Running head: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
1
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
2
Environmental Science
Student’s Name
University Affiliation
Environmental Science
Environmental science part 1
1page Define stewardship and define sustainability.
Stewardship of the ecosystem refers to a framework that is action-oriented and that seeks to develop the sustainability of the socio-ecological environment of a planet that is rapidly changing planet. It considers the means through which the resources availed by the environment are managed with the intent of ensuring they are not wasted or exhausted. Sustainability on the other hand refers to the facilitation of current needs by using the environment without jeopardizing future generations’ ability to meet their needs.
Considering the Amazon forest, there are several considerations that can be made in light of the stewardship and sustainable utilization of the resource. To begin with, it is imperative that Amazon resource are conserved by being included as a conservation reserve and marked for protection and sustainability. Additionally, it could be placed under a covenant of conservation. There should also be an inventory of the natural resources in the Amazon including a comprehensive inventory of the biological resources found in the forest and which should be monitored within regular intervals. Additionally, there should be increased research on the identification of maintenance procedures of proper biological and physical processes from the forest. There should also be policies set that determine the sustainable utilization of timber from the Amazon rainforest according to proper standards that will ensure that future generations use of the same is not endangered (Chapin III & Matson, 2011).
The environmental implications that can arise as a result of deforestation of the Amazon forest are innumerable. To begin with animals dependent on the forest would find it difficult to survive and, therefore, may become extinct. This would make them unavailable for future generations. Additionally, deforestation leads to an imbalance between the carbon dioxide: oxygen ratio in the atmosphere. As a result, air pollution will become aggravated.
PART 2
Ecosystems and How They Work - Sustainable Development close
In this assignment, you will investigate the biotic and abiotic structure and function of an ecosystem. Choose one of the following ecosystems:
Tropical rainforest
An ecosystem refers to a correlated community of both living and non-living organisms and the environment in which they are found. It comprises an abiotic and biotic component. For this discussion the ecosystem chosen is a tropical rainforest. The biome of a rainforest is highly complex as it comprises a myriad of various plant and animal species which are adapted to surviving under rainy conditions. An example is the Amazon rainforest. In the rainforest ecosystem there exist various plant levels, with the highest being the tall trees that fo.
The document discusses patterns in nature at various scales from geological processes that form landscapes to ecological patterns like nutrient cycling and succession. It notes how patterns are constantly changing in response to disturbances from forces like climate change. While natural disturbances are usually temporary, human impacts are often permanent and disruptive to natural patterns. Maintaining biodiversity is important for ecosystem resilience against environmental changes.
Est ch.3 ecosystem and biodiversity part1,2,3Meghana Wagh
This document provides information about an Environmental Studies course covering ecosystems and biodiversity. It discusses key topics like the definition of an ecosystem, its structural and functional aspects, producers and consumers, energy flow and nutrient cycles. It also defines biodiversity and describes the different levels and value of biodiversity. Some of the major threats to biodiversity like habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species and co-extinction are outlined. Important biodiversity hotspots in India like the Western Ghats, Himalayas and Indo-Burma region are identified along with reasons for their endangered status. The document is meant to inform students about important concepts and issues related to ecosystems and biodiversity conservation.
Energy flows through ecosystems in various forms as it moves between organisms. Solar energy is captured by producers like plants through photosynthesis and stored as chemical energy in carbon-carbon bonds. This energy then moves to primary consumers which eat the producers. Higher-level consumers eat the primary consumers, transporting the energy. Decomposers break down waste and release energy. Maintaining balance and biodiversity in ecosystems is important for sustaining crop production, as it ensures nutrient recycling, pest control, and soil health. Factors like resource availability can limit ecosystem functioning.
Ecology is the study of organisms and their interactions with each other and their environments. It examines these relationships at various levels from individual organisms to the entire biosphere. Understanding ecology is important for environmental conservation, proper resource allocation, energy conservation, promoting eco-friendly practices, and aiding disease and pest control. Examples of specific areas of ecology include human ecology, which examines human relationships with the environment, and niche construction ecology, which studies how organisms alter their environments.
WHAT-IS-FOREST-ECOLOGY.pdf A Powerpoint PresentationAlliah36
This document provides definitions and information about forest ecology. It defines ecology as the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna and ecosystems in forests. A forest ecosystem is described as a natural woodland unit consisting of all biotic and abiotic factors functioning together. Forest ecology studies the components, structure and function of forest ecosystems. It also outlines the hierarchical levels of ecological organization from species to biosphere and defines important ecological concepts like the laws of ecology and divisions of ecology.
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. It was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from the Greek words "oikos" meaning house or environment, and "logos" meaning study. Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of organisms and the interactions between organisms and their physical and biological environment. It examines these relationships at different levels of organization from organisms to ecosystems. Ecology is important for understanding how to maintain a healthy biosphere and sustainable use of natural resources through principles of conservation.
This document provides information about ecosystems, including:
1. An ecosystem consists of organisms and their environment interacting in cyclical material and energy exchanges. Ecosystems can be terrestrial, freshwater, marine, or oceanic.
2. Ecosystems have biotic components (living organisms) and abiotic components (non-living physical and chemical elements). Organisms play roles as producers, consumers, or decomposers in ecosystems.
3. Ecosystem functions include regulatory, habitat, production, and information functions that provide goods and services for organisms, including humans. Biogeochemical cycles circulate important elements like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur through ecosystems.
The document discusses patterns in nature at various scales from geological processes that form landscapes to ecological patterns like nutrient cycling and succession. It notes how patterns are constantly changing in response to disturbances from forces like climate change. While natural disturbances are usually temporary, human impacts are often permanent and disruptive to natural patterns. Maintaining biodiversity is important for ecosystem resilience against environmental changes.
Est ch.3 ecosystem and biodiversity part1,2,3Meghana Wagh
This document provides information about an Environmental Studies course covering ecosystems and biodiversity. It discusses key topics like the definition of an ecosystem, its structural and functional aspects, producers and consumers, energy flow and nutrient cycles. It also defines biodiversity and describes the different levels and value of biodiversity. Some of the major threats to biodiversity like habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species and co-extinction are outlined. Important biodiversity hotspots in India like the Western Ghats, Himalayas and Indo-Burma region are identified along with reasons for their endangered status. The document is meant to inform students about important concepts and issues related to ecosystems and biodiversity conservation.
Energy flows through ecosystems in various forms as it moves between organisms. Solar energy is captured by producers like plants through photosynthesis and stored as chemical energy in carbon-carbon bonds. This energy then moves to primary consumers which eat the producers. Higher-level consumers eat the primary consumers, transporting the energy. Decomposers break down waste and release energy. Maintaining balance and biodiversity in ecosystems is important for sustaining crop production, as it ensures nutrient recycling, pest control, and soil health. Factors like resource availability can limit ecosystem functioning.
Ecology is the study of organisms and their interactions with each other and their environments. It examines these relationships at various levels from individual organisms to the entire biosphere. Understanding ecology is important for environmental conservation, proper resource allocation, energy conservation, promoting eco-friendly practices, and aiding disease and pest control. Examples of specific areas of ecology include human ecology, which examines human relationships with the environment, and niche construction ecology, which studies how organisms alter their environments.
WHAT-IS-FOREST-ECOLOGY.pdf A Powerpoint PresentationAlliah36
This document provides definitions and information about forest ecology. It defines ecology as the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna and ecosystems in forests. A forest ecosystem is described as a natural woodland unit consisting of all biotic and abiotic factors functioning together. Forest ecology studies the components, structure and function of forest ecosystems. It also outlines the hierarchical levels of ecological organization from species to biosphere and defines important ecological concepts like the laws of ecology and divisions of ecology.
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. It was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from the Greek words "oikos" meaning house or environment, and "logos" meaning study. Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of organisms and the interactions between organisms and their physical and biological environment. It examines these relationships at different levels of organization from organisms to ecosystems. Ecology is important for understanding how to maintain a healthy biosphere and sustainable use of natural resources through principles of conservation.
This document provides information about ecosystems, including:
1. An ecosystem consists of organisms and their environment interacting in cyclical material and energy exchanges. Ecosystems can be terrestrial, freshwater, marine, or oceanic.
2. Ecosystems have biotic components (living organisms) and abiotic components (non-living physical and chemical elements). Organisms play roles as producers, consumers, or decomposers in ecosystems.
3. Ecosystem functions include regulatory, habitat, production, and information functions that provide goods and services for organisms, including humans. Biogeochemical cycles circulate important elements like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur through ecosystems.
The document discusses integrating an ecological approach into watershed management. It explains that the current approach focuses on engineering structures and soil conservation measures, but lacks consideration of natural processes and biodiversity. An ecological approach involves understanding land as a mosaic of habitats, and designing management practices and forest cover to maintain natural ecosystem functions like nutrient cycling and water flow. This helps sustain natural services like water purification and flood mitigation. The document proposes surveying watershed conditions and designing restoration measures for streams, forests, and riparian areas to re-establish stable, self-sustaining ecosystems.
The document discusses integrating an ecological approach into watershed management. It explains that the current approach focuses on engineering structures and soil conservation, while an ecological approach understands watersheds as mosaics of land features with associated vegetation. It recommends surveying watersheds, streams, and vegetation to design restoration measures that maintain natural processes and services like water purification and habitat provision. Forest cover designs should associate different land features with suitable native plant species to support physical and biological functions across the landscape.
This document provides an introduction to ecology, including definitions of key terms and concepts. It explains that ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environments. It describes the different levels of ecological organization from the biosphere down to the individual organism. It also defines biomes as large geographical areas with similar climates and ecosystems, and lists some major biomes such as tundra, taiga, and tropical rainforest. Finally, it discusses adaptations as traits that enhance an organism's survival and are maintained by natural selection.
The document discusses the key components of an ecosystem. It defines an ecosystem as a biological community that occurs in some locale, along with the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living environment. The four main components of an ecosystem are identified as: 1) abiotic substances like carbon dioxide and water; 2) producers like plants that capture energy; 3) consumers like herbivores and carnivores that eat other organisms; and 4) decomposers like fungi and bacteria that break down dead matter and waste. An ecosystem is described as a network of interactions between living organisms and their environment, with energy and nutrients cycling between the different components.
This document provides an introduction to environmental science and ecology. It defines key terms like environment, environmental science, and ecology. It explains that environmental science is interdisciplinary and involves subjects like biology, geology, and economics. It also describes different types of ecosystems like natural, artificial, terrestrial and aquatic. Finally, it discusses the structure and functions of ecosystems, including species composition, trophic levels, nutrient cycling, and energy flow.
This document provides an overview of environmental science. It discusses that environmental science deals with studying human and natural systems and their interactions. It involves fields like geography, zoology, physics, ecology, and oceanology. Environmental science also includes environmental studies, which analyzes human interactions with the environment, and environmental engineering, which focuses on analyzing environmental problems and their solutions. The document outlines some key components of environmental science like ecology, geoscience, atmospheric science, and environmental chemistry. It emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of environmental science and its importance in addressing growing environmental challenges.
This lecture provides an introduction to ecology and sustainable development. It defines key ecological terms like ecology, ecosystem, biotic and abiotic factors. It describes different levels of ecology from organism to biosphere. It also explains environmental cycles like carbon, nitrogen and water cycles. Additionally, it covers energy flow in ecosystems through food chains, food webs and food pyramids. The lecture discusses the concept of carrying capacity and how human activities can impact an ecosystem's carrying capacity. Finally, it lists the expected learning outcomes of the course.
The document discusses the components of an ecosystem. It defines an ecosystem as a biological community that occurs in some locale, along with the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living environment. The key components of an ecosystem discussed are: 1) abiotic substances like carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients that organisms interact with, 2) producers like plants that capture energy, 3) consumers like herbivores and carnivores that eat other organisms, and 4) decomposers like fungi and bacteria that break down dead matter and waste. Together, the interaction of these living and non-living components drive ecosystem processes like nutrient cycling and energy flow.
