohar et al., 2011), using a sample
of long-haul truck drivers. In this study, employee
engagement offered partial mediation of the safety
climate–behavior relationship which predicted, in
turn, days lost because of road injury measured
6 months after climate survey delivery. Such data
indicate that, in the context of performing com-
plex, little routinized tasks involving physical risks,
work-engaged employees perform their work more
safely not only by practicing safety compliance but
also by engaging in proactive safety behavior by
being more physically energized, cognitively vigi-
lant, and emotionally involved (Simpson, 2009),
resulting in fewer near-misses and actual accidents.
A Multi-level Model of Safety Climate
A crucial proposition of the multi-level paradigm
for organizational research states that organizational
processes take place simultaneously across different
levels of the organizational hierarchy such that pro-
cesses at one hierarchical level have an impact on
other levels (House, Rousseau, & Thomas-Hunt,
of this facet, has been assumed to promote safety
knowledge and skills based on the idea that the
more prioritized performance aspects at work are
likely to be better monitored by supervisory person-
nel, leading employees to invest in skill acquisition
as a means for performance improvement. In other
words, because (safety) performance improvement
depends on acquisition of relevant knowledge and
skills, safety climate level will affect efforts invested
in their acquisition. Safety knowledge and skills can
be mapped on a continuum extending from aware-
ness of simple safety rules and regulations to more
refined, discretion-based actions in complex situa-
tions, indicative of increasing professional expertise
(Crandall, Klein, & Hofman, 2006; Lipshitz, Klein,
& Orasanu, 2001; Shattuck & Miller, 2006).
As noted, recent meta-analyses support the
robustness of the safety climate-outcome rela-
tionships across industries and countries (Beus
et al., 2010; Christian et al., 2009; Clarke, 2010;
Nahrgang et al., 2011). At the same time it should
be noted that these meta-analyses vary in terms
of specific mediation paths, reporting either a full
mediation path (i.e., safety climate to safety knowl-
edge and motivation to safety behavior to injury,
see Christian et al., 2009), a partially mediated path
in which safety climate is related to injury both
directly and indirectly through its effect on safety
behavior (Clarke, 2010), or a nonmediated path
leading directly from safety climate to injury out-
comes (Nahrgang et al., 2011).
An additional outcome variable, identified as
employee engagement, was recently suggested and
tested by Zohar and colleagues (2011). Employee
engagement is a generic, rather than safety-specific
variable referring to the nature of relationship
between employees and their work. As such, it
expands the range of organizational outcome vari-
ables accounted for by safety climate. Engagement
denotes a cluster of attributes covering personal
commitment, passion about work, discretion-
ary effort to overcome difficulty, and amplified
energy investment (Macey & Schneider, 2008;
Simpson, 2009; see also chapter 21 by Albrecht
for an in-depth look at engagement). A widely
used operational definition identifies it as a posi-
tive work-related state of mind that is character-
ized by (physical and mental) vigor, dedication, and
absorption (Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006;
Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker,
2002). Vigor implies (discretionary) effort invest-
ment and persistence in goal pursuit even in the
face of difficulty. Dedication implies strong work
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 326
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 326 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
12. ZOHAR 327
amount of (usually modest) resources under super-
visory discretion and those requiring senior man-
agement approval. For example, replacing corroded
pipes or sending an employee to offsite training usu-
ally requires senior management approval, whereas
putting clamps on certain corroded pipes or pick-
ing out the specific individuals to be sent for off-
site training are generally perceived as being under
supervisory discretion.
Fourth, perceived differences between organiza-
tional subunits can inform the distinction between
organization and group level climate perceptions.
Uniformity or consistency of practices across dif-
ferent subunits is indicative of organization-level
policies and vice versa. Between-unit differences can
be detected through social comparison and social
symbolic interaction among employees belonging
to different subunits. For example, by social com-
parison, members of one subunit may conclude
that their immediate superior is much more lenient
regarding safety shortcuts or protective gear usage
than other superiors.
According to the multi-level framework, level
of analysis is assumed to simultaneously define the
unit of aggregation and the target or referent of cli-
mate perceptions (Chan, 1998). At the organization
level, climate perceptions are aggregated across the
company and senior management commitment to
employee protection or company-level emphasis on
safety is the referent object. At the group level, per-
ceptions are aggregated within subunits, and super-
visory emphasis on member safety and health is the
primary referent object. By adjusting the referent of
perceptions and assuming that individuals discrimi-
nate between procedural and supervisory emphasis
on safety, a theoretical framework for a multi-level
climate model is established.
The multi-level climate model was tested in a
study using a safety climate questionnaire divided
into organization and group-level subscales (Zohar
& Luria, 2005). The study included 401 work-
groups nested in 36 manufacturing companies
across a number of industries. Study methodol-
ogy included the climate survey delivery followed
by seven randomly timed safety-behavior observa-
tions conducted 3 months after survey delivery.
Results indicated that organization- and group-level
safety climates are globally aligned, and the effect
of organization climate on safety behavior is fully
mediated by group-climate level. However, the data
also revealed considerable group-level variation in
a single organization, attributable to supervisory
discretion in implementing formal procedures.
