This document provides an overview of research methodology. It discusses the meaning of research, characteristics of research as a process, and steps involved in conducting research. It also covers topics like formulating research topics, statements of problems, research questions and objectives, variables and measurements, and different types of scales used in research. The document is intended to help students understand key concepts in research methodology.

1. Introduction and definition
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. 1. ABOUT THE COURSE
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 At the end of the course a candidate is expected
to:
1) Understand types of statistics and data
2) Be able to draw frequency distribution table and
graphics
3) Understand and be able to apply measures of central
tendency
4) Select a research topic

3. About the course...
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5) Understand how to do literature review
6) Be able to prepare research proposal
7) Understand the types of data
8) Be able to prepare data collection
tools/instruments
9) Understand sampling procedures and
techniques
10) Be able to collect primary data

4. About the course
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11) Understand different techniques of data analysis
12) Be able to prepare academic research report

5. 2. MEANING OF RESEARCH
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 Research is what people do to find out about
things (i.e. discover things)
 Specifically, research is a systematic process of
collecting, analyzing and interpreting information
(data) in order to increase our understanding of a
phenomenon about which we are interested or
concerned (Leedy and Ormrod, 2014)
 It is a systematic way of producing knowledge
 It is a scientific process of moving from what is
unknown to knowledge

6. Meaning of research…
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 As per the above definitions, the two issues
namely ‘Systematic research’ and ‘to find out
things’ worthy further elaboration.
 SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH: this implies that
research is based on logical relationships and not
just beliefs
 TO FIND OUT THINGS: this implies that there are
multiplicity of possible purpose for your research

7. Albert Einstein
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“If we knew what we were doing, it
wouldn’t be called research, would it?”

8. 2.1 Characteristics of research
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 Although researches can vary in terms of
complexity and duration, the following are the
key characteristics
a) Researches originate with a research problem
b) Research require clear articulation of goals
c) In researches principal problems are broken into more
manageable sub-problems
d) Researches are usually guided by the specific research
problems, questions and hypotheses
e) Researches require specific plans for proceedings

9. Characteristics…
f) Researches are normally based on certain critical
assumptions
g) Researches require collection and interpretation of data
in order to resolve the problem for which they were
initiated
h) Researches are cyclical

10. 2.2 Research as a process
Question/Identified
Hypothesis Formed
Research Plan
Data Collected
Results Analyzed
Conclusions
Steps within
the research
process

11. 2.3 Steps in Conducting
Research
 Specific steps guide the research process
 Number of steps is indeterminate
 Various steps may be combined
 Order of steps may vary somewhat
 Importance of specific steps is variable
 “12 Steps of Research”

12. 1. Identify the research question
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a researchable problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypothesis
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample
8. Designing the data collection plan
9. Selecting or developing data collection instruments
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Interpreting the results
Steps….

13. 3. FORMULATING AND CLARIFYING
THE RESEARCH TOPIC
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 It is important to note from the onset that
without being clear about what you are going
to research it is difficult to plan how you are
going to research it.
 The first thing here is to have a research idea.
This idea could at times be given to you by
your business/company manager, tutor or
even peers.
 When you have had a research idea, you
need to refine it into one that is feasible.
 The refined research idea may then be turned
into research questions and objectives

14. 3.1 Attributes of a good research
topic
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 A good research topic is judged by the following
criteria among others;
1) It should meet the requirements of the particular
institution’s examination board
2) It should be something that you are capable of
undertaking and one that excites you
3) It should take into account your ability to find the
financial and time resources (to undertake the
research)

15. Attributes of good research…
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4) It should consider the possibilities of gaining
access to any data you might need to collect.
One has to be certain that he/she will be able to
access the required data.
5) The issues within the research must be capable
of being linked to theory
6) There should be clearly defined research
questions and objectives

16. Attributes…
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7) The research questions and objectives must
relate to the research idea
8) One must ensure a symmetry of the potential
outcome
9) There should be a due consideration of the
career goals. A student is normally advised to
research on something that will further his/her
career.