The document discusses key topics related to the environment and sustainability. It defines environment and explains the natural and built components. It then covers issues like climate change, describing its causes as fossil fuel use and deforestation, and effects such as rising temperatures and extreme weather. The document also defines ecosystems and food webs, explaining how energy flows from producers to higher trophic levels and how food webs maintain biodiversity and ecosystem health.
Ecological Concepts, Principles and Applications to Conservation Ghassan Hadi
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth at all levels, including ecosystems, species, and genes. It has three primary attributes: composition, structure, and function. Biodiversity provides many benefits to humans through ecosystem services like food production, water filtration, and cultural services. Maintaining biodiversity preserves future options and supports ecosystem productivity and human well-being.
This document contains a presentation on the topic of environment. It discusses key concepts like ecology, ecosystems, conservation of the environment, and optimal utilization of natural resources.
The objectives of the presentation are to understand the importance of environment, the objectives of conserving it, different types of natural resources, conflicts over resources, global and local environmental issues.
The presentation covers various components of the environment like biotic and abiotic factors. It explains concepts such as ecology, ecosystems, nutrient cycles, energy flow and limiting factors. It emphasizes the importance of conservation and discusses types of conservation like energy, water, soil and plant conservation. Sustainable use of resources and reducing environmental footprint are highlighted as important ways to conserve the environment.
An Expository Essay On Ecology And Environmental PlanningMonica Franklin
This document provides an overview of ecology, environment, planning, and ecological and environmental planning. It defines ecology as the scientific study of organism's interactions with each other and their environment. Environment refers to the natural and built surroundings that influence organisms. Planning involves decision making to achieve future goals using limited resources. Ecological and environmental planning integrates environmental and ecological factors into planning to manage human impacts on the environment and balance human activities with natural ecosystems. It has become important for sustainable development and enhancing environments.
This document provides an overview of environmental science as a subject area. It discusses how environmental science is multidisciplinary, drawing from fields like biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, economics and more. The document also outlines the scope of environmental studies, explaining that it examines how different areas combine to inform understanding of humanity's impact on the natural world. Additionally, it discusses the importance of environmental education for sustainable development and preserving limited natural resources for future generations.
A biosphere reserve is divided into three zones: the core zone where no human activity is allowed, the buffer zone where limited human activity is permitted, and the manipulation zone where several human activities like settlements, cropping, and forestry can occur. Biosphere reserves aim to preserve wildlife populations, tribal lifestyles, and genetic resources while also supporting conservation, economic development, and scientific research. India has 14 biosphere reserves that help protect biodiversity in sacred forests and lakes. Ex situ conservation strategies like botanical gardens and gene banks also help preserve species and genetic resources.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field that studies the connections between living and non-living parts of the environment. It aims to understand environmental problems, their causes, and potential solutions. Key principles from nature like solar energy, biodiversity, and nutrient cycling have allowed life to thrive on Earth for billions of years and provide lessons for sustainable living. While more developed countries use most resources, all nations must work to protect natural systems and resources for future generations.
The document discusses environmental studies and provides definitions and explanations of key concepts. It begins by describing the physical elements of the environment including landforms, water bodies, climate, and soils. It then defines the environment as the total set of circumstances surrounding life, including both living and non-living things. Environmental science is described as integrating various sciences to study our life-supporting environment and understand causes and solutions to problems. The document outlines various components of the environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. It also discusses the importance of environmental education, awareness, and management.
Ecology is the scientific study of organisms `at home' which is called as the `environment'. The term `environment' refers to those parts of the world or the total set of circumstances which surround an organism or a group of organisms.
The document defines environment and environmental science. It states that environment includes all physical and biological factors surrounding organisms and their interactions. Environmental science is a multidisciplinary field concerning conservation of nature and resources, pollution control, population issues, and more. The document also discusses ecosystems, including their components, functions, types of food chains and webs, ecological succession, and ecological pyramids.
Environment literally means surrounding and everything that affect an organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment. In another words “Environment is sum total of water, air and land interrelationships among themselves and also with the human being, other living organisms and property”. It includes all the physical and biological surrounding and their interactions.
Environmental studies provide an approach towards understanding the environment of our planet and the impact of human life upon the environment.
Thus environment is actually global in nature, it is a multidisciplinary subject including physics, geology, geography, history, economics, physiology, biotechnology, remote sensing, geophysics, soil science and hydrology etc. Scope of Environmental Science Environmental science is a multidisciplinary science whose basic aspects have a direct relevance to every section of the society.
Its main aspects are:
• Conservation of nature and natural resources.
• Conservation of biological diversity.
• Control of environmental pollution.
• Stabilization of human population and environment.
• Social issues in relation to development and environment.
• Development of non-polluting renewable energy system and providing new dimension to nation’s security. Importance of Environmental Science Environment belongs to all the living beings and thus is, important for all.
Each and every body of whatever occupation he or she may have, is affected by environmental issues like global warming, depletion of ozone layer, dwindling forest, energy resources, loss of global biodiversity etc.
Environment study deals with the analysis of the processes in water, air, land, soil and organisms which leads to pollute or degrade environment. It helps us for establishing standard,Environment and Ecology for safe, clean and healthy natural ecosystem.
It also deals with important issues like safe and clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions and clean and fresh air, fertility of land, healthy food and development. Sustainable environmental law, business administration, environmental protection, management and environmental engineering are immerging as new career opportunities for environment protection and managements.
Need for Public Awareness With the ever increasing development by modern man, large scale degradation of natural resources have been occurred, the public has to be educated about the fact that if we are degrading our environment we are actually harming ourselves.
To encourage meaningful public participation and environment, it is necessary to create awareness about environment pollution and related adverse effects. The United Nations conference on Environment and Development held in Rio-de-Janeiro, followed by Earth summit on sustainable Development have high-lighted the key issues of global environmental concern and have attracted the general public towards the...
[Ostrom, 2009] a general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-e...FiorellaIsabelCampos1
This document presents a framework for analyzing the sustainability of social-ecological systems (SESs). The framework identifies four core subsystems that interact within an SES: resource systems, resource units, governance systems, and users. It then identifies 10 variables within these subsystems that are frequently found to affect the likelihood of users self-organizing to manage resources and achieve sustainability. These variables influence the perceived costs and benefits of investing in governance systems, such as the size of the resource system, its productivity, clarity of system boundaries, and collective-choice arrangements. The framework is intended to facilitate multidisciplinary analysis of complex SESs by providing a common structure for organizing knowledge about factors influencing sustainability.
in addition to these questions also answer the following;Answer .docxcharisellington63520
in addition to these questions also answer the following;
Answer the Stop and Consider question on page 319.
Differentiate neurologic and hormonal response to stress
Answer all questions in a Word Document and include the following:
Your name
Label each answer
Include references
Include In-text citations
Use APA Format
.
In an environment of compliancy laws, regulations, and standards, in.docxcharisellington63520
In an environment of compliancy laws, regulations, and standards, information technology (IT) departments in organizations must develop comprehensive organizational policies to support compliance. One specific area in which they must develop policies is the governance of fiduciary responsibility. Scenario: As changes occur in compliancy laws, regulations, and standards regularly, IT management of YieldMore has decided to evaluate the governance of fiduciary responsibility within the organization as it pertains to the IT department. Your team has been assigned the task of evaluating how the governance of fiduciary responsibility affects the organization’s risk. Tasks: You are asked to identify the relationship between fiduciary responsibility and organizational risk, and present this information to the IT management of YieldMore.
1. Identify key stakeholders, their roles and responsibilities, and the impact of fiduciary responsibility on each.
2. Determine the relationships among these stakeholders, the relationship between fiduciary responsibility, and organizational risk for each.
3. Distinguish the identified relationships as they relate to strategic, operational, and compliancy goals for the organization.
4. Develop an appropriate plan to govern fiduciary responsibility for the organization.
5. Prepare a report of your findings for IT management to review.
.
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The document discusses integrating an ecological approach into watershed management. It explains that the current approach focuses on engineering structures and soil conservation, while an ecological approach understands watersheds as mosaics of land features with associated vegetation. It recommends surveying watersheds, streams, and vegetation to design restoration measures that maintain natural processes and services like water purification and habitat provision. Forest cover designs should associate different land features with suitable native plant species to support physical and biological functions across the landscape.
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The document discusses the key components of an ecosystem. It defines an ecosystem as a biological community that occurs in some locale, along with the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living environment. The four main components of an ecosystem are identified as: 1) abiotic substances like carbon dioxide and water; 2) producers like plants that capture energy; 3) consumers like herbivores and carnivores that eat other organisms; and 4) decomposers like fungi and bacteria that break down dead matter and waste. An ecosystem is described as a network of interactions between living organisms and their environment, with energy and nutrients cycling between the different components.
This document provides an introduction to environmental science and ecology. It defines key terms like environment, environmental science, and ecology. It explains that environmental science is interdisciplinary and involves subjects like biology, geology, and economics. It also describes different types of ecosystems like natural, artificial, terrestrial and aquatic. Finally, it discusses the structure and functions of ecosystems, including species composition, trophic levels, nutrient cycling, and energy flow.
This document provides an overview of environmental science. It discusses that environmental science deals with studying human and natural systems and their interactions. It involves fields like geography, zoology, physics, ecology, and oceanology. Environmental science also includes environmental studies, which analyzes human interactions with the environment, and environmental engineering, which focuses on analyzing environmental problems and their solutions. The document outlines some key components of environmental science like ecology, geoscience, atmospheric science, and environmental chemistry. It emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of environmental science and its importance in addressing growing environmental challenges.
This lecture provides an introduction to ecology and sustainable development. It defines key ecological terms like ecology, ecosystem, biotic and abiotic factors. It describes different levels of ecology from organism to biosphere. It also explains environmental cycles like carbon, nitrogen and water cycles. Additionally, it covers energy flow in ecosystems through food chains, food webs and food pyramids. The lecture discusses the concept of carrying capacity and how human activities can impact an ecosystem's carrying capacity. Finally, it lists the expected learning outcomes of the course.
The document discusses the components of an ecosystem. It defines an ecosystem as a biological community that occurs in some locale, along with the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living environment. The key components of an ecosystem discussed are: 1) abiotic substances like carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients that organisms interact with, 2) producers like plants that capture energy, 3) consumers like herbivores and carnivores that eat other organisms, and 4) decomposers like fungi and bacteria that break down dead matter and waste. Together, the interaction of these living and non-living components drive ecosystem processes like nutrient cycling and energy flow.
The document discusses key topics related to the environment and sustainability. It defines environment and explains the natural and built components. It then covers issues like climate change, describing its causes as fossil fuel use and deforestation, and effects such as rising temperatures and extreme weather. The document also defines ecosystems and food webs, explaining how energy flows from producers to higher trophic levels and how food webs maintain biodiversity and ecosystem health.
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This document contains a presentation on the topic of environment. It discusses key concepts like ecology, ecosystems, conservation of the environment, and optimal utilization of natural resources.
The objectives of the presentation are to understand the importance of environment, the objectives of conserving it, different types of natural resources, conflicts over resources, global and local environmental issues.
The presentation covers various components of the environment like biotic and abiotic factors. It explains concepts such as ecology, ecosystems, nutrient cycles, energy flow and limiting factors. It emphasizes the importance of conservation and discusses types of conservation like energy, water, soil and plant conservation. Sustainable use of resources and reducing environmental footprint are highlighted as important ways to conserve the environment.
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This document provides an overview of ecology, environment, planning, and ecological and environmental planning. It defines ecology as the scientific study of organism's interactions with each other and their environment. Environment refers to the natural and built surroundings that influence organisms. Planning involves decision making to achieve future goals using limited resources. Ecological and environmental planning integrates environmental and ecological factors into planning to manage human impacts on the environment and balance human activities with natural ecosystems. It has become important for sustainable development and enhancing environments.
This document provides an overview of environmental science as a subject area. It discusses how environmental science is multidisciplinary, drawing from fields like biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, economics and more. The document also outlines the scope of environmental studies, explaining that it examines how different areas combine to inform understanding of humanity's impact on the natural world. Additionally, it discusses the importance of environmental education for sustainable development and preserving limited natural resources for future generations.