1995; Kozlowski & Klein, 2000; Patterson, Payne,
& West, 1996). Cross-level effects are assumed to
take place as a result of employee interdependence
and the need to balance hierarchical exchanges
between individuals and/or work groups at different
organizational levels (Katz & Kahn, 1978; March &
Simon, 1959). Given the wealth of empirical sup-
port for cross-level processes, the construct of orga-
nizational climate must also be conceptualized and
investigated at multiple levels of analysis.
Attempting to introduce a multi-level frame-
work in organizational climate research in general
and safety climate in particular, Zohar and col-
leagues (Zohar, 2000; Zohar & Luria, 2005) offered
a number of propositions based on the idea that
employees examine their work environment from
the dual perspectives of being members both of
an organization and of a particular subunit in that
organization. The first proposition states that poli-
cies and procedures that are established at the orga-
nization level must be implemented or executed
by unit managers throughout the organizational
hierarchy. That is, although top managers are con-
cerned with policy making and the establishment of
procedures to facilitate policy implementation, unit
managers execute these policies and associated pro-
cedures through interaction with subordinates. This
creates a potential for discrepancy or misalignment
between formal and executed policy as discussed in
previous sections of this chapter.
Second, policy execution is assumed to be
affected by group-level factors such as work rou-
tinization (i.e., low routinization requires greater
discretion in policy implementation because proce-
dures cannot cover all possible situations), members’
professional expertise, equipment dependability,
personnel availability in safety-critical roles, and
supervisory preoccupation with process failures
and member protection. Between-group differences
relating to different ways of implementing company
(safety) policies and procedures are, therefore, to be
expected in a single organization. For example, unit
supervisors may set lenient or severe safety standards
within the boundaries set by top management.
Third, it is assumed that individual employees
discriminate between procedures instituted by top
management and those executed by unit manag-
ers, facilitated by three main sources of infor-
mation. The first is the scope or magnitude of
financial resources that must be invested for policy
or procedure implementation. Based on a variety
of information sources, including leader-member
exchanges, employees can differentiate between the
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 327
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 327 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
13. 328 Safety Climate
indicative of general ability to deal with cognitive
complexity (Gottfredson, 1997). Such an approach
has received considerable empirical support from
recent meta-analyses that have used single safety cli-
mate scores to test its relationship with antecedent
and outcome variables (Beus et al., 2010; Christian
et al., 2009; Clarke, 2010; Nahrgang et al., 2011).
The latter approach was exemplified in a
study that tested psychometric properties of the
group-level subscale in Zohar and Luria’s (2005)
multi-level safety climate scale (Johnson, 2007).
Using a sample of nearly 300 employees working
in 20 heavy manufacturing companies, Johnson
replicated Zohar and Luria’s three-factor struc-
ture, labeled as: Compliance (Active safety prac-
tices: Monitoring-Controlling), Caring (Declarative
safetypractices:Declaring-Informing),andCoaching
(Proactive safety practices: Instructing-Guiding).
(Note that parentheses include Zohar & Luria’s
original factor titles.) Furthermore, Johnson rep-
licated also the strong correlations among factors,
exceeding 0.95, resulting in a single higher-order
factor representing management commitment.
This single climate score predicted safety behavior,
obtained from repeated observations conducted
by safety professionals over a 5-month period after
completion of the climate survey. Safe behavior,
in turn, predicted objective injury (frequency and
severity) data based on OSHA records. These results
are presented in Figure 17.2. This study demon-
strates that whereas the (instable) factorial structure
of safety climate can serve for offering feedback
to participating companies wishing to learn about
their safety climate (and culture), safety climate
research can proceed based on the assumption that
perceived management commitment, represented
by the higher-order factor, can serve as a valid met-
ric for research purposes.
Universal versus Industry-Specific
Safety Climates
Provided that the core meaning of safety climate
concerns perceived management commitment to
employee protection, measurement of such percep-
tionsrequiresachoicebetweentwoscale-development
strategies. One strategy uses universal or generic
questionnaire items, asking respondents to assess
management commitment based on their cumula-
tive experience at work. Scale items involve in this
case context-free summary perceptions or assess-
ments of the extent of such commitment. For
example, a widely used safety climate scale includes
items such as: Managers try to reduce risk levels as
Variables that limit supervisory discretion (i.e.,
organization-climate strength and procedural
formalization) reduced both between-group cli-
mate variation and within-group variability (i.e.,
increased group-climate strength), although effect
sizes were smaller than those associated with
cross-level climate relationships. Considering the
potential benefits offered by adopting a multi-level
framework, the paucity of climate studies using
such a framework should call the attention of cli-
mate scholars to such research.