17. 4. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
 A very specific statement which clearly identifies
the problem being studied; will usually identify the
key variables as well as give some information
about the scope of the study
 May be in either question or declarative form
 May include inherent sub-problems, if appropriate
 Formulation of problem statement takes place
after an initial review of related literature and the
distillation process

18. 4.1 Problem Statements
 “The problem of this study was to …”
 “This study was concerned with …”
 “This study is designed to …”
 “The purpose of this investigation is to …”

19. 4.2 Sample Problem Statements
1.The problem was to investigate the effects of exercise on
blood lipids among college-age females.
2.This study was designed to determine the relationship
between stability performance and physical growth
characteristics of preschool children.
3.The present study was designed to identify those
characteristics which differentiate between students who
binge drink and those that do not.
4.The problem of the study was to determine if there is a
relationship between self-efficacy and self-reported
alcohol usage among middle-aged adult females.

20. 5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND
OBJECTIVES
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 Any rigorous research project intends to address
an issue and in so doing provide an answer to a
certain question.
 There must be a question which the
author/researcher wishes to answer.
 This is the general research question, which
normally flows from the research idea.

21. 5.1 Research question
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 Start with a clear purpose
 Know your literature
 Be iterative in your approach
 Try to specify the who, what, where and when of
your purpose
 Ask yourself “What would the answer to this
question add to the literature?”

22. The Main Research Question
 The foundation of the research process
 It all begins with a question

23. Finding a Research Question
 From where ???????
 Curiosity
 Information Gaps
 Controversy
 Literature Review
 Other People
 ...???

24. Types of Research Questions
 Conceptualize that a research study can ask
three types of questions:
 Descriptive question
 Relationship question
 Difference question
 This general classification scheme helps not only
with the design of the study, but also in choosing
the type of data analysis procedure

25. Descriptive Question
 Seeks to describe phenomena or characteristics
of a particular group of subjects being studied
 Answers the question “what is”
• Example in Survey research
 What are the attitudes of rural parents toward the
inclusion of sexuality education in the school
curriculum?

26. Relationship Question
 Investigates the degree to which two or more
variables are associated with each other
 Only identifies extent of relationship between
variables
 Example
 Is there an association between self-esteem and
eating behaviors among collegiate female
swimmers?

27. Difference Question
 Seeks to make comparisons between or within groups
of interest
 Often associated with experimental research
 The central issues is: Is there a difference between
the control group and the experimental group?
 Also it involves comparison of one group to
another on the basis of existing characteristics
 Example
 Does participation in Special Olympics affect the
self-esteem of adults with mental retardation?
 Does uptake of coffee affect students’ level of
participation in class?

28. Note1: Research questions…
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 It is important to note, with clarity, that the
research question should neither be too complex
nor too simple
 In other words, it should not be too difficult or too
easy to answer.

29. Research questions…
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Examples.
Qn1. Why are people from Mara region more likely
to join Tanzania’s intelligence unity than those
from other regions?
Qn2. What are the causes of malaria in the tropical
regions?

30. Research questions…
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 The first question is too difficult to answer
because it might be difficult for a researcher to
get to the inner circles of the system to access
the necessary and adequate information.
 The second question is too easy to answer since
those factors are most likely to be found in the
medical books.

31. Research questions…
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 In the second question the researcher
demonstrates that he/she has not spent enough
time to review literature, which could enable
him/her come up with refined question.

32. 5.2 Research objectives
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 Research objectives are evidences of the
researcher’s clear sense of purpose and
direction.
 Normally, research objectives flow from the
research questions.
 However, in most academic circles/research
community the research objectives are mostly
acceptable than questions.

33. 6. DELIMITATIONS
 Delimitations define the scope of the study. That
is, they set the boundaries of the study
 Normally under control of the researcher
 Examples include
 number and kinds of subjects
 treatment conditions
 tests, measures, instruments used
 type of equipment
 location, environmental setting
 type of training (time and duration)

34. 7. LIMITATIONS
 Limitations are very similar to delimitations, but
they tend to focus on potential weaknesses of the
study
 Examples include
 sampling problems (representativeness of subjects)
 uncontrolled factors and extraneous variables
 faulty research design and techniques
 reliability and validity of measuring instruments
 compromises to internal/external validity

35. Limitations…
 Possible shortcomings of the study . . . usually
cannot be controlled by the researcher
 the researcher will, of course, try to eliminate
extremely serious weaknesses before the study is
commenced
 May be a result of assumptions not being met
 No study is perfect; the researcher recognizes the
weaknesses