A biosphere reserve is divided into three zones: the core zone where no human activity is allowed, the buffer zone where limited human activity is permitted, and the manipulation zone where several human activities like settlements, cropping, and forestry can occur. Biosphere reserves aim to preserve wildlife populations, tribal lifestyles, and genetic resources while also supporting conservation, economic development, and scientific research. India has 14 biosphere reserves that help protect biodiversity in sacred forests and lakes. Ex situ conservation strategies like botanical gardens and gene banks also help preserve species and genetic resources.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field that studies the connections between living and non-living parts of the environment. It aims to understand environmental problems, their causes, and potential solutions. Key principles from nature like solar energy, biodiversity, and nutrient cycling have allowed life to thrive on Earth for billions of years and provide lessons for sustainable living. While more developed countries use most resources, all nations must work to protect natural systems and resources for future generations.
The document discusses environmental studies and provides definitions and explanations of key concepts. It begins by describing the physical elements of the environment including landforms, water bodies, climate, and soils. It then defines the environment as the total set of circumstances surrounding life, including both living and non-living things. Environmental science is described as integrating various sciences to study our life-supporting environment and understand causes and solutions to problems. The document outlines various components of the environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. It also discusses the importance of environmental education, awareness, and management.
Ecology is the scientific study of organisms `at home' which is called as the `environment'. The term `environment' refers to those parts of the world or the total set of circumstances which surround an organism or a group of organisms.
The document defines environment and environmental science. It states that environment includes all physical and biological factors surrounding organisms and their interactions. Environmental science is a multidisciplinary field concerning conservation of nature and resources, pollution control, population issues, and more. The document also discusses ecosystems, including their components, functions, types of food chains and webs, ecological succession, and ecological pyramids.
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Environmental studies provide an approach towards understanding the environment of our planet and the impact of human life upon the environment.
Thus environment is actually global in nature, it is a multidisciplinary subject including physics, geology, geography, history, economics, physiology, biotechnology, remote sensing, geophysics, soil science and hydrology etc. Scope of Environmental Science Environmental science is a multidisciplinary science whose basic aspects have a direct relevance to every section of the society.
Its main aspects are:
• Conservation of nature and natural resources.
• Conservation of biological diversity.
• Control of environmental pollution.
• Stabilization of human population and environment.
• Social issues in relation to development and environment.
• Development of non-polluting renewable energy system and providing new dimension to nation’s security. Importance of Environmental Science Environment belongs to all the living beings and thus is, important for all.
Each and every body of whatever occupation he or she may have, is affected by environmental issues like global warming, depletion of ozone layer, dwindling forest, energy resources, loss of global biodiversity etc.
Environment study deals with the analysis of the processes in water, air, land, soil and organisms which leads to pollute or degrade environment. It helps us for establishing standard,Environment and Ecology for safe, clean and healthy natural ecosystem.
It also deals with important issues like safe and clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions and clean and fresh air, fertility of land, healthy food and development. Sustainable environmental law, business administration, environmental protection, management and environmental engineering are immerging as new career opportunities for environment protection and managements.
Need for Public Awareness With the ever increasing development by modern man, large scale degradation of natural resources have been occurred, the public has to be educated about the fact that if we are degrading our environment we are actually harming ourselves.
To encourage meaningful public participation and environment, it is necessary to create awareness about environment pollution and related adverse effects. The United Nations conference on Environment and Development held in Rio-de-Janeiro, followed by Earth summit on sustainable Development have high-lighted the key issues of global environmental concern and have attracted the general public towards the...
[Ostrom, 2009] a general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-e...FiorellaIsabelCampos1
This document presents a framework for analyzing the sustainability of social-ecological systems (SESs). The framework identifies four core subsystems that interact within an SES: resource systems, resource units, governance systems, and users. It then identifies 10 variables within these subsystems that are frequently found to affect the likelihood of users self-organizing to manage resources and achieve sustainability. These variables influence the perceived costs and benefits of investing in governance systems, such as the size of the resource system, its productivity, clarity of system boundaries, and collective-choice arrangements. The framework is intended to facilitate multidisciplinary analysis of complex SESs by providing a common structure for organizing knowledge about factors influencing sustainability.
Similar to Running head ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE1ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE.docx (20)
in addition to these questions also answer the following;Answer .docxcharisellington63520
in addition to these questions also answer the following;
Answer the Stop and Consider question on page 319.
Differentiate neurologic and hormonal response to stress
Answer all questions in a Word Document and include the following:
Your name
Label each answer
Include references
Include In-text citations
Use APA Format
.
In an environment of compliancy laws, regulations, and standards, in.docxcharisellington63520
In an environment of compliancy laws, regulations, and standards, information technology (IT) departments in organizations must develop comprehensive organizational policies to support compliance. One specific area in which they must develop policies is the governance of fiduciary responsibility. Scenario: As changes occur in compliancy laws, regulations, and standards regularly, IT management of YieldMore has decided to evaluate the governance of fiduciary responsibility within the organization as it pertains to the IT department. Your team has been assigned the task of evaluating how the governance of fiduciary responsibility affects the organization’s risk. Tasks: You are asked to identify the relationship between fiduciary responsibility and organizational risk, and present this information to the IT management of YieldMore.
1. Identify key stakeholders, their roles and responsibilities, and the impact of fiduciary responsibility on each.
2. Determine the relationships among these stakeholders, the relationship between fiduciary responsibility, and organizational risk for each.
3. Distinguish the identified relationships as they relate to strategic, operational, and compliancy goals for the organization.
4. Develop an appropriate plan to govern fiduciary responsibility for the organization.
5. Prepare a report of your findings for IT management to review.
.
In American politics, people often compare their enemies to Hitler o.docxcharisellington63520
In American politics, people often compare their enemies to Hitler or to the Nazis. Many Democrats compared Trump to a "fascist," and Democrat Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez famously compared child detention facilities to "concentration camps." (Republicans claimed this was an unfair comparison and disrespectful to the real victims of the Holocaust.) On the other hand, Republicans often claim that their Democratic enemies are like Hitler, and often whine that "the Left" is persecuting them similar to how the Nazis persecuted the Jews ("cancel culture" is like the Holocaust, wearing a mask is like wearing a yellow star, etc.). Obviously these are exaggerated, bad comparisons, and are more about scoring political points than teaching history accurately.
But is it
always
wrong and disrespectful to draw comparisons or lessons from the Holocaust? Isn't it possible--while being respectful and acknowledging all the differences that make the Holocaust uniquely horrible--to try to draw lessons from it and prevent anything like it in the future? What comparisons or lessons for the present, if any, can we learn from the Holocaust?
Using specific evidence/examples/comparisons from the primary source you analyzed, please make a specific argument about a lesson or comparison
you might draw from the Holocaust. I'm not interested in your general/vague opinions about politics or Holocaust comparisons. I want you to carefully and respectfully (not politically) draw a lesson from something you learned in your document/film.
.
In addition to the thread, the student is required to reply to 2 oth.docxcharisellington63520
In addition to the thread, the student is required to reply to 2 other classmates’ threads. Each reply must be 300 words
American opinion has indeed shaped politic consequences, political interests, and policymaking. Even with little or no interest in policymaking and politics, the assumption of democracy gives the citizens the power to freely air out their issues and give their opinion in matters of political concern. Taking the war in Iraq, it posed a significant economic and political imbalance. However, support from the politicians was negligible. And because a majority of the Americans opposed the war in Iran, they voted for a Democratic congressional candidate. Their opinion played a great deal in making concrete policies in response to the war in Iraq.
Public opinion is a reflection of the citizens’ view on how the government responds to national politics. Political actions are driven by the citizen’s opinion (Erikson, & Tedin, 2015). It sheds light on the outcomes of specific policies and helps the political candidates identify the characters demanded of them by the citizens. Political scholars argued that the perception of old public opinions was changed because of ambiguity and inaccuracy (Dür, 2019). Modern theories came to identify public opinion as either latent or a broad expression. Latent opinions are formed on the spot, while broad expressions are opinions that had earlier been formed and remained stable (Cantril, 2015).
When convincing policymakers, it proves difficult, interest groups may indirectly influence public opinion. They can achieve this through the media, holding rallies, or handing out leaflets to the public (Dür, 2019). Because the citizens have little or no information on policymaking, they can easily be swayed by interest groups. Interest groups can, therefore, successfully source their support from public opinion or not.
Public opinion remains relevant in American politics. Journalists, politicians, and political scientists should focus on getting the public’s opinion on state affairs. In as much as views might differ or change, establishing a common ground will help in policymaking (Dür, 2019). For the war in Iraq, the Democratic gained power over the senate and House. This was greatly influenced by the failure of public support that shifted the pro-Democratic in 2006 and the 2008 elections. Because opinions are not fixed, establishing a connection between public views and political outcomes might be impossible.
References
Berry, J. M., & Wilcox, C. (2015).
The interest group society
. Routledge.
Cantril, H. (2015).
Gauging public opinion
. Princeton University Press.
Dür, A. (2019). How interest groups influence public opinion: Arguments matter more than the sources.
European journal of political research
,
58
(2), 514-535.
Erikson, R. S., & Tedin, K. L. (2015).
American public opinion: Its origins, content, and impact
. Routledge.
.
In addition to reading the Announcements, prepare for this d.docxcharisellington63520
In addition to reading the
Announcements
, prepare for this discussion by reading the
Required Resources
, the
Week Four Instructor Guidance
, and the scenario provided below. In particular, you should review the
Initial Referral to the Multidisciplinary Team form
found on p. 112-113 of your text, the
Child Study Team Referral Form
from week three, and
Part I
of the
Comprehensive Report
found in the
Instructor Guidance
for this week.
Scenario:
In addition to your role on the Child Study Team, you are also a member of the Multidisciplinary Evaluation Team (MDT). This team is preparing to meet because while the Tier Two Interventions have been helpful, Manuel is still struggling with his reading fluency and his writing, and is continuing to fall further behind. The MDT has received the signed and dated formal permission for referral from Manuel's parents and the school psychologist has conducted an academic achievement evaluation as described in your text. One of your roles as the special education inclusion teacher in your school is to translate the results of all the assessments in a way that is understandable to parents, the child, and to the regular education teacher. Another aspect of your role is to write the Initial Referral to the MDT such as the one described on p. 112 of the text. Finally, in your role as the special education inclusion teacher you are tasked with reviewing the results of all the assessments in order to to help the Manuel, his parents and his other teachers to understand the various strategies that are recommended based on his assessment outcomes.
You have reviewed the RTI data collected to date, including the informal observations of Mr, Franklin and Manuel's other teachers and samples of his classroom work, and have compared those data to
Part I of the Comprehensive Report
prepared by the school psychologist. That report is located in the Instructor Guidance for this week. The data paint a compelling and congruent picture of Manuel's current academic functioning. You are now ready to write an Initial Referral for Manuel so that his eligibility for special education services can be determined.
Initial Post:
Review the
Initial Referral to the Multi-Disciplinary Team form
on p. 112 and 113 of your text. Compare the information needed for that form with the
Child Study Team Referral Form
that you filled out last week for Manuel. Explain the different functions of the two documents and state how they are alike and how they are different. Then, explain how you plan to share the data on the Initial Referral to the Multi-Disciplinary Team form in a way that Manuel, his parents, and Mr. Franklin can understand. Be sure to include an explanation for why you are the one sharing this information with them. Include pertinent professional or personal real world examples to illustrate your points.
Text:
Pierangelo, R., & Giuliani, G. A. (2012).
Assessment in special education: A practical a.
In Act 4 during the trial scene, Bassanio says the following lin.docxcharisellington63520
In Act 4 during the trial scene, Bassanio says the following lines:
“Antonio, I am married to a wife
Which [who] is as dear to me as life itself;
But life itself, my wife, and all the world
Are not with me esteemed above your life.
I would lose all, ay sacrifice them all
Here to this devil [Shylock] to deliver [save] you.”
And Portia, who hears these lines (though Bassanio doesn’t know it), says,
“Your wife would give you little thanks for that
If she were [near]by to hear you make the offer.”