Dimensionality of Safety Climate
Ever since the publication of the original safety
climate scale (Zohar, 1980), researchers have tried
to establish the dimensionality of this variable. Most
researchers concurred with a multi-dimensional
description, yet there has been limited agreement on
the number and nature of dimensions. Exploratory
factor analysis of Zohar’s original 40 item question-
naire resulted in an eight-factor structure (Zohar,
1980). A follow-up study resulted, however, in a
three factor structure comprising of perceived man-
agement commitment, management action, and
physical risk (Brown & Holmes, 1986). A repli-
cation of the latter study resulted in a two-factor
structure comprising of perceived management
commitment and perceived worker involvement
in safety (Dedobbeleer & Beland, 1991). Still
another replication study tested the original Zohar
scale, using Confirmatory factor analysis (Mueller,
DaSilva, Townsend, & Tetrick, 1999). This study
reported a four-factor model resembling Zohar’s
model, consisting of the following factors: manage-
ment commitment, rewarding of safety behavior,
effect of required work pace on safety, and effect of
safe behavior on social status.
Despite apparent instability of factorial struc-
ture, reviews of safety climate measurement
research concluded that the various measurement
scales share a common focus relating to perceived
management commitment to employee safety and
health (Flin, Mearns, O’Connor, & Bryden, 2000;
Kuenzi & Schminke, 2009). Furthermore, given
strong correlations between first-order factors, an
increasing number of scholars have started to use
a single higher-order factor for measuring manage-
ment commitment, simplifying the study of safety
climate in statistical models that include some addi-
tional variables (e.g., Hofmann & Stetzer, 1996;
Neal, Griffin, & Hart, 2000; Wallace & Chen,
2006). Conceptually, the higher-order climate fac-
tor is akin to the general intelligence factor (“g”),
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 328
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 328 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
14. ZOHAR 329
trained and meet stringent certification standards;
Maintenance management encourages aircraft
mechanics to work by the book; Short cuts are
accepted practice when the flight schedule demands
call for them; and Company management puts
safety at the same level of importance as operational
planning. Finally, a third example includes a safety
climate scale developed for the trucking industry
(Huang, Zohar, Robertson, & Lee, 2012). Relevant
scale items include the following: Company man-
agement cares more about on-time delivery than
my safety; Management turns a blind eye when a
dispatcher bends some safety rules; My supervisor
gives me the freedom to change my schedule when
I see safety problems; and My supervisor pushes me
to keep driving even when I call in to say I feel too
sick or tired.
Universal safety climate scales allow comparisons
between industries and countries as well as aggrega-
tion of data for meta-analytic or longitudinal stud-
ies. Industry-specific scales, on the other hand, allow
creation of industry-specific norms and benchmarks
and provision of rich feedback to participating com-
panies because of their context-rich information.
Whereas universal scales offer advantages associated
with having large standardized databases as well as
conceptual parsimony, industry-specific scales offer
the advantage of collecting rich diagnostic infor-
mation, uncovering also the nature of (implicit)
cues and the kinds of information employees use
in assessing management commitment. Considered
much as possible; Management acts decisively to
correct safety issues; Management turn a blind eye
to safety issues (R); Workers do not receive praise
for working safely (R); and Management considers
the safety of employees of great importance (Cox &
Cheyne, 2000).
A second strategy incorporates items embedded
in specific contexts, turning the measurement scales
into industry-specific climate scales. In this case,
scale development requires a preliminary stage, con-
ducting observations and interviews with front-line
workers, managers, and industry experts. The pur-
pose of such observations and interviews is to iden-
tify the kind of environmental cues most employees
attend to in order to assess management commit-
ment, using protection-related resource investment
as relevant metric. One example is a safety climate
scale developed for the health care industry (Singer,
Meterko, Baker, Gaba, Falwell, & Rosen, 2007).
Scale items include statements such as: Senior man-
agement has a good idea of the kinds of mistakes
that actually occur in this facility; My supervisor
overlooks patient safety problems that happen over
and over; Things “fall between the cracks” when
transferring patients from one unit to another; and
Shift changes are problematic for patients in this
hospital.
A second example includes a safety climate scale
developed for the aviation industry (Ciavarelli,
2003). Industry-specific items include the fol-
lowing: All of our aircraft mechanics are well
Caring
(V1)
Compliance
(V2)
Coaching
(V3)
E3
E2
0.272*
0.215
0.962
0.977*
E1
D2
E5
Climate
(F1)
Safe
Behaviour
(F2)
%Safe
(V5)
0.796*
0.887*
0.755
0.655*
0.638*
0.770
0.000
0.605*
Injury
Frequency
(F3)
TCIR
(V6)
LWDCR
(V7)
D3
E7
E6
0.157
0.998*
β1 = 1.000* β2 = –0.462*
Figure 17.2 Factorial structure of safety climate.
Notes: LWDCR, injury severity; TCIR, injury frequency. Reprinted from Johnson, S. E. (2007). The predictive validity of safety
climate. Journal of Safety Research, 38, 511–521, with permission from Elsevier.