36. VARIABLES AND
MEASUREMENTS

37. Concept of Variables
 A variable is a characteristic, trait, or attribute of a
person or thing that can be classified or
measured
 Attitude
 Gender
 Heart rate
 Hair color
 Variable - the condition or characteristic which in
a given study may have more than one value

38. Classification of Variables
 Quantitative – measured numerically
 Discrete
 Continuous
 Qualitative – categorical in nature

39. Independent Variable
 A variable that is presumed to influence another
variable; the variable under study or the one that
the researcher manipulates
 Two types
 Active – variable is actually manipulated
 Attribute – cannot be manipulated because it is
preexisting trait; sometimes called a “categorical”
variable (e.g., race, gender)

40. Dependent Variable
 The variable that is expected to change as a
result of the manipulation of the independent
variable; that which is measured in a study

41. Extraneous Variable
 A variable that could contribute some type of error
in a research study
 Also referred to as . . .
 Confounding variable
 Intervening variable
 Modifying variable
 Error-producing variable that the researcher should
attempt to eliminate or control
 May affect the relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent variable if
not adequately controlled

42. Controlling Extraneous Variables
 Excluding the variable
 Random selection of research participants
 Matching cases according to some criterion

43. 43
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability,
Validity

44. 44
Chapter Objectives
 Know the characteristics and power of the
four types of scales- nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio.
 Know how and when to use the different
forms of rating scales and ranking scales.
 Explain stability and consistency and how
they are established.
 Discuss what “goodness” of measures means,
and why it is necessary to establish it in
research.

45. Scale
 Is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are
distinguished as to how they differ from one
another on the variables of interest to our study.
3

46. scales
 There are four basic types of scales:
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
46

47. scales
 The degree of sophistication to which the
scales are fine-tuned increases progressively
as we move from the nominal to the ratio scale.
 The information on the variables can be obtained
in greater detail when we employ an interval or a
ratio scale than the other two scales.
47

48. scales
 With more powerful scales, increasingly
sophisticated data analyses can be performed,
which in turn, means that more meaningful
answers can be found to our research questions.
48

49. Nominal Scale
 A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign
subjects to certain categories or groups.
 What is your department?
O Marketing O Maintenance O Finance
O Production O Servicing O Personnel
O Sales O Public Relations O Accounting
 What is your gender?
O Male
O Female
7

50. Nominal Scale
 For example, the variable of gender,
respondents can be grouped into two
categories- male and female.
 Notice that there are no third category into
which respondents would normally fall.
50

51. Nominal Scale
 The information that can be generated from
nominal scaling is to calculate the percentage
(or frequency) of males and females in our
sample of respondents.
51

52. Example 1
 Nominally scale the nationality of individuals
in a group of tourists to a country during a
certain year.
 We could nominally scale this variable in the
following mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive categories.
American Japanese
Russian Malaysian
Chinese German
Arabian Other
52

53. Example 1
 Note that every respondent has to fit into one of
the above categories and that the scale will allow
computation of the numbers and percentages of
respondents that fit into them.
53

54. Ordinal Scale
 Ordinal scale: not only categorizes variables in such
a way as to denote differences among various
categories, it also rank-orders categories in some
meaningful way.
 What is the highest level of education you have
completed?
O Less than High School
O High School
O College Degree
O Masters Degree
O Doctoral Degree
54

55. Ordinal Scale
 The preference would be ranked ( from best to
worse; or from first to last) and numbered as 1, 2,
3, and so on.
55

56. Example 2
 Rank the following five characteristics in a job
in terms of how important they are for you.
You should rank the most important item as 1,
the next in importance a 2, and so on, until you
have ranked each of them 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.
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57. Example 2 (Cont.)
 Job Characteristic Ranking
The opportunity provided by the job to:
1. Interacts with others _____
2. Use different skills _____
3. Complete a task to the end _____
4. Serve others _____
5. Work independently _____
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58. Example 2 (Cont.)
 This scale helps the researcher to determine the
percentage of respondents who consider
interaction with others as most important, those
who consider using a number of skills as most
important, and so on. Such knowledge might help
in designing jobs that would be seen as most
enriched by the majority of the employees.
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59. Example 2 (Cont.)
 We can see that the ordinal scale provides more
information than the nominal scale. Even though
differences in the ranking of objects, persons are
clearly known, we do not know their
magnitude.
 This deficiency is overcome by interval scaling.
59

60. 60
Interval Scale
 Interval scale: whereas the nominal
scale allows us only to qualitatively
distinguish groups by categorizing them
into mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive sets, and the ordinal scale to
rank-order the preferences, the interval
scale lets us measure the distance
between any two points on the scale.