(Act 4, scene 1, 281-288
Is Antonio really more important to Bassanio than Portia? Explain why or why not. What do these lines tell us about the value of male friendship vs. marriage in this play? Would Portia be justified in rejecting Bassanio, since later in this scene he gives away the ring she gave him which he swore never to give up? (see Act 3, scene 2, lines 167-185) Your response should be about 200-250 words and should include specific references to lines in the play.
.
In a Word document, please respond to the following questions.docxcharisellington63520
In a Word document, please respond to the following questions:
How is the information discussed in the articles similar or different compared to what you have heard/learned about international/global communication? Especially compared to the chapters from our textbook
Business Writing Today.
Based on the information provided in the articles, what are some rules/conventions do people tend to follow when communicating across cultures and languages?
Which out of the four articles provoked a strong response in you? Did you agree and/or disagree with the author? Why?
.
In a Word document, create A Set of Instructions. (you will want.docxcharisellington63520
In a Word document, create
A Set of Instructions
. (you will want to save it twice—once as a .doc and once as a .pdf) Upload the .pdf document to the Unit 3 Dropbox. It should be single-spaced (as all technical docs are) with double spacing between sections. Think visually. Think simple steps. See the rubric.
.
In a two page response MLA format paperMaria Werner talks about .docxcharisellington63520
In a two page response MLA format paper
Maria Werner talks about the changes Perrault in his (17th century) version made to the much earlier original oral version of the tale written down by Delarue Paul Ed" The story of Grandmother" and the motivation behind the Grimms brothers(19th century) version of the tale. Compare and contrast these three versions of LRRH from the readings, explaining how the variations changes the focus not plot of each tale.
Readings
1. Charles Perrault: Little red riding hood(france)
2.Brothers Grimm: Little red cap(Germany)
3. Paul Delarue Ed: The story of grandmother(france)
.
In a paragraph (150 words minimum), please respond to the follow.docxcharisellington63520
In a paragraph (150 words minimum), please respond to the following questions:
Prior to reading the text, how would you have defined terrorism?
What is your understanding of terrorism now?
How would you account for the huge amount of terrorism in the 20th and 21st centuries?
What do you see as the ethically proper response to acts of terror?
.
In a paragraph form, discuss the belowThe client comes to t.docxcharisellington63520
In a paragraph form, discuss the below:
The client comes to the physician's office complaining of shortness of breath. He states he has a history of fluid in his lungs and he takes a "water pill" and a "bronchodilator" every day. Both legs are swollen. He also used inhaler cortisone when needed to ease his frequent difficult breathing. His blood pressure is 168/98 and his pulse is 144 beats per minute. Upon listening to his heart with a stethoscope, a third heart sound is noted and abnormal breath sounds. After complete blood work and radiological investigation, the patient is diagnosed with CHF and COPD.
Discuss all of this information with the physician using correct medical terminology.
.
In a minimum of 300 words in APA format.Through the advent o.docxcharisellington63520
In a minimum of 300 words in APA format.
Through the advent of social media, a thing known as "slactivism" has arisen. This is literally activism through social media and, despite such a negative label, researchers are finding that this actually works! Activism through the medium of social media is having a significant impact. This is just ONE example of many of not only a "mass behavior" but can also fit into all 4 categories of social movements. The individuals involved in this mass behavior/social behavior could easily be examined within the lens of the "contagion theory" as well as the "emergent-norm theory."
Go check out whatever form of Social Media/ Media you are most on, (facebook, instagram, tumblr, twitter, reddit, youtube etc. ) Look for an example of "slactivism" from people/influencers that you follow that is promoting a specific type of social movement. Discuss their post here by answering the following questions (if you feel comfortable you can post your example here as well but it is not required.)
1. Describe the post (or post it here), where did you find it, what do the contents involve?
2. Based on the readings from this chapter, what type of social movement are they promoting?
2. What theory of crowd behavior can be applied to this movement? Please expand
3. What Social movement theory can be applied to this movement? Please expand
4. At what stage in the social movement cycle would you place this movement?
.
In a paragraph form, post your initial response after reading th.docxcharisellington63520
In a paragraph form, post your initial response after reading the passage below:
The client comes to the physician's office complaining of shortness of breath. He states he has a history of fluid in his lungs and he takes a "water pill" and a "bronchodilator" every day. Both legs are swollen. He also used inhaler cortisone when needed to ease his frequent difficult breathing. His blood pressure is 168/98 and his pulse is 144 beats per minute. Upon listening to his heart with a stethoscope, a third heart sound is noted and abnormal breath sounds. After complete blood work and radiological investigation, the patient is diagnosed with CHF and COPD.
Discuss all of this information with the physician using correct medical terminology.
.
In a minimum 250-word paragraph, discuss at least one point the auth.docxcharisellington63520
In a minimum 250-word paragraph, discuss at least one point the author makes that stands out to you. Why did you find it interesting or strange? How does it compare to, connect to, and/or expand on your own experience and what you know about language and the world? Be specific. Explain. Use examples!
.
In a hostage crisis, is it ethical for a government to agree to gran.docxcharisellington63520
In a hostage crisis, is it ethical for a government to agree to grant a terrorist immunity if he releases the hostages, even though the government has every intention of capturing and prosecuting the terrorist once his hostages are released?
write an initial post (200-250 words) and one secondary post (minimum 100 words) (reply to the classmate's post, file attached)
For your initial post, you must have two academic peer-reviewed articles for references.
Discussion must include in-text citations and references in APA style formatting
Due 24 March 2021 by 1:00 PM ET
.
In a double-spaced 12 Font paper How did you immediately feel a.docxcharisellington63520
In a double-spaced 12 Font paper
How did you immediately feel after finishing the novel in relation to data security as a whole? Has your thought process changed regarding how you will share data? Do you value metadata more or less after reading this novel?
Do you feel that there should be more of an emphasis on personal privacy or public security? (Hint: you can use domestic threats to support your stance-whichever it may be.)
Considering the grand scheme of things, do you feel that what Edward Snowden did was wrong? Do you think he helped more people or put more people in danger?
Should the United States government continue to attempt to persecute Edward Snowden? If so, why? If not, why?
Do you think there could have been a better way for Edward Snowden to achieve the goal that he felt was necessary without inciting anger and fear from the United States government by being a whistleblower?
.
In a follow-up to your IoT discussion with management, you have .docxcharisellington63520
In a follow-up to your IoT discussion with management, you have been asked to document and describe Use Case examples of IoT Services and Applications, so they can see a clear application of the technology. After all, the goal of IoT is to ensure all company resources and technological objects can communicate, and documentation is always part of the process. In a report to your manager, describe the following topics:
An introduction to IoT technology and typical corporate devices being used within IoT
Examples of IoT services and applications describing the service, application, interface, and benefit to the organization. Please pick 3 of the following IoT Use Cases when informing management of this required information and the implementation of technology:
Predictive Maintenance (e.g., use of cameras, sensors and data analytics)
Smart Metering (e.g., internet device capable of measuring how a company consumes energy, gas or water)
Asset tracking (e.g., efficient location and monitoring of key assets)
Connected vehicles (e.g., automation of driving tasks)
Fleet Management (e.g., transportation efficiency and productivity)
Provide reference page with at least 3-5 references in APA format
4 to 5 pages
.
In a COVID-19 situation identify the guidelines for ethical use of t.docxcharisellington63520
In a COVID-19 situation identify the guidelines for ethical use of the computers and networks in any organisation.
Please discuss the NETIQUETTE technique and explain how it can help professionals to embrace ethical use of networks in the current pandemic situation. You need to use some cases in the discussion to add value to your discussion.
.
In a 750- to 1,250-word paper, evaluate the implications of Internet.docxcharisellington63520
In a 750- to 1,250-word paper, evaluate the implications of Internet use (including, but not limited to, basic web presence, online shopping, vendor unique portals, vendor specific portals, "IOT," social media, and/or VPN use) within a SMB, as well as data protection for intellectual property. Make sure to address third-party vendors, cloud technology, and technology trends.
.
In a 600 word count (EACH bullet point having 300 words each) di.docxcharisellington63520
In a 600 word count (EACH bullet point having 300 words each) discuss the following WITH no intro or conclusion needed… CITE AND REFERENCE WITH TWO PEER reVIEWS
· Discuss the diathesis-stress model as it pertains to schizophrenia.
· Explain the causal factors associated with the disorder.
(1) DQ word count 175
Please describe schizophrenia and dissociative identity disorder. How are the two disorders different? Do they have anything in common?
.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Film vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movie
Running head ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE1ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE.docx
1. Running head: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
1
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
2
Environmental Science
Student’s Name
University Affiliation
Environmental Science
Environmental science part 1
1page Define stewardship and define sustainability.
Stewardship of the ecosystem refers to a framework that is
action-oriented and that seeks to develop the sustainability of
the socio-ecological environment of a planet that is rapidly
changing planet. It considers the means through which the
resources availed by the environment are managed with the
intent of ensuring they are not wasted or exhausted.
Sustainability on the other hand refers to the facilitation of
current needs by using the environment without jeopardizing
future generations’ ability to meet their needs.
Considering the Amazon forest, there are several considerations
that can be made in light of the stewardship and sustainable
utilization of the resource. To begin with, it is imperative that
Amazon resource are conserved by being included as a
conservation reserve and marked for protection and
sustainability. Additionally, it could be placed under a covenant
2. of conservation. There should also be an inventory of the
natural resources in the Amazon including a comprehensive
inventory of the biological resources found in the forest and
which should be monitored within regular intervals.
Additionally, there should be increased research on the
identification of maintenance procedures of proper biological
and physical processes from the forest. There should also be
policies set that determine the sustainable utilization of timber
from the Amazon rainforest according to proper standards that
will ensure that future generations use of the same is not
endangered (Chapin III & Matson, 2011).
The environmental implications that can arise as a result of
deforestation of the Amazon forest are innumerable. To begin
with animals dependent on the forest would find it difficult to
survive and, therefore, may become extinct. This would make
them unavailable for future generations. Additionally,
deforestation leads to an imbalance between the carbon dioxide:
oxygen ratio in the atmosphere. As a result, air pollution will
become aggravated.
PART 2
Ecosystems and How They Work - Sustainable Development
close
In this assignment, you will investigate the biotic and abiotic
structure and function of an ecosystem. Choose one of the
following ecosystems:
Tropical rainforest
An ecosystem refers to a correlated community of both living
and non-living organisms and the environment in which they are
found. It comprises an abiotic and biotic component. For this
discussion the ecosystem chosen is a tropical rainforest. The
biome of a rainforest is highly complex as it comprises a myriad
3. of various plant and animal species which are adapted to
surviving under rainy conditions. An example is the Amazon
rainforest. In the rainforest ecosystem there exist various plant
levels, with the highest being the tall trees that form a canopy.
Then there are vines, epiphytes and orchids which grow on the
higher parts of the trees in order to obtain sunlight on the lower
levels are the ferns and short trees are found on the forest floor
and, are adapted to photosynthesize under low light intensity.
Within the rainforest the animals are as diverse as the plant life,
ranging from insects, snakes and numerous bird species. Water
points within the rainforest also host numerous other aquatic
animals and plants. Within the rainforest, there are biotic and
abiotic factors that interact with each other in a biogeochemical
cycle to ensure their survival. The biotic components of the
rainforests include all the living organisms in the ecosystem
while the abiotic include all the nonliving components of the
ecosystem. The abiotic factors include temperature, wind,
water, soil and natural disasters. Temperature greatly affects the
metabolic processes of the living organisms in the rainforest.
Water affects the homeostatic balance of the organisms and has
other uses that ensure the survival of the living organisms.
Light, on the other hand, provides the energy necessary to drive
core processes such as photosynthesis. Soil provides a habitat
for some animals, while its provides a source for minerals and
support to plants. Natural disasters such as forest fore,
typhoons and hurricanes result in the death of numerous
organisms, inadvertently reducing the competition or even
leading to extinction.