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 329
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 329 11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:50 PM
15. 330 Safety Climate
An exception to the preceding concerns a study
of the effect of conducting after-action reviews
on safety climate in 352 firefighting crews (Allen,
Baran, & Scott, 2010). After-action reviews include
informal discussion of safety-related behaviors and
errors, taking place soon after returning to the
fire station. During such reviews, fire fighters and
supervisors explicate their views and prioritiza-
tion of safety behavior, informing crew members
the priority of safety under a variety of hazardous
fire-fighting scenarios. The frequency of conducting
after-action reviews was shown to predict safety cli-
mate level, yet its effect disappeared for the busiest
fire stations. Such a moderation effect was appar-
ently due to the fact that crew members in the
highly busy stations interpreted their situation as
indication of management unwillingness to invest
in their safety by increasing the number of fire sta-
tions and personnel to relieve their workload.
A series of studies by Zohar and colleagues, con-
ducted in a number of industries and countries,
offers another exception to the lamented paucity
of climate intervention studies (Kines, Andersen,
Spangenberg, Mikkelsen, Dyreborg, & Zohar,
2010; Zohar, 2002b; Zohar & Luria, 2003; Zohar
& Stuewe, 2005). These studies were conducted at
the group level of analysis, using a system for ran-
dom sampling of daily informal leader-member
verbal exchanges and offering individual feedback
to group leaders regarding the extent of inclusion
of safety or protection messages by comparison
with production messages. Studies used a pre- and
post-intervention methodology coupled with com-
parison between experimental and control groups.
Overall, despite some variation between studies,
the data indicated that inclusion of safety messages
during informal or daily leader-member exchanges
co-varied with increased frequency of workers’
observed safety behavior. Safety climate levels, mea-
sured before and after intervention revealed signifi-
cant improvement, accompanied by reduction in
subsequent occupational injury data. Such results
support the current popularity of safety climate/
culture as explanatory mechanism for safety man-
agement programs, highlighting the need for con-
tinued investment in conducting intervention or
action research.
Conclusion
Much of the effort during 30 years of safety
climate research has been focused on two issues
or topics, that is, safety climate measurement and
climate-outcome relationships. Although scholars
as such, both strategies serve complementary goals,
such that their choice should depend on the objec-
tives of climate measurement.
A crucial question in this regard concerns pre-
dictive validity. In other words, which scale type
offer better prediction of occupational accidents?
A recent study tested this question in a sample of
truck drivers by comparing a validated universal
scale with a new industry-specific scale developed
for the trucking industry (Huang et al., 2012).
The safety climate scale used in this study included
universal and trucking-specific items that were ran-
domly mixed. Six months after survey delivery, traf-
fic injury data were collected over a period of the
next 6 months, complementing a safe-driving scale
completed during survey delivery. Predictive validity
was tested by comparing effect sizes for the univer-
sal versus trucking-specific items. Results indicated
that although both item categories offered signifi-
cant prediction of the safe-driving scale and subse-
quent injury data, effect size of the trucking-specific
items was double that of the universal items for both
outcome variables (i.e., increasing R2
from 0.10 to
0.20). Such data support continued use of both cli-
mate scale categories.
Safety Climate Improvement
Despite increasing popularity of safety climate
research there is a paucity of studies testing inter-
vention strategies designed at climate improvement.
By contrast, the practitioner literature abounds with
case studies focusing on safety leadership and safety
climate/culture development and improvement. For
example, a book published by Krause (2005), chair-
man of a global safety consulting company, outlines
a series of intervention strategies designed to develop
safety leadership and improve safety climate in a
range of organizations, industries, and countries.
Following the maxim that leaders create (safety)
climate/culture, intervention strategies include
a mix of techniques such as executive coaching,
leadership development workshops, identification
of safety-critical behaviors (safety communication,
teamwork, management credibility), development
of action plans aimed at reducing the gap between
current and desired levels of safety critical behav-
iors, safety behavior observations, and (personal and
unit-level) feedback processes. Although the book
offers corroborative empirical evidence, the fact is
that (to the best of the author’s knowledge) none
of the projects has been published in scientific jour-
nals, attesting methodological adequacy and/or sci-
entific validity.
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 330
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 330 11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
16. ZOHAR 331
possibilities for developing better safety manage-
ment programs aimed at reducing the loss of life as
well as the billions of dollars lost annually because
of occupational injuries and disease.
References
Allen, J. A., Baran, B. E., & Scott, C. W. (2010). After-action
reviews: a venue for the promotion of safety climate. Accident
Analysis and Prevention, 42, 750–757.
Anderson, N. R., & West, M. A. (1998). Measuring climate for
work group innovation: development and validation of the
team climate inventory. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
19, 235–258.
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1996). Organizational learning: theory,
method, and practice, 2nd ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Ashforth, B. E. (1985). Climate formation: issues and exten-
sions. Academy of Management Review, 10, 837–847.
Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Crossley, C. D., & Luthans, F.
(2009). Psychological ownership: theoretical extensions,
measurement and relation to work outcomes. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 30, 173–191.
Baker, J. A. (2007). The report of the BP US refineries independent
safety review panel. New York: CCPS.
Barling, J., Loughlin, C., & Kelloway, E. K. (2002). Development
and test of a model linking safety-specific transforma-
tional leadership and occupational safety. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 87, 488–496.
Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of
Consumer Research, 15, 139–168.
Beus, J. M., Payne, S. C., Bergman, M. E., & Arthur, W. (2010).