61. Interval scale
61
© 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran

62. Example 3a
 Indicate the extent to which you agree with the
following statements as they relate to your job, by
circling the appropriate number against each,
using the scale given below.
strongly disagree 1, Disagree 2
Neither Agree Nor Disagree 3
Agree 4, Strongly Agree 5.
62

63. Example 3a (Cont.)
 The following opportunities offered by the job are
very important to me:
63
Interacting with others 1 2 3 4 5
Using a number of different
skills
1 2 3 4 5
Completing a task from
beginning to end
1 2 3 4 5
Serving others 1 2 3 4 5
Working independently 1 2 3 4 5

64. Example 3a (Cont.)
 Suppose that the employees circle the
numbers 3, 1, 2, 4, and 5 for the five items.
 The magnitude of difference represented by
the space between points 1 and 2 on the
scale is the same as the magnitude of
difference represented by the space between
points 4 and 5, or between any other two
points. Any number can be added to or
subtracted from the numbers on the scale, still
retaining the magnitude of the difference.
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65. Example 3a (Cont.)
 If we add 6 to the five points on the scale, the
interval scale will have the numbers 7, 8,….., 11 (
instead of 1 to 5).
 The magnitude of the difference between 7 and
8 is still the same as the magnitude of the
difference between 9 and 10. It has an arbitrary
origin.
65

66. 66
66
Example 3b
 Circle the number that represents your feelings at this particular
moment best. There are no right or wrong answers. Please answer
every question.
1. I invest more in my work than I get out of it
I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely
2. I exert myself too much considering what I get back in return
I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely
3. For the efforts I put into the organization, I get much in return
I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely

67. Ratio Scale
 Ratio scale: overcomes the disadvantage of the
arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, in that it
has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero
point, which is a meaningful measurement point.
 What is your age?
26

68. Ratio Scale
68

69. Ratio Scale
 The ratio scale is the most powerful of the four
scales because it has a unique zero
origin ( not an arbitrary origin).
 The differences between scales are summarized
in the next Figure.
69

70. The differences between scales
70

71. Properties of the Four Scales

72. 72
Developing Scales
 The four types of scales that can be used to
measure the operationally defined dimensions
and elements of a variable are:
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio
scales.
 It is necessary to examine the methods of
scaling (assigning numbers or symbols) to
elicit the attitudinal responses of subjects
toward objects, events, or persons.

73. 73
Developing Scales
 Categories of attitudinal scales: (not to be
confused with the four different types of scales)
 The Rating Scales
 The Ranking Scales

74. 74
Developing Scales
 Rating scales have several response categories
and are used to elicit responses with regard to
the object, event, or person studied.
 Ranking scales, make comparisons between or
among objects, events, or persons and elicit the
preferred choices and ranking among them.

75. 75
Rating Scales
 The following rating scales are often used in
organizational research.
1. Dichotomous scale
2. Category scale
3. Likert scale
4. Numerical scale

76. 76
Rating Scales
5. Semantic differential scale
6. Itemized rating scale
7. Fixed or constant sum rating scale
8. Stapel scale
9. Graphic rating scale
10. Consensus scale

77. 77
Dichotomous Scale
 Is used to elicit a Yes or No answer.
(Note that a nominal scale is used to elicit the
response)
 Example 4
Do you own a car? Yes No

78. 78
Category Scale
 It uses multiple items to elicit a single
response.
 Example 5
Where in Arusha do you reside?
Njiro
Moshono
Unga Limited
Sanawari
Other

79. 79
Likert Scale
 Is designed to examine how strongly subjects
agree or disagree with statements on a 5-point
scale as following:
_________________________________
Strongly Neither Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4 5
_____________________________________________________
_

80. 80
Likert Scale
 This is an Interval scale and the differences in
responses between any two points on the scale
remain the same.