The biosphere provides a crucial exchange point in its
interaction with the lithosphere. It participates in major
processes of the ecosystem that serves to drive the major
biogeochemical cycling processes. Processes within the
ecosystem are largely dynamic and undergo seasonal cycles that
are dynamic and that respond to the changes in radiation of
solar. This results in variations in the primary productivity as
4. well as different energy amounts from the photosynthetic
process and carbon dioxide fixation into materials that are
organic. This results in yearly variability of the carbon cycle.
The carbon cycle is the largest and most expansive of all the
biogeochemical processes. The fixated carbon found in plants
changes into food to be consumed by plant consumers as well as
decomposers. These then undertake the process of carbon
degradation into a form that has less energy and finally, the
photosynthesis fixed carbon is released back into the
atmosphere, thereby completing the carbon cycle. The
biogeochemical nitrogen cycling is also energy intensive.
Bacteria are involved in fixing atmospheric nitrogen gas into
forms that are reactive and useful to other living organisms
(Elbert, Weber, Burrows, Steinkamp, Büdel, Andreae,, &
Pöschl, 2012).
Disturbance refers to the process that results in an alteration in
the ecosystem. This alteration has negative effects to the
rainforest ecosystem and can be both artificial and natural. A
human disturbance can be caused by massive deforestation. This
results in the removal of an important part of the rainforest
ecosystem, the trees. A natural disturbance may include a
typhoon or a hurricane which ultimately results in the
destruction of the trees and other components of the ecosystem.
If left to recover, the ecosystem applies several mechanisms
such as the re-growth of new trees. However, the process takes
a considerable amount of time to recover to the originals state.
It is, therefore, imperative that governments and other
organizations initiate processes that ensure such ecosystems are
protected against such destructive disturbances, especially
human caused disturbances.
References
Chapin III, F. S., & Matson, P. A. (2011). Principles of
terrestrial ecosystem ecology: Springer.
5. Elbert, W., Weber, B., Burrows, S., Steinkamp, J., Büdel, B.,
Andreae, M. O., & Pöschl, U. (2012). Contribution of
cryptogamic covers to the global cycles of carbon and nitrogen.
Nature Geoscience, 5(7), 459-462.
Watson, W.E., Johnson, L., & Merritt, D. (1998). Team
Orientation, Self-Orientation, and Diversity in Task Groups.
Group & Organization Management, 23, 161-188.
Introduction
The success of group effort is a complex issue, and research has
demonstrated tasks on which an individual’s effort is superior to
group effort. The likelihood of the group performing better
than the best individual increases when the problem has
multiple parts, no one member has all the information
necessary, the problem is at least moderately complex,
interdependence is necessary, and there is enough time for
members to process information.
Self-oriented behaviors (SOBs) are those that individuals
exhibit as mechanisms for the defining and redefining roles in a
group.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship of
interpersonal processes, diversity, and team performance.
Research to aid our understanding of the complexity of diversity
and its impact on team performance is in the very early stages,
and the examination of work-group processes, diversity, and
performance over time has been investigated very little.
Hypotheses
· (H1) Early on, culturally diverse teams will perform more
6. effectively on complex, longer-duration tasks than will
culturally nondiverse teams.
· (H2) Later in a team’s life cycle, after periodic feedback
regarding team and self-issues, the culturally diverse teams will
not perform more effectively than culturally nondiverse teams.
· (H3) Over time, culturally diverse groups will report TOBs
and SOBs similar to that of culturally nondiverse teams.
Method
Two samples of students were used, taken from different
semesters at the same university in the Southwestern US. Each
sample comprised students involved in an upper level basic
management course in which students were members of the
same team throughout the semester. Both samples attended
classes in which a significant portion of their final evaluation
was calculated from team project performance.
Sample 1
· 226 participants (125 males, 101 females)
· Work groups consisted of 4 or 5 members.
· Projects involved four realistic case studies of business
problems.Sample 2
· 449 participants (234 males, 215 females)
· Work groups consisted of 4 to 6 members.
· Used different types of team projects.Measures
The instrument administered was the Group Style Instrument
(GSI), which is a 26-item survey describing critical group
member process activities that affect team productivity.
Participants were asked to complete the GSI according to
observations that they have made about their team in this class.
Data were gathered from three group tasks given at
7. approximately 5-week intervals.
Dependent Variables
· The team’s score for that particular 5-week time period.
Independent Variables
· Demographic variables
· Type of team diversity
· Group-style dimensions of TOBs and SOBs.
Results
The finding that diverse teams did better over the first two time
periods supported H1. H2 was also supported, because the
culturally nondiverse teams performed better at Time 3. At
Time 1, diverse groups and their team orientation predicted
team performance. By Time 2, members in groups that reported
high self-orientation in Time 1 predicted team performance. By
Time 3, nondiverse groups who reported significant team
orientation did better. Clearly, there are cyclical effects and
significant relations among the elements of team orientation,
self-orientation, diversity, and team performance.
Conclusion
This study contained several limitations; first, student groups
were used and therefore could operate differently than ongoing
teams in organizations. In addition, even though the project
extended across 4 months, that is not enough time to evaluate
the more lengthy cycles that teams will experience. An even
longer time frame should be researched. For future extensions
of this type of research, the authors encourage the examination
of a broader spectrum of task types and team types.
8. Hogg, M.A. & Turner, J.C. (1987). Social Identity and
Conformity: A Theory of Referent Information Influence. In
Doise, W., & Moscovici, S. (Eds.) Current Issues in European
Social Psychology, Volume 2. (pp.139-182). New York:
Cambridge.
Introduction
Early research into the emergence, persistence and influence of
social norms indicates that conformity and norms are closely
interrelated. A norm, as a social uniformity, is an emergent
product of social interaction which appears to transcend the
existence of specific individuals. Conformity is affected by the
size, attractiveness, and unanimity of the group. The authors
suggest three major sources of influence upon conformity.
Three Major Sources of Influence
The normative clarity and relevance of the group; that is the
extent to which the behavior of the group conveys a distinct and
reliable group norm which distinguishes it from other groups.
The second source of conformity resides in the individual’s
relationship to the group, which determines whether he chooses
to respond to the group as a source of influence. The third
influence on conformity stems from the individual’s
relationship to the stimulus. Being in a situation where one
would tend to expect a degree of agreement with others
concerning the stimulus, or how to behave, and yet encountering
disagreement, creates a feeling of subjective uncertainty
concerning the objective validity or appropriateness of one’s
perceptions, judgements, opinions, or behaviors.
Traditional Model
The traditional model of conformity is a two process
dependence formulation, which is considered to explain all
variables involved in conformity. It treats people as dependent
9. on each other for social acceptance and approval, and for
validation of beliefs, perceptions, and judgements which cannot
be tested against physical reality. One limitation of the two
process model is that conformity can still occur under
conditions in which neither normative nor informational
influence would be expected to operate.
Two Approaches
The social identity approach makes a qualitative distinction
between group and individual at the level of overt behavior,
self-conceptualization and underlying psychological processes,
and employs a cognitive definition of the social group as ‘two
or more individuals who share a common social identification of
themselves or … perceive themselves to be members of the
same social category’.
Intragroup consensus, agreement and uniformity are generated
by distinct form of social influence responsible for conformity
to group norms, called referent informational influence. This
occurs in three stages: first, individuals categorize and define
themselves as members of a distinct social category or assign
themselves a social identity; second, they form or learn the
stereotypic norms of that category. Finally, they assign these
norms to themselves and thus their behavior becomes more
normative as their category membership becomes salient.
Empirical Studies
The authors lend empirical weight to referent informational
theory through several experiments. Taken together, they show
that conformity represents private acceptance of a norm which
defines or is stereotypic of a group with which the individual
identifies on the basis of explicit categorization, or implicit
categorization based on self-inclusion in the group’s response
10. distribution. Conformity appears to represent true change rather
than behavioral compliance, because it persists in the absence
of surveillance by the group or feedback of the group’s
responses. Group polarization is the tendency for individuals’
attitudes, judgements, decisions, etc. to shift, following group
discussion, in the direction already favored by the group so that
the post-discussion consensus is more extreme than the mean of
the individual pretest responses.
Conclusion
The research described in this chapter represents a gradual
accumulation of evidence favoring referent informational
influence theory as an explanation of conformity. Identification
seems to be an important precondition for conformity, as is the
existence of a distinct ingroup norm. Although referent
informational influence theory still needs to accumulate more
empirical support to swell its data base, this deficiency is not
due to the accretion of antagonistic findings. Rather, it is
simply that there are, to date, only a relatively small number of
studies which have systematically put the theory to the test.
Are human resource practices linked to employee misconduct?
A rational choice perspective
James Werbel a,1, David B. Balkin b,c,!
a College of Business, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
50010, United States
b Leeds School of Business, University of Colorado, Boulder,
CO 80309, United States
c Institute for Labor Studies (IEL), ESADE Business School,
Barcelona, Spain
12. behavior
that occurred at companies such as Enron, Adelphia, Parmalat,
and Samsung have broad social impacts associated with the
collapse
or decline of these !rms. The more recent cases in the collapse
of !nancial giants such as AIG and Merrill Lynch, suggest that
misconduct persists and appears to be a chronic problem. The
misconduct can adversely affect numerous stakeholders such as
employees, stockholders, creditors, and customers (Hooker,
2009).
The issue of misconduct within companies leads to the question,
“Why do employees engage in misconduct?” The typical white
collar person who engages in misconduct is a middle aged white
male. White collar, middle aged white males would not
normally
fall into your stereotypes of people who engage in illegal
behavior. Furthermore, these actions occur in spite of control
systems
such as codes of ethics, toll free numbers to anonymously report
inappropriate actions, managerial oversight, and sophisticated
internal auditing practices that are intended to reduce illegal
behavior. Previous research suggests that individual differences
(see
O'Fallon & Butter!eld, 2005 for a recent literature review)
including demographic variables such as gender (McCabe,
Ingram, &
Dato-on, 2006), personality traits (Greenberg, 2002), and stages
of moral development (Greenberg, 2002) in"uence misconduct.
Research also suggests that organizational contexts such as
codes of ethics (Schwartz, 2001; Beu & Buckley, 2004),
leadership and
Human Resource Management Review 20 (2010) 317–326
! Corresponding author. Leeds School of Business, University
14. Buckley et al.,
2001; McDevitt, Giapponi, & Tromley, 2007) by suggesting that
!rms need to carefully examine the potential effects of different
HR
compensation and performance appraisal practices. For
example, it has been suggested that certain reward systems such
as sales
commission plans and large cash bonuses may encourage people
to engage in misconduct (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992). This
statement is overly simplistic because reward systems vary
signi!cantly. Perhaps, different design features of incentive
systems
are likely to create misconduct.
This paper !rst examines the construct of employee misconduct.
It then demonstrates how HR practices can in"uence the
perceived costs and bene!ts of actions that lead to employee
misconduct. Finally, it discusses alternative ways to structure
HR
practices to minimize the potential of employee misconduct.
2. Employee misconduct
Numerous terms have been used to describe unethical behavior
in organizations. A broad category of literature on unethical
behavior focuses on organizational deviance (Robinson &
Bennet, 1995; O'Leary-Kelly, Grif!n, & Glew, 1996; Robinson
& O'Leary-
Kelly, 1998) or organizational misbehavior (Vardi & Weitz,
2004). This includes severe behaviors such as aggressive,
violent, or
passive aggressive behaviors such as bullying, assault, and
harassment. They may also include behaviors such as
embezzlement.
Another category of research on unethical behavior focuses on
15. employee misconduct (Kidder, 2005). Employee misconduct
includes a more limited range of unethical behaviors that are
related to corporate wrongdoing that often gets highlighted in
the
media. Examples of these were mentioned earlier. Thus, this
type of unethical behavior commonly involves actions that
entail
violations of socially prescribed behavior. It includes practices
such as accounting irregularities, churning customer accounts,
inappropriate management of overtime policies, having obvious
con"icts of interests such as giving inappropriate gifts to a
client,
or using company property for personal purposes. Employee
misconduct can often occur when employees are aiming at
meeting
expected performance objectives but decide to use questionable
means to achieve those objectives. Therefore, we differentiate
employee misconduct from other forms of organizational
deviance by limiting it to behaviors that an employee enacts
while
performing his or her job without intending malice to other
parties or the organization.