Safety climate and injuries: an examination of theoretical
and empirical relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95,
713–727.
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York:
Wiley.
Brown, A. (2000). Making sense of inquiry sensemaking. Journal
of Management Studies, 37, 45–75.
Bureau of Economic Analysis (2008). http://www.bea.gov/
national/index.htm#gdp/.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010). http://www.bls.gov/iif/.
Cameron, K. S., & Quinn, R. E. (1999). Diagnosing and chang-
ing organizational culture. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Campbell, J. P., McCloy, R. A., Oppler, S. H., & Sager, C. E.
(1993). A theory of performance. In Schmitt, J., Borman, W.
C., et al. Personnel selection in organizations (pp. 35–69). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Chan, D. (1998). Functional relations among constructs in the
same content domain at different levels of analysis: a typol-
ogy of composition models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83,
234–246.
Chiles, J. R. (2001). Inviting disaster: Lessons from the edge of tech-
nology. New York: Harper Business
Christian, M. S., Bradley, J. C., Wallace, J. C., & Burke, M.
J. (2009). Workplace safety: a meta-analysis of the roles of
person and situation factors. Journal of Applied Psychology,
94, 1103–1127.
Ciavarelli, A. (2003). Organizational risk assessment: the role of
safety culture. Human Performance Laboratory. Moffett
Field, CA: NASA-Ames Research Center.
Clarke, S. (2006). Contrasting perceptual, attitudinal and dis-
positional approaches to accident involvement in the work-
place. Safety Science, 44, 537–550.
lamented on conceptual ambiguity and the multi-
tude of published safety climate scales (Flin et al.,
2000; Guldenmund, 2010), it seems that common
agreement has emerged regarding the core mean-
ing of safety climate and its proper measurement
methodology. Furthermore, the series of recent
meta-analyses have offered converging evidence
regarding the robustness of climate-outcome rela-
tionships, referring both to safety performance and
injury outcomes (Beus et al., 2010; Christian et al.,
2009; Clarke, 2010; Nahrgang et al., 2011). Given
this state of affairs it seems that time has come to
turn attention to study and expand the nomologi-
cal network of this construct, including its distal
and proximal antecedents and consequences and
the inclusion of contextual variables as moderators
or mediators affecting its relationships with other
variables.
Two other issues deserve scientific attention. First,
given that employees develop co-existing specific
climates, inter-climate relationships must be inves-
tigated. As noted by Zohar and Hofmann (in press),
specific climates may exist independently of each
other, interact with each other, or assume causal rela-
tionships in which one climate promotes emergence
of another. In the case of safety climate, it is quite
possible that it interacts with some other specific
climates such as internal flexibility (MacCormick
& Parker, 2010), innovation (Anderson & West,
1998), learning (Skerlavaj, Stemberger, Skinjar,
& Dimovski, 2007), or involvement climate
(Richardson & Vandenberg, 2005). Likewise, it is
possible that work ownership climate, indicative of
a work context encouraging employees to perceive
work as extension of self, serves as a foundation
climate (Schneider et al., 2011; Wallace, Popp, &
Mondore, 2006), promoting the emergence of safety
climate (Zohar et al., 2011). Such research would
offer increasingly realistic analysis of the manner by
which organizational climate influences role behav-
ior and organizational outcomes.
A second issue concerns distinctions between
safety climate and culture. Currently, despite obvi-
ous qualifications separating the two constructs,
many scholars and most practitioners use them
interchangeably, harming discriminant validity of
both constructs. Although a discussion of differ-
ences between them is beyond the scope of this
chapter, there is clearly a need for research aiming
at operationalizing both in order to collect empiri-
cal evidence regarding the nature of their relation-
ships. Such research would help reduce conceptual
ambiguity in this field of research, offering also
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 331
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 331 11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
17. 332 Safety Climate
Hardin, C., & Higgins, E. T. (1995). Shared reality: how
social verification makes the subjective objective. In R. M.
Sorrentino, & E.T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and
cognition: foundations of social behavior, 3rd ed. (pp. 28–42).
New York: Guilford.
Hofmann, D. A., & Morgeson, F. P. (1999). Safety-related
behavior as a social exchange: the role of perceived organi-
zational support and leader-member exchange. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 84, 286–296.
Hofmann, D. A., & Morgeson, F. P. (2004). The role of lead-
ership in safety. In J. Barling, & M. Frone (Eds.), The psy-
chology of workplace safety (pp. 159–180). Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association.
Hofmann, D. A., Morgeson, F. P., & Gerras, S. J. (2003).
Climate as a moderator of the relationship between LMX
and content-specific citizenship behavior: safety climate as an
exemplar. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 170–178.
Hofmann, D. A., & Stetzer, A. (1996). A cross-level investiga-
tion of factors influencing unsafe behaviors and accidents.
Personnel Psychology, 49, 307–339.
House, R. J., Rousseau, D. M., & Thomas-Hunt, M. (1995).
The meso paradigm: a framework for the integration of
micro and macro organizational behavior. Research in
Organizational Behavior, 17, 71–114.