81. 81
Semantic Differential Scale
 We use this scale when several attributes are
identified at the extremes of the scale. For
instance, the scale would employ such terms as:
Good – Bad
Strong – Weak
Hot – Cold

82. 82
Semantic Differential Scale
 This scale is treated as an Interval scale.
 Example 6
What is your opinion on your supervisor?
Responsive--------------Unresponsive
Beautiful-----------------Ugly
Courageous-------------Timid

83. 83
Numerical Scale
 Is similar to the semantic differential scale,
with the difference that numbers on a 5-
points or 7-points scale are provided, as
illustrated in the following example:
How pleased are you with your new job?
Extremely Extremlely
pleased 5 4 3 2 1 displeased

84. 84
Itemized Rating Scale
 A 5-point or 7-point scale is provided for each item
and the respondent states the appropriate number on
the side of each item. This uses an Interval Scale.
 Example 7(i)
Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your
response number on the line by each item.
1 2 3 4 5
Very unlikely unlikely neither likely very likely
unlikely nor
likely
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I will be changing my job in the near future. --------

85. 85
Itemized Rating Scale
 Note that the above is balanced rating with a
neutral point.
 The unbalance rating scale which does not
have a neutral point, will be presented in the
following example.

86. 86
Itemized Rating Scale
 Example 7(ii)
Circle the number that is closest to how you
feel for the item below:
Not at all Somewhat Moderately Very much
interested interested interested interested
1 2 3 4
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
How would you rate your interest 1 2 3 4
In changing current organizational
Policies?

87. 87
Fixed or Constant Sum Scale
 The respondents are asked to distribute a
given number of points across various items.
 Example : In choosing a toilet soap, indicate the importance you
attach to each of the following five aspects by allotting points for
each to total 100 in all.
Fragrance -----
Color -----
Shape -----
Size -----
_________
Total points 100
This is more in the nature of an ordinal scale.

88. 88
Stapel Scale
 This scale simultaneously measures both the
direction and intensity of the attitude toward the
items under study. The characteristic of interest
to the study is placed at the center and a
numerical scale ranging, say from +3 to – 3, on
either side of the item as illustrated in the
following example:

89. 89
Example 8: Stapel Scale
 State how you would rate your supervisor’s abilities with respect
to each of the characteristics mentioned below, by circling the
appropriate number.
+3 +3 +3
+2 +2 +2
+1 +1 +1
Adopting modern Product Interpersonal
Technology Innovation Skills
- 1 - 1 - 1
- 2 - 2 - 2
- 3 - 3 - 3

90. 90
Graphic Rating Scale
 A graphical representation helps the respondents
to indicate on this scale their answers to a
particular question by placing a mark at the
appropriate point on the line, as in the following
example:

91. 91
Graphic Rating Scale
 Example 9
 On a scale of 1 to 10, how would you rate your
supervisor?
5
1
10

92. 92
Ranking Scales
 Are used to tap preferences between two or
among more objects or items (ordinal in nature).
However, such ranking may not give definitive
clues to some of the answers sought.

93. 93
Ranking Scales
 Example 10
There are 4 product lines, the manager seeks
information that would help decide which product line
should get the most attention.
Assume:
35% of respondents choose the 1st product.
25% of respondents choose the 2nd product.
20% of respondents choose the 3rd product.
20% of respondents choose the 4th product.
100%

94. 94
Ranking Scales
 The manager cannot conclude that the first
product is the most preferred. Why?
 Because 65% of respondents did not choose
that product. We have to use alternative
methods like Forced Choice, Paired
Comparisons, and the Comparative Scale.
 We will describe the Forced Choice as an
example.

95. 95
Forced Choice
 The forced choice enables respondents to rank
objects relative to one another, among the
alternative provided. This is easier for the
respondents, particularly if the number of choice
to be ranked is limited in number.

96. 96
Forced Choice
 Example 11
Rank the following newspapers that you
would like to subscribe to in the order of
preference, assigning 1 for the most preferred
choice and 5 for the least preferred.
• UWAZI ………
• MWANA HALISI ……….
• UHURU ……….
• TANZANIA DAIMA ……….
• MWANANCHI ……….

97. 97
Goodness of Measures
 It is important to make sure that the instrument
that we develop to measure a particular concept
is accurately measuring the variable, and we
are actually measured the concept that we set
out to measure.