Thus, employee misconduct is different from ethical actions
linked to social responsibility that entails a broader range of
proscriptive actions to manage the needs of different
stakeholders. In contrast, employee misconduct relates to how
people ought
to behave in light of professional standards for doing business
(Buckley et al., 2001). This can involve committing an
infraction of a
company rule such as committing dishonesty when booking the
date of a sales transaction in order to achieve a sales quota. It
can
also involve violating a federal customs rule such as attempting
to sneak through U.S. customs some contraband Cuban cigars in
16. order to please clients that one is trying to impress. In these
situations, an employee is focused on performance and in the
process
breaks a company rule, a law or ethical principle leading to
misconduct.
While the broader scope of organizational deviance and the
narrower focus of employee misconduct are both important, we
focus on employee misconduct in this paper for two reasons. In
particular, we believe that HR and its performance management
system may devote too much emphasis of an employee's
attention on one goal such as sales revenues and too little
attention on
other goals such as good customer service, so that misconduct
results when customers complain about how they are treated by
aggressive sales people.
Secondly we focus on misconduct because it is often subjected
to media attention. Acts of misconduct often violate social
expectations in the name of greed or self-interest. The public
disclosure of employee misconduct may harm an organization's
goodwill with customers, suppliers and other important parties
(Vogel, 2005). Bankers who sold sub-prime loans for houses to
customers with poor credit histories and who later had their
home foreclosed have harmed the bank's reputation for being a
good
standing member of the community that it serves. The bankers
in this example did not seek to harm the customers who were
sold
the sub-prime loans and had their houses foreclosed, rather they
were seeking pro!ts for the bank and the pay incentives that
were linked to bank pro!ts.
This paper assumes that employee misconduct is a multilevel
construct (see Ashforth, Gioia, Robinson, & Trevino, 2008).
That
17. is, misconduct occurs in an organizational context and it shapes
individual behavior. Both individual and organization factors
contribute to the occurrence of misconduct. Thus, we believe a
cross level analysis is important to investigate at both the
organizational and individual levels of analysis. Additionally,
we assume that performance criteria are set at reasonable levels
and
employees are given some discretion in the ways they choose to
achieve pre-established performance goals. Our focus is on the
choices that employees make in how they perform under
different performance appraisal and compensation practices.
3. Performance management systems and misconduct
Fig. 1 indicates the HR practices and the organizational and
individual intervening variables that contribute to employee
misconduct. Certain types of compensation practices make
misconduct more likely to occur at an individual level. On an
318 J. Werbel, D.B. Balkin / Human Resource Management
Review 20 (2010) 317–326
organizational level, the rewards provided to those who engage
in misconduct while exceeding their performance goals send a
symbolic message to other employees that legitimate the
misconduct and make it more attractive to other individuals.
Furthermore, the legitimation process may also spill over to
reduce the fear of being caught as the organization has
communicated
at best an indifferent attitude towards misconduct. A vivid
example of the organizational effects of rewarding employee
misconduct is provided by Andrew Fastow, the CFO of Enron,
who at one time was considered to be a hero within the Enron
culture for developing innovative !nancial deals that enriched
18. the !rm as well as himself. Unfortunately, other Enron
executives
were in"uenced by Fastow, who eventually received a prison
sentence for his misconduct.
Performance appraisal practices that focus on outcomes
exclusively (with little attention given to behaviors) can
intensify the
information asymmetry between supervisors and subordinates.
Supervisors may have minimal knowledge of how subordinates
achieve their performance outcomes since they are not required
to monitor employee behavior and provide behavioral feedback
in
an outcome based performance appraisal system. Subordinates
can take advantage of their greater level of job knowledge by
engaging in questionable work practices that lead to desired
work outcomes. Information asymmetry is likely to create
dysfunctions within a social system as feedback loops are
incomplete (Jensen & Meckling, 1976). The incomplete
feedback loop is
likely to promote this disparity.
Fig. 1 suggests that at the individual level of analysis,
employees approach misconduct rationally by considering the
opportunities to be gained from misconduct (rewards/incentives)
compared to the fear of being caught (performance
assessment). When the expected bene!ts exceed the expectations
of being caught, individuals will be prone to engage in
misconduct. This is compatible with others who have also
proposed that rational choice perspective pervades both ethical
behavior (Kidder, 2005; Chiou, Huang, & Lee, 2005; Smith,
Simpson, & Huang, 2007) and criminal behavior. This
perspective
assumes that individuals will weigh the costs and bene!ts of an
action that entails misconduct and that misconduct is likely to
occur when it serves the self-interest of the perpetrator (Beu &
19. Buckley, 2004). Both incentives and deterrence are important
elements to this perspective (Smith, Simpson, & Huang, 2007).
It should be pointed out that the model presented in Fig. 1 does
not
attempt to indicate all the potential uses of performance
appraisal and other HR practices such as employee
development. Rather it
aims to explain links between HR practices such as
compensation and performance appraisal and employee
misconduct.
From an individual level of analysis, misconduct re"ects a
rational choice theory of ethics and overlooks employee
individual
differences associated with moral integrity. The rational choice
perspective is largely a consequentialist perspective that re"ects
the self-serving advantages and disadvantages of some behavior
(Morrell, 2004). We acknowledge that individuals with higher
moral integrity are less likely to engage in misconduct despite
the organizational context (Ashkanasy, Windsor, & Trevino,
2006).
Nonetheless, many employees with less developed awareness of
their moral values are likely to be in"uenced by the ethical
context. Therefore, the proposed model is mostly applicable to
employees who are inclined to take a consequentialist
perspective
to misconduct and moral choices. Based on the frequency and
persistence of misconduct over time, lower levels of moral
integrity
appear to be relatively common in business.
It should also be pointed out that misconduct can occur from a
bottom up perspective or a top down perspective (Pinto, Leana,
& Pil, 2008). Furthermore, Pinto et al. suggest the processes
in"uencing misconduct are quite different between these two
models.
20. One of the biggest distinctions occurs with intentionality from
upper management. This paper focuses on a bottom up
perspective
where management unintentionally creates an organizational
context that allows an individual to make a rational choice to
pursue misconduct.
Fig. 1. A rational choice model of HR practices and misconduct.
319J. Werbel, D.B. Balkin / Human Resource Management
Review 20 (2010) 317–326
3.1. Compensation practices and misconduct
As per Fig. 1, we suggest that the con!guration of HR practices
(see Lepak & Snell, 2002) may increase or decrease the
perceived
costs and bene!ts of misconduct. The more prevalent certain
practices, the greater the potential rewards to be gained from
the
misconduct. We begin by focusing on compensation systems as
they may create situations that make misconduct to be rationally
more attractive.
Different types of compensation systems may unintentionally
increase the bene!ts of employee misconduct. Many
compensation plans are intended to reward a high performer
with increased levels of compensation. However, a basic
assumption is that misconduct may lead to increased
performance. Misconduct may be seen by some employees as a
short term
tactic to achieve higher levels of performance that trigger
desired rewards. If employees use misconduct to achieve higher
levels of
21. performance, then performance contingent compensation
systems may unwittingly reinforce misconduct. As Jansen and
Von
Glinow (1985) suggest, incentive pay may lead to instances of
employee misconduct. This seems to be compatible with others
who
have linked incentive pay to misconduct (Church, Gaa, Nainar,
& Shehata, 2005). Studies that report links between incentive
pay
and misconduct have not given speci!c details about the "awed
features of the incentive pay policies. Some companies use pay
incentives and have few problems with misconduct, while others
use pay incentives and report incidents of misconduct. These
mixed !ndings suggest that perhaps certain forms of
performance contingent compensation may be more likely to
in"uence
misconduct than others so that the overall use of pay incentive
systems should not be condemned.
One of the basic design features of performance contingent
compensation is the proportion of individual pay incentives to
base
pay. In most cases individual pay incentives are administered on
an ex ante basis so that the employees anticipate the reward in
advance. A bonus in the range of 10 to 15% of annual base
salary is large enough to provide a motive for misconduct
(Lazear, 2000;
McAdams & Hawke, 1994; Varadarajan & Futrell, 1984;
Krefting & Mahoney, 1977). A pay incentive of this magnitude
would
represent a six to ten thousand dollar payoff for an employee
with an annual salary of 60 thousand dollars. Assuming that the
compensation system emphasizes performance contingent
incentive pay, then the perceived bene!ts of misconduct (if it
leads to
performance gains) are likely to increase. Individual incentive
22. plans focus an employee's attention on individual behaviors that
trigger rewards. This can focus individual efforts on self-
serving behaviors that may produce wealth for the individual at
the
expense of the organization or other parties. Incentive pay plans
may also distract an employee's attention on how they achieve
their performance goals which may lead to unintentional
violations of a company code of ethics or norms of professional
conduct.
A well known example of the unintended consequences of
individual performance contingent pay occurred when Sears
Roebuck
lowered hourly wages of its auto mechanics and put them on a
commission pay plan that required that they generate a quota of
$147 per hour of auto repair work from customers.
Consequently, Sears auto mechanics over-billed customers for
unneeded parts
and services which ultimately led to a class action legal suit on
behalf of overcharged customers and damaged the reputation of
the
company (Applegate, 1992).
On theother hand, employers that only offer base pay with
modest levels of individual performance contingent pay are not
aslikely
to have employees engaged in misconduct. For example,
managers at Continental Airlines give out $50 “spot cash”
rewards when they
discover an employee doing good work such aspleasing a
customer and doing more than is expected on the job. A spot
cash reward is a
small amount of cash allocated to an employee on an ex post
basis and paid out immediately. Logically, with a modest sized
pay
incentive there are fewer bene!ts to be gained from misconduct
and only the potential downside risks of being caught. While
23. there are
likely to be signi!cant individual variations in the amount of
perceived gain that it takes to make misconduct attractive, the
greater the
size of the performance based reward relative to the base pay,
the greater the likelihood of misconduct.
Proposition 1. The greater the proportion of performance
contingent individual incentive compensation in relation to base
pay, the
greater the likelihood of misconduct.
Even within individual incentive plans, there are different
design features that could lead to a higher or lower likelihood of
employee misconduct. In particular, individual pay incentives
may be continuous or discontinuous. Continuous incentives
mean
that the level of performance and the amount of the incentive
are directly linked. Continuous incentives are on a continuous
reinforcement schedule. Sales commissions and piecework used
in manufacturing environments are the most well known
examples of continuous pay incentives. Discontinuous
individual pay incentives occur when incentives are linked to a
platform of
performance such as a quota. The incentive is given when the
platform of performance is attained. If the platform or quota is
not
attained (regardless of the distance from the platform) no
incentive is provided to an employee. Thus, the incentive pay is
earned
on an “all or nothing” basis.
While both types of incentives may make the perceived bene!ts
of misconduct more attractive, discontinuous incentives are
likely to increase the likelihood of employee misconduct more
than continuous incentives. The central point is that as one gets
24. closer to the platform of performance, there may be increasing
attraction to engage in misconduct in order to attain the desired
level of performance.
Furthermore, the size of a bonus can make a relatively minor
form of misconduct seem plausible. However, misconduct may
be
seen as a slippery slope. Once one has bene!ted from a
relatively minor or trivial form of misconduct, then one may
consider
performing a more serious form of misconduct in order to attain
a performance hurdle at a later period of time. It is analogous to
going from telling a small lie to the boss and getting away with
a minor infraction such as tardiness to fabricating a bigger lie to
give to the supervisor in order to get away with a gross
violation such as stealing company property.
Moreover, one common problem in the sales domain happens
when sales representatives are given a sales quota based on
sales
revenues that are measured over a period of time such as a
quarter during the business cycle. Meeting or exceeding the
sales quota
320 J. Werbel, D.B. Balkin / Human Resource Management
Review 20 (2010) 317–326
triggers a performance bonus. However, due to the variability of
the business cycle, client purchases are asymmetrical and
depend
on their economic prosperity as a precursor to buying a product
such as a capital good. Sales representatives are often tempted
to
buffer their booked sales revenues by withholding sales in
25. excess of a quota and reporting the sale in a future period in
order to
smooth out their potential for earning quarterly bonuses. These
poorly timed sales bookings can result in inaccurate aggregate
sales performance data reported to shareholders and the
investment community who may under- or over-value the stock
based
on false growth and revenue information.