House, R. J., & Shamir, B. (1993). Toward the integration of
transformational, charismatic, and visionary theories. In
M. M. Chemers, & R. Ayman (Eds.), Leadership theory
and research: perspectives and directions (pp. 81–103). San
Diego: Academic Press.
Huang, Y. H., Chen, P. Y., & Grosch, J. W. (2010). Safety cli-
mate: new developments in conceptualization, theory, and
research. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42, 1421–1422.
Huang, Y. H., Zohar, D., Robertson, M., & Lee, J. (2012).
Development and validation of safety climate scales for the truck-
ing industry. Hopkinton, MA: LM Research Institute for Safety.
Humphrey, S. E., Moon, H., Conlon, D. E., & Hofmann, D.
A. (2004). Decision-making and behavior fluidity: how
focus on completion and emphasis on safety changes over
the course of projects. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, 93, 14–27.
IAEA (2005). Chernobyl’s legacy: health, environmental and
socio-economic impacts, 2nd ed. Vienna: IAEA Public.
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology, Vol. 1. New York:
Henry Holt.
Johnson, S. E. (2007). The predictive validity of safety climate.
Journal of Safety Research, 38, 511–521.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organiza-
tions, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.
Kines, P., Andersen, L. P., Spangenberg, S., Mikkelsen, K. L.,
Dyreborg, J., & Zohar, D. (2010). Improving construction
site safety through leader-based verbal safety communica-
tion. Journal of Safety Research, 41, 399–406.
Kirkpatrick, S. A., & Locke, E. A. (1996). Direct and indirect
effects of three core charismatic leadership components on
performance and attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology,
81, 36–51.
Klauss, R., & Bass, B. M. (1982). Interpersonal communication in
organizations. New York: Academic Press.
Kozlowski, S. W., & Doherty, M. L. (1989). Integration of
climate and leadership: examination of a neglected issue.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 546–553.
Kozlowski, S. W., & Klein, K. J. (2000). A multilevel approach
to theory and research in organizations: contextual, temporal,
Clarke, S. (2010). An integrative model of safety climate: link-
ing psychological climate to individual safety outcomes using
meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology, 83, 553–578.
Clarke, S., & Ward, K. (2006). The role of leader influence tac-
tics and safety climate in engaging employees’ safety partici-
pation. Risk Analysis, 26, 1175–1185.
Cox, S. J., & Cheyne, A. J. (2000). Assessing safety culture in
offshore environments. Safety Science, 34, 111–129.
Cox, S. J., & Flin, R. (1998). Safety culture: philosopher’s stone
or man of straw? Work & Stress, 12, 189–201.
Crandall, B., Klein, G., & Hofman, R. R. (2006). Working
minds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange
theory: an interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management,
31, 874–900.
Dedobbeleer, N., & Beland, F. (1991). A safety climate measure
for construction sites. Journal of Safety Research, 22, 97–103.
DeJoy, D., Schaffer, B., Wilson, M., Vandenberg, R., & Butts,
M. (2004). Creating safer workplaces: assessing the determi-
nants and role of safety climate. Journal of Safety Research,
35, 81–90.
Dragoni, L. (2005). Understanding the emergence of state
goal-orientation in organizational work groups: the role of
leadership and multilevel climate perceptions. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 90, 1084–1095.
Epstein, S. (1973). The self-concept revisited. American
Psychologist, May, 404–416.
Fahlbruch, B., & Wilpert, B. (1999). System safety: an emerging
field for I/O psychology. In C. L. Cooper, & I. T. Robertson
(Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational
psychology, Vol. 14 (pp. 55–93). New York: Wiley.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes.
Human Relations, 7, 117–140.
Flin, R., Mearns, P., O’Connor, R., & Bryden, R. (2000).
Measuring safety climate: identifying the common features.
Safety Science, 34, 177–192.
Glendon, I. (2008). Safety culture and safety climate: How far
have we come and where could we be heading? Journal of
Occupational Health and Safety, 24, 249–271.
Glendon, I., Clarke, S. H., & McKenna, E. F. (2006). Human
safety and risk management, 2nd ed. New York: Taylor &
Francis.
Gonzalez-Roma, V., Peiro, J. M., & Tordera, N. (2002). An
examination of the antecedents and moderator influences of
climate strength. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 465–473.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Why g matters: the complexity of
everyday life. Intelligence, 24, 79–132.
Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1988). Signal detection theory and
psychophysics. Los Altos, CA: Peninsula Press (Original work
published in 1966).
Griffin, M. A., & Neal, A. (2000). Perceptions of safety at
work: a framework for linking safety climate to safety perfor-
mance, knowledge, and motivation. Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology, 5, 347–358.
Guldenmund, F. W. (2010). Understanding and exploring safety
culture. The Hague, Netherlands: Printyourthesis.com
Hage, J., & Aiken, M. (1969). Routine technology, social
structure, and organizational goals. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 14, 366–378.
Halbesleben, J. R. (2010). The role of exhaustion and work-
arounds in predicting occupational injuries. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 15, 1–16.
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 332
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 332 11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
18. ZOHAR 333
& S. Highhouse (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology, Vol.
12: Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 643–676).
New York: Wiley.
Pate-Cornell, M. E. (1990). Organizational aspects of engineer-
ing system safety: the case of offshore platforms. Science, 250,
1210–1217.
Patterson, M., Payne, R., & West, M. (1996). Collective cli-
mates: a test of their sociopsychological significance. Academy
of Management Journal, 39, 1675–1691.
Perrow, C. (1967). A framework for the comparative analysis of
organizations. American Sociological Review, 32, 194–208.
Pierce, J. L., Jussila, I., & Cummings, A. (2009). Psychological
ownership within the job design context: revision of the job
characteristics model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30,
477–496.
Pierce, J. L., Kostova, T., & Dirks, K. T. (2001). Toward a theory
of psychological ownership in organizations. Academy of
Management Review, 26, 298–310.
Pierce, J. L., Kostova, T., & Dirks, K. T. (2003). The state of psy-
chological ownership: integrating and extending a century of
research. Review of General Psychology, 7, 84–107.
Reason, J. T. (1997). Managing the risks of organizational acci-
dents. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Reichers, A. E., & Schneider, B. (1990). Climate and culture: an
evolution of constructs. In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational
climate and culture (pp. 5–39). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Richardson, H. A., & Vandenberg, R. J. (2005). Integrating
managerial perceptions and transformational leadership into
a work-unit level model of employee involvement. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 26, 561–589.
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The
measurement of work engagement with a short question-
naire: a cross-national study. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 66, 701–716.
Schaufeli, W.B., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma, V., & Bakker, A.
B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: a
confirmative analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies,
3, 71–92.
Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership, 3rd
ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schneider, B. (1975). Organizational climates: an essay. Personnel
Psychology, 28, 447–479.
Schneider, B., & Reichers, A. E. (1983). On the etiology of cli-
mates. Personnel Psychology, 36, 19–39.
Schneider, B., Ehrhart, M. G., & Macey, W. H. (2011).
Perspectives on organizational climate and culture. In S.
Zedeck (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and organizational psy-
chology, Vol. 1 (pp. 373–414). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Shattuck, L. & Miller, N. T. (2006). Extending naturalistic deci-
sion making to complex organizations: a dynamic model of
situated cognition. Organization Studies, 27, 989–1009.
Simons, T. (2002). Behavioral integrity: the perceived alignment
between managers’ words and deeds as a research focus.
Organization Science, 13, 18–35.
Simpson, M. R. (2009). Engagement at work: a review of the
literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 46,
1012–1024.
Singer, S., Meterko, M., Baker, L., Gaba, D., Falwell, A., &
Rosen, A. (2007). Workforce perceptions of hospital safety
culture: development and validation of the patient safety
climate in healthcare organizations survey. Health Services
Research, 42, 1999–2021.
and emergent processes. In K. J. Kline, & S. W. Kozlowski
(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organiza-
tions (pp. 3–90). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Krause, T. R. (2005). Leading with safety. New York: Wiley.
Kuenzi, M., & Schminke, M. (2009). Assembling fragments
into a lens: a review, critique, and proposed research agenda
for the organizational work climate literature. Journal of
Management, 35, 634–717.
Lawler, E. E. (1971). Pay and organizational effectiveness: a psy-
chological view. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of
aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates.
Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271–299.
Lipshitz, R., Klein, G., & Orasanu, J. (2001). Taking stock of
naturalistic decision making. Journal of Behavioral Decision
Making, 14, 331–352.
MacCormick, J. S., & Parker, S. K. (2010). A multiple climates
approach to understanding business unit effectiveness.
Human Relations, 63, 1771–1806.
Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee
engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
1, 3–30.
Madsen, P. M. (2013). Perils and profits: a re-examination of the
link between profitability and safety in US aviation. Journal
of Management, 39, 763–791.
March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1959). Organizations. New York:
Wiley.
Marsh, H. W. (2006). Self-concept theory, measurement and
research into practice: the role of self-concept in educational psy-
chology. Leicester, UK: British Psychological Society.
McClelland, D. (1951). Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston.
Mueller, L., DaSilva, N., Townsend, J., & Tetrick, L. (1999). An
empirical evaluation of competing safety climate measurement
models. Paper presented at the 1999 annual meeting of the
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta.
Nahrgang, J. D., Morgeson, F. P., & Hofmann, D. A. (2008).
Predicting safety performance: a meta-analysis of safety and
organizational constructs. Presented at the annual meeting
of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
April, San Francisco.
Nahrgang, J. D., Morgeson, F. P., & Hofmann, D. A. (2011).
Predicting safety performance: a meta-analysis of safety
and organizational constructs. Journal of Applied Psychology,
96, 71–94.
Neal, A., & Griffin, M. A. (2004). Safety climate and safety at
work. In J. Barling, & M. R. Frone (Eds.), The psychology
of workplace safety (pp. 15–34). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Neal, A., & Griffin, M.A. (2006). A study of the lagged relation-
ships among safety climate, safety motivation, safety behav-
ior, and accidents at the individual and group levels. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 91, 946–953.