In contrast, the incremental gain for misconduct should be less
for continuous incentives. This seems to be supported by
research that suggests that employees who fail to achieve their
discontinuous goals by a small margin are more likely to engage
in
misconduct (Schweitzer, Ordonez, & Douma, 2004).
Proposition 2. Discontinuous incentives are likely to increase
the likelihood of misconduct in comparison to continuous
incentives.
It is important to understand that reward systems in"uence
organizational dynamics as well as individual behavior since
rewards can strengthen (or weaken) organization culture. In this
situation, we view reward systems to be linked with symbolic
legitimation of misconduct. To convey this point, we need to
digress into legitimation.
Legitimation is concerned with the social construction of
desired or appropriate actions within an organization (Suchman,
1995). This perspective implies that what can be labeled as
misconduct (in this case inappropriate actions) is socially
constructed
to be desired.
A second point is that legitimation is frequently seen as a means
to justify actions (Dutton & Dukerich, 1991; Galang, Elsik, &
26. Russ, 1999). That is, people act or are about to act and wish to
couch their actions with the organization's support. Thus, a
common
justi!cation for misconduct is that a supervisor endorsed it. If a
supervisor approves an action, the checks and balances within a
system are likely to symbolically convey legitimacy to the
misconduct. Reward systems that are under control of
management
convey an explicit managerial support of misconduct if
misconduct leads to organizational rewards.
This suggests that individuals who commit an act of misconduct
may justify their actions for the “good of the organization.”
They are likely to rely on reward systems as a symbolic means
to rationalize the appropriateness of misconduct. The
opportunity to
justify one's actions for the “good of the organization” is likely
to increase the viability of misconduct. Incentive systems can
be
used to socially construct managerial support of misconduct.
Proposition 3. The greater the proportion of incentive pay to
base pay and the use of discontinuous incentives are likely to
convey
legitimacy of misconduct to increase the perceived acceptability
of misconduct.
3.2. Performance appraisal practices and misconduct
Performance management systems include HR practices tied to
performance appraisal and compensation. Performance
appraisal is a part of the performance management system
because it !rst speci!es performance standards and then assesses
employees against those performance standards. Many
administrative decisions are fully or partially determined by the
perfor-
27. mance evaluation. These decisions have a direct bearing on an
employee's job security, future employment opportunities,
status,
and pay within an organization.
Performance appraisal is most closely linked to deterrence of
misconduct. Fear of being caught and disciplined can be an
important deterrent of misconduct in organizations (Chiou,
Huang, & Lee, 2005; Manrique de Lara, 2006). Performance
appraisal
systems commonly entail supervisory monitoring of employee
performance. Thus, supervisors may play an important role in
in"uencing employees' perceptions of the cost of engaging in
misconduct. However, there is often information asymmetry in
performance appraisal as a supervisor has less information
about employee performance than employees themselves
(Aguinis,
2007). Thus, it is possible for employees to hide aspects of their
performance from their supervisors.
There are likely to be many reasons for the performance
information asymmetry. Supervisors may not be motivated to
search for
misconduct as supervisory monitoring of employee behavior
may be perceived negatively as micromanaging by subordinates
and
undermine the quality of supervisor–subordinate relationships.
To some extent close monitoring also con"icts with employee
empowerment efforts. Supervisors may also have dif!culties
monitoring performance as spans of control have increased in
many
organizations due to mergers, acquisitions, and the use of
electronic communication technologies that permit supervisors
and
subordinates to operate in different geographical locations.
Regardless of the reasons for information asymmetry, greater
28. information
asymmetry reduces employee perceptions of being caught and
disciplined for misconduct. From a rational choice perspective,
this
would be tied to perceived costs of misconduct. Thus, it is
important to discern how HR practices in"uence information
asymmetry.
As per Fig. 1, one of the ways to classify performance appraisal
practices is based on the criteria used to assess job performance.
Kowtha (1997) suggests that performance appraisal systems
may be classi!ed as either behavior based or outcome based
performance appraisal systems. Behavior based systems are
concerned with evaluating employees based on the way they do
their
jobs. It may include contextual job performance or it may
include general work processes. Thus, propensity to cooperate
with
others, product knowledge, or behaviors listed in a job
description would be examples of criteria used in behavior
based
performance appraisal. Behavior observation scales and
behaviorally anchored rating scales are representative of
methods used
within behavior based performance systems. The greater the
frequency or quality of desired behaviors, the higher the rating.
Behavior based performance measures require that the source of
the evaluative feedback have ample opportunity to observe
the ratee and judge him or her fairly. Thus, a supervisor is given
a motive to observe each subordinate's work behaviors in order
to
gather enough performance information to provide an evaluation
of job behaviors for each subordinate. When supervisors are
321J. Werbel, D.B. Balkin / Human Resource Management
29. Review 20 (2010) 317–326
engaged in observing employee job behaviors and documenting
examples of positive and negative job behavior, the employee
perception of the cost of misconduct is likely to be high.
In contrast, outcome based performance appraisal systems are
concerned with evaluating the outputs of job performance
without taking employee job behaviors into consideration.
Performance outcomes can be evaluated in terms of quantity as
well as
quality of performance. Thus, the amount of sales in dollars
(quantitative) and level of customer satisfaction (qualitative)
are
examples of outcome based performance evaluation for a sales
representative. Goal setting performance appraisal processes
(Knight, Durham, & Locke, 2001) are types of outcome based
performance appraisals. Management-by-objectives (MBO) is a
popular example of outcome based performance appraisal that
relies on a set of mutually agreed upon goals that become the
criteria that an employee is judged on for purposes of
performance evaluation. Outcome based performance evaluation
systems
are attractive to organizations that lack the opportunity to
closely monitor the behaviors of employees when accurate
behavioral
performance data are not available. For example, store managers
in a large supermarket chain can be evaluated by district
managers on outcomes such as store revenues, employee safety
record, and store pro!t margin. District managers may use these
outcomes to evaluate store managers without traveling to each
store to observe how the managers perform their jobs.
Employees
may also !nd outcome based performance systems attractive
30. because they are given more discretion to achieve performance
goals
as they see !t.
It is our contention that outcome based performance appraisal
systems are more prone to incidents of misconduct than
behavior based performance appraisal systems due to the greater
discretion given to employees to achieve performance outcomes
that is linked with information asymmetry. With outcome based
performance appraisal, less emphasis is placed on the means
that
employees use to achieve outcomes, and supervisors devote less
time on monitoring employee behavior as a consequence. Thus,
outcome based performance appraisal systems are associated
with both perceived bene!ts of misconduct as goals become
increasingly more dif!cult to achieve over time, and a perceived
reduction in costs of misconduct, as employees are given more
discretion to select their own means to achieve outcomes.
In terms of perceived costs of misconduct, outcome based
performance appraisal offers inducements for employees to
engage
in misconduct for two reasons. First, outcome based
performance appraisals give employees the freedom to decide
how they wish
to achieve the outcomes. This can be positive in that it may
encourage employees to develop innovative strategies to meet
the
goals. However, in some cases these strategies may entail
misconduct if employees have dif!culties attaining the desired
outcomes
(Schweitzer, Ordonez, & Douma, 2004). If inappropriate means
are successfully used to achieve the performance outcomes, then
it
could be relatively easy to incrementally cross over and engage
in misconduct in order to achieve the outcomes. Thus, a
31. !nancial
broker may encourage customers with low tolerance for risk to
purchase highly volatile stocks as opposed to more appropriate
and
less volatile conservative stocks to increase total sales or
generate larger sales commissions. Volatile stocks may require
more
buying and selling activities timed to market movements that
generate more frequent commissions for a broker and which
reduce
a client's investment returns. The outcome based performance
criteria may encourage a !nancial broker to sell to clients a
product
they do not want in order to satisfy expected performance
standards. The borderline between this illustration and churning
accounts eventually becomes grey.
Managed health care companies have recently denied legitimate
medical claims from customers who had to take the
companies to court to receive a !nancial settlement for the
medical costs that they expected to be covered. In court
documents it
was discovered that these medical insurance !rms gave
substantial !nancial bonuses to claims adjusters in their
employment who
were given quotas for rejecting claims based on total number of
claims that were !led. The incentives were established to
encourage claims adjusters to look for reasons to deny claims
for medical coverage to a customer in order to generate higher
pro!ts. Initially this practice may have lead to some good
decisions in denying claims; however, over time this practice is
likely to
lead to choices involving misconduct for personal gain.
Second, outcome based performance appraisal may put pressure
on employees to take risks associated with misconduct by
32. making
it more rewarding to take those risks. With outcome based
performance appraisal, there is a tendency for supervisors to
expect
continuous improvements in subordinate performance each year
(Welch, 2001). If this tendency occurs, it is important to
consider
that the performance curve is asymptotic with relatively easy
gains being realized initially, but as performance improves, the
opportunity for gainsdecreases and requires a lot more effort.
Withthe risingexpectations, employees need to !nd ways to meet
those
increasing expectations. One of the ways to achieve those
expectations occurs with misconduct. For example, Columbia
HCA had
expectations to increase hospital revenues over previous years.
This practice appears to have motivated some general managers
to
engage in Medicaid and Medicare fraud as it became more
dif!cult to meet the rising performance outcome expectations.
Outcome based performance appraisal is also likely to minimize
the perceived costs of employee misconduct as its focus on
outcomes reduces the chances of being caught. Outcome based
performance appraisal is saturated with performance
information
asymmetry. It appears to be more commonly used when
supervisors have fewer opportunities to directly observe
behaviors
(Tremblay, Cote, & Balkin, 2003). Outcome based performance
appraisals have supervisors focusing on data associated with the
outcomes of performance rather than the way performance was
attained. While a supervisor could hypothetically gather
behavior
based performance, there could be high transaction costs
associated with monitoring each employee's behavior which
33. would be a
deterrent to gathering behavioral information. In other words, as
long as the outcomes are being met, the supervisor may be
unaware of the methods used by an employee to achieve those
outcomes. Thus, an employee knows what is done to achieve the
ends but the supervisor is not informed. Information asymmetry
provides fertile conditions for an agency problem, and tempts
an
employee to behave in opportunistic ways that can lead to
misconduct. When employee behavior is not monitored
employees are
likely to lower their expectations that they will be caught for
misconduct. Thus, employees with outcome based performance
evaluations are likely to perceive reduced costs of misconduct.
322 J. Werbel, D.B. Balkin / Human Resource Management
Review 20 (2010) 317–326
In contrast, behavior based performance evaluations should be
less prone to instances of employee misconduct. They are
intended to promote consistency in prescribed behavior.
Employees are likely to be motivated to engage in the socially
appropriate prescribed behaviors that are valued by the
organization. Furthermore, to assess performance, supervisors
are
expected to actually observe employees at work and keep
records of these work observations. This heightened supervisory
vigilance is likely to minimize information asymmetry.
Proposition 4. Organizations that use outcome based
performance evaluations are likely to have employees who
perceive higher
bene!ts of misconduct and lower perceived costs of misconduct,
compared to organizations that use behavior based performance
34. evaluations.
A second HR con!guration of performance appraisal that can
have misconduct implications is derived from the
interdependence that often occurs between supervisory and
subordinate performance outcomes. Since there are different
types of performance appraisal systems used for different
hierarchical levels within a !rm, this structural issue suggests
that it is
important to integrate supervisory and subordinate performance
standards to ensure a continuity of goals across levels in an
organization (Kaplan & Norton, 2001). This alignment may
entail an aggregation of subordinate performance outcomes as
an
indicator of supervisor performance outcomes. However, this
continuity in goals has the potential for supervisory con"ict of
interest, especially with outcome measurements. If a high
performing employee is engaging in misconduct to achieve that
high
level of performance outcomes, and if subordinate performance
directly and materially contributes to supervisory performance,
then the supervisor has a potential con"ict of interest in terms of
addressing the misconduct. If a supervisor investigates the
problem and corrects the misconduct, then that supervisor's
performance is likely to be reduced. To some extent, this
interdependence between supervisor and subordinate
performance may undermine supervisory motivation to
investigate
subordinates who engage in misconduct. Misconduct may lead
to higher levels of subordinate performance and ultimately
bene!t
the supervisor's performance rating. A supervisor's self-interest
for achieving high performance ratings is likely to diminish a
supervisor's motivation to punish misconduct and is likely to
reduce an employee's perceived risks of misconduct as the
supervisor
35. may provide tacit or in some cases direct support for
misconduct.
Proposition 5. When a supervisor and subordinate's performance
outcomes are closely linked, a subordinate's perception of
perceived
risk of engaging in misconduct is reduced.
A third aspect of the performance appraisal function addresses
the types of people involved in performance assessment. The
wide diffusion of the practice of three hundred sixty degree
performance appraisal has encouraged employers to consider
using
multiple raters of performance that can include peers, other
managers besides the supervisor, subordinates, and customers
(Aguinis, 2007). It acknowledges that there may be information
asymmetry between the supervisor and the subordinate since
supervisors have limited opportunities to observe subordinates
in many work environments and may not understand the
technical aspects of the job they are expected to supervise. In
order to manage this gap in a supervisor's knowledge of what a
subordinate does on the job, it is important to gather
performance assessment information from those who can most
closely
observe a subordinate's performance as well as understand the
job itself. For example, customers or peers are likely to have
direct
and sometimes regular contact with a target employee.
Gathering inputs from more than one source is likely to reduce
the job
performance information gap in comparison to relying on only
the supervisor to gather information about job performance.
While
three hundred sixty degree performance appraisal has its
limitations, by having more people observing and monitoring
behavior
36. that can reveal instances of misconduct, this practice is more
likely to increase an employee's fear of being caught. For
example,
trucking !rms often have 800 telephone numbers displayed on
the back of the truck so that other drivers can report some type
of
driving misconduct. This means that employees being monitored
by multiple raters should be aware that they are more likely to
be
exposed for committing misconduct. By including peers and
customers and other observers as sources of feedback in the
performance appraisal process an employee is likely to have a
heightened sense of fear of being caught in an act of misconduct
which raises the perceived costs of misconduct to them.
Proposition 6. The more performance appraisal assessments are
gathered from multiple and diverse sources, the greater will be
an
employee's perceived costs of engaging in misconduct.
4. Discussion
In summary, we link rational choice theory and the architecture
of HR performance management systems as factors that shape
organizational routines associated with misconduct. In
particular, we suggest that performance appraisals that (1) are
outcome
based, (2) have supervisors' performance closely linked to
subordinate performance, and (3) rely exclusively on a
supervisor as
the source of assessments of subordinate performance are more
likely to provide an impetus for employee misconduct.
Furthermore, compensation systems that emphasize incentive
pay in relation to base pay, provide pay incentives with all-or-
nothing payout schemes, and offer pay incentives with sizeable
payouts, are more likely to present conditions fertile for
37. employee
misconduct to occur.
This paper makes several important contributions to the
literature on employee misconduct and human resource
management.
First and perhaps most importantly, this paper moves beyond
generalized ideas that organizational culture or defective reward
systems shape employee misconduct and highlights some
speci!c HR practices that increase the likelihood for misconduct
to
occur. This suggests that pay incentives are not an inherently
dysfunctional motivational tool that some critics of pay
incentives
323J. Werbel, D.B. Balkin / Human Resource Management
Review 20 (2010) 317–326
have argued (Jansen & Von Glinow, 1985). However, some
speci!c features of a performance management system that
incorporate
rewards as described previously in this paper are more likely to
contribute to misconduct than other features that could be
selected with forethought. For example, the use of group pay
incentives rather than individual pay incentives is likely to
diminish
the prevalence of misconduct. Group pay incentives facilitate
social cohesion and more pervasive mutual monitoring of
behavior
within a group which increases the risk of getting caught
associated with employee misconduct.
This paper links HR practices, organizational legitimacy, and
employee misconduct as part of an emerging trend to provide
38. systematic explanations for employee misconduct. Some initial
work has linked HR practices and organizational routines
(Galang,
Elsik, & Russ, 1999) and others have linked legitimacy and
ethics (Jose & Thibodeaux, 1999). This paper then links HR
practices,
organizational legitimacy and employee misconduct together
using a rational choice theory approach. The important
implication
here is that when employee misconduct becomes
institutionalized, there is a sense of legitimacy to the action.
Employees are likely
to rationalize their misconduct as the organization unwittingly
supports the misconduct through inappropriate application of
HR
practices by both HR staff and line managers.
From a theoretical perspective, this paper links HR practices
with misconduct within a rational choice perspective. It assumes
that employees make choices to engage in behavior based on
costs and bene!ts of the outcomes consistent with a
consequentialist
or utilitarian approach to ethics. Most of the research on
employee misconduct focuses on individual differences or
employee
perceptions of situations. There is evidence that employee
misconduct is in"uenced by situational factors as well as
individual
differences (Kidder, 2005). Furthermore, a meta-analysis
suggests that general perceptions of ethical climate are
important
predictors of ethical behavior (Martin & Cullen, 2006). HR
practices have been linked to ethical climate (James, 2000).
Unlike
previous research, this paper highlights the importance of
speci!c situational factors associated with HR practices.
39. Selecting a
situational approach to misconduct, this paper takes a cross
level of analysis that recognizes that different organizational
factors
affect individual propensity to engage in misconduct and this
has important implications for research.
5. Recommendations
From a practical perspective, this paper suggests performance
driven HR practices may have some unintended negative
consequences on an organization as employees !nd ways to take
performance shortcuts that in the long term can undermine
organizational effectiveness through employee misconduct. We
would like to suggest that the HR practices discussed in this
paper
are not inherently positive or negative and the HR practices may
have links to both intended performance outcomes and
unintended employee misconduct. The question becomes how
can one have both performance driven systems and reduce the
chances of employee misconduct?
We offer several suggestions to reduce the likelihood of
misconduct. First, HR practices need to minimize the gap in
performance information available between what an employee
and his or her supervisor knows. Organizations need to combine
several of the following suggestions to minimize this
information gap.
First, assigning multiple evaluators for the performance
appraisal process is one of the critical ways to assess
performance and
reduce performance information asymmetry between a
supervisor and subordinate. However, the burden of identifying
and
correcting misconduct falls on the supervisor. It is evident that
40. supervisors often have a propensity to focus on the performance
management of poor performers, a practice referred to as
“management by exception.” However, for misconduct, it is also
important to focus supervisory attention on high performers as
well. For example, the NCAA monitors winners and not losers
in
intercollegiate athletics.
Next, supervisors may need to scrutinize high performers as
well as low performers for information on how they perform
their
jobs, just as a teacher might check up on a student with a
perfect score on an exam to !nd evidence of cheating. For
example, many
universities require that all the faculty undergo periodic peer
teaching evaluations where a peer sits in and observes the
teaching
done by a faculty member. These peer class visits are done to
provide additional evidence of effective teaching performance
beyond the data gathered from student course evaluations since
student evaluations may be gamed by faculty such as by being
overly lenient in allocating grades to students. An important
aspect of supervisory monitoring and evaluation is to include
behavioral indicators of performance in addition to outcome
indicators for both the supervisor and the subordinate. If only
outcomes are used as a basis for evaluating subordinate
performance, then supplemental behavioral indicators of
performance
should also be required and linked to performance outcomes.
Additionally, the use of pay incentives should be based on
having reliable measures of performance outcomes and
behaviors. The
balanced scorecard (Kaplan & Norton, 2001) provides examples
of !rms that attempt to integrate both outcome and behavioral
indicators of performance. In the balanced scorecard, behaviors
41. are !rst assessed. Next, hard performance outcomes such as
!nancial success are collected at a later time. Pay incentives are
provided based on a composite assessment of the behavioral and
performance outcomes.
Finally, we suggest that a mix of pay incentives across
organization performance levels may be more appropriate than
the
exclusive use of individual incentives. Individual pay
incentives, a departmental or team based pay incentive, and an
organi-
zational based pay incentive are likely to diminish the overall
attractiveness of employee misconduct while still providing
incentives for performance gains. The group pay incentives
intensify the process of peer monitoring behaviors and make
employee
misconduct more noticeable and costly to enact. A supervisor
can provide feedback and rewards on individual job behaviors
and
outcomes, and then can provide pay incentives based on
collective outcomes. Therefore, we do not propose doing away
with
individual pay incentives. Rather we are proposing a more
balanced reward system that balances individual pay incentives
with
group pay incentives in order to reduce the temptation to engage
in opportunistic behavior that may be unintentionally rewarded.
324 J. Werbel, D.B. Balkin / Human Resource Management
Review 20 (2010) 317–326
It should be mentioned that our model and propositions only
cover one contextual aspect of organizational misconduct
related
42. to HR practices. We acknowledge that leadership in an
organization is also a signi!cant contextual in"uence on
employee
misconduct independent of the HR context. Paralleling this
logic is the notion that leadership plays a critical role in the
institutionalization of any practice (Dutton & Dukerich, 1991).
We assume the same would be valid for employee misconduct.
We
focused on HR practices and excluded leadership to provide
greater clarity on an under-examined contextual factor.
This raises some important issues that need greater clari!cation
and should be subject to empirical investigation. We suggest
there is a need to examine the relationship between HR
practices and leadership. HR practices are likely to in"uence the
perceived
costs and bene!ts of employee misconduct for all employees
regardless of managerial status. To what extent do HR practices
in"uence leader behaviors towards employee misconduct? Are
leaders more or less prone to misconduct than employees? For
example, leaders have more discretion over their performance
than other employees and face greater temptations to abuse their
power in order to satisfy their own personal interests at the
expense of the collective interests of others. It would be useful
to know
which HR practices encourage leaders to behave in the service
of others and which ones encourage leaders to act in self-
serving
and inappropriate ways.
In future research that examines the link between HR policies
and employee misconduct models that are more complex
than the rational choice model that we present could be
developed that take into consideration other variables that affect
employee misconduct such as emotion. For example, negative
emotions could explain other reasons for employee misconduct
43. to occur as a form of retribution when an organization
underpays an employee for contributions that it received
(Greenberg,
1990).
To sum up, HR practices can unintentionally provide a context
for employee misconduct to take root. Prior to implementing an
HR practice such as a new performance management procedure,
managers should study the behavioral consequences of the HR
practice in question, which goes beyond applying the
administrative ef!ciency and legal criteria that are so often
used. Managers
should ask themselves whether the HR practice could encourage
some employees to engage in misconduct and be able to provide
a negative response to the question. If possible, managers
should roll out a new HR practice on a small scale on a subunit
of their
organization before fully committing to the new HR practice
within the organization. In this way HR practices can be !ne
tuned so
that there is a reduced likelihood for employee misconduct
linked to HR.
Acknowledgments
The research work of David Balkin has been funded by an
AGAUR grant # (2008PIV 0083) with the support of the
Commission
for Universities and Research of the Ministry of Innovation,
Universities and Enterprise of the Government of Catalonia
while he
was a visiting scholar at the Institute of Labor Studies at
IEL/ESADE in Barcelona, Spain.
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Complete an article synopsis/summary and critique on a
strategic human resource management topic.
After choosing one of the sample formats, prepare a synopsis.
The final section of the paper is a critique of the information
from the article.
A critique should include the following topics:
What was done poorly (e.g., relevant information omitted)?
What was done well in the article (e.g., new insights
identified)?
What specific questions need to be answered to help make the
article information relevant for practicing managers in
business?
CAUTION: This synopsis must be a paraphrased report. You
may NOT use quotations of more than 5 consecutive words from
the article in preparing the report. The only exception is
reporting the study hypotheses (i.e. H1, etc.) if it is a reviewing
of an empirical article. When quoting 5 or fewer words or the
hypotheses (if an empirical article), you would put quotation
marks around the material quoted and put the page number in