Neal, A., Griffin, M. A., & Hart, P. M. (2000). The impact
of organizational climate on safety climate and individual
behavior. Safety Science, 34, 99–109.
O’Driscoll, M. P., Pierce, J. L., & Coghlan, A.M. (2006).
The psychology of ownership. Group and Organization
Management, 31, 388–416.
OHSAS 18001 (2000). Occupational health and safety manage-
ment systems. Sheffield, England: BSI Standards Publications.
Ostroff, C., Kinicki, A. J., & Muhammad, R. S. (2012).
Organizational culture and climate. In N. Schmitt,
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 333
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 333 11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
19. 334 Safety Climate
Zohar, D. (2002b). Modifying supervisory practices to improve
sub-unit safety: a leadership-based intervention model.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 156–163.
Zohar, D. (2003). The influence of leadership and climate on
occupational health and safety. In D. A. Hofmann, & L. E.
Tetrick (Eds.), Health and safety in organizations: a multilevel
perspective (pp. 201–230). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Zohar, D. (2011). Safety climate: conceptual and measurement
issues. In J. C. Quick, & L. E. Tetrick (eds.), Handbook
of occupational health psychology, 2nd ed. (pp. 141–164).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Zohar, D., & Faraj, E. (2011). Work ownership among electric
utility workers as antecedent of safety climate and safety per-
formance. Haifa, Israel: Technion Center for Human Factors
and Safety Research, Technical report series.
Zohar, D., & Hofmann, D. (2012). Organizational culture and
climate. In S. Kozlowski (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and
organizational psychology (pp. 643–666). New York: Oxford
University Press.
Zohar, D., Huang, Y. H., Robertson, M., & Lee, J. (2011).
Organizational climate for lone workers: antecedents and
consequences of safety climate for long-haul truck drivers.
Hopkinton, MA: LM Research Institute for Safety.
Zohar, D., & Luria, G. (2003). The use of supervisory practices
as leverage to improve safety behavior: a cross-level interven-
tion model. Journal of Safety Research, 34, 567–577.
Zohar, D., & Luria, G. (2004). Climate as a social-cognitive con-
struction of supervisory safety practices: scripts as proxy of
behavior patterns. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 322–333.
Zohar, D., & Luria, G. (2005). A multilevel model of safety
climate: cross-level relationships between organization
and group-level climates. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90,
616–628.
Zohar, D., & Luria, G. (2010). Group leaders as gatekeep-
ers: testing safety climate variations across levels of analysis.
Applied Psychology: An International Review, 59, 647–673.
Zohar, D., & Stuewe, D. (2005). Improvement of safety climate
and safety leadership in a heavy steel manufacturing plant.
Haifa, Israel: Technion Center for Human Factors and Safety
Research, Technical report series.
Zohar, D., & Tenne-Gazit, O. (2008). Transformational lead-
ership and group interaction as climate antecedents: a
social network analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93,
744–757.
Skerlavaj, M., Stemberger, M. I., Skinjar, R., & Dimovski, V.
(2007). Organizational learning culture: the missing link
between business process change and organizational perfor-
mance. International Journal for Production Economics, 106,
346–367.
Stryker, S. (2008). From Mead to structural symbolic interac-
tionism and beyond. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 15–31.
Van Dyne, L. & Pierce, J. L. (2004). Psychological ownership
and feelings of possession: three field studies predicting
employee attitudes and organizational citizenship behavior.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 439–459.
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
Wallas, C., & Chen, G. (2006). A multilevel integration of per-
sonality, climate, self-regulation, and performance. Personnel
Psychology, 59, 529–557.
Wallace, J. C., Popp, E., & Mondore, S. (2006). Safety climate
as a mediator between foundation climates and occupational
accidents: a group-level investigation. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 91, 681–688.
Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Weick, K. E. (2005). Managing the unexpected: Complexity
as distributed sensemaking. In R. R. McDaniel, & D.J.
Driebe (Eds.), Uncertainty and surprises in complex systems
(pp. 51–65). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (1999).
Organizing for high reliability: processes of collective mind-
fulness. Research in Organizational Behavior, 21, 81–123.
Wickens, C. (1992). Engineering psychology and human perfor-
mance. New York: HarperCollins.
Williamson, A. M., Feyer, A., Cairns, D., & Biancotti, D. (1997).
The development of a measure of safety climate: the role of
safety perceptions and attitudes. Safety Science, 25, 15–27.
World Health Organization (2008). http://www.who.int/
occupational_health/en/.
Zohar, D. (1980). Safety climate in industrial organiza-
tions: theoretical and applied implications. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 65, 96–102.
Zohar, D. (2000). A group-level model of safety climate: testing
the effect of group climate on micro-accidents in manufac-
turing jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 587–596.
Zohar, D. (2002a). The effects of leadership dimensions, safety
climate, and assigned priorities on minor injuries in work
groups. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 75–92.
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Mon Nov 04 2013, NEWGEN
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 334
17_Schneider_Ch17.indd 334 11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
11/4/2013 9:11:51 PM
View publication stats
View publication stats