98. 98
Goodness of Measures
 We need to assess the goodness of the
measures developed. That is, we need to be
reasonably sure that the instruments we use in
our research do indeed measure the variables
they are supposed to, and that they measure
them accurately.

99. Goodness of Measures

100. 100
Goodness of Measures
 How can we ensure that the measures developed
are reasonably good?
 First an item analysis of the responses to the
questions tapping the variable is done.
 Then the reliability and validity of the
measures are established.

101. 101
Item Analysis
 Item analysis is done to see if the items in
the instrument belong there or not. Each item
is examined for its ability to discriminate
between those subjects whose total scores
are high, and those with low scores.
 In item analysis, the means between the
high-score group and the low-score group are
tested to detect significant differences through
the t-values.

102. 102
Item Analysis
 The items with a high t-value are then included in
the instrument. Thereafter, tests for the reliability
of the instrument are done and the validity of the
measure is established.

103. Reliability
 Reliability of measure indicates extent to which it
is without bias and hence ensures consistent
measurement across time (stability) and across
the various items in the instrument (internal
consistency).
66

104. 104
Stability
 Stability: ability of a measure to remain
the same over time, despite
uncontrollable testing conditions or the
state of the respondents themselves.
 Test–Retest Reliability: The reliability
coefficient obtained with a repetition of the
same measure on a second occasion.
 Parallel-Form Reliability: Responses on
two comparable sets of measures tapping
the same construct are highly correlated.
84

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Test-Retest Reliability
 When a questionnaire containing some items
that are supposed to measure a concept is
administered to a set of respondents now,
and again to the same respondents, say
several weeks to 6 months later, then the
correlation between the scores obtained is
called the test-retest coefficient.
 The higher the coefficient is, the better the
test-retest reliability, and consequently, the
stability of the measure across time.

106. 106
Parallel-Form Reliability
 When responses on two comparable sets of
measures tapping the same construct are highly
correlated, we have parallel-form reliability.
 Both forms have similar items and the same
response format, the only changes being the
wording and the order or sequence of the
questions.

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Parallel-Form Reliability
 What we try to establish in the parallel-form
is the error variability resulting from wording
and ordering of the questions.
 If two such comparable forms are highly
correlated (say 8 and above), we may be
fairly certain that the measures are
reasonably reliable, with minimal error
variance caused by wording, ordering, or
other factors.

108. 72
Internal Consistency
 Internal Consistency of Measures is
indicative of the homogeneity of the items in the
measure that tap the construct.
 Inter-item Consistency Reliability: This is a test
of the consistency of respondents’ answers to all
the items in a measure. The most popular test of
inter-item consistency reliability is the Cronbach’s
coefficient alpha.
 Split-Half Reliability: Split-half reliability reflects
the correlations between two halves of an
instrument.

109. 109
Validity
 Validity tests show how well an instrument
that is developed measures the particular
concept it is intended to measure. Validity is
concerned with whether we measure the right
concept.
 Several types of validity tests are used to
test the goodness of measures: content
validity, criterion-related validity, and
construct validity.

110. 110
Content Validity
 Content validity ensures that the measure
includes an adequate and representative set
of items that tap the concept.
 The more the scale items represent the
domain of the concept being measured, the
greater the content validity.
 In other words, content validity is a function
of how well the dimensions and elements of
a concept have been delineated.

111. 111
Criterion-Related Validity
 Criterion-Related Validity is established
when the measure differentiates individuals
on a criterion it is expected to predict. This
can be done by establishing what is called
concurrent validity or predictive validity.
 Concurrent validity is established when the
scale discriminates individuals who are
known to be different; that is, they should
score differently on the instrument as in the
following example.

112. 112
Criterion-Related Validity
 Example 12
If a measure of work ethic is developed and
administered to a group of welfare recipients,
the scale should differentiate those who are
enthusiastic about accepting a job and glad of
a opportunity to be off welfare, from those
who would not want to work even when
offered a job.

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Example 12 (Cont.)
 Those with high work ethic values would not
want to be on welfare and would ask for
employment. Those who are low on work
ethic values, might exploit the opportunity to
survive on welfare for as long as possible.
 If both types of individuals have the same
score on the work ethic scale, then the test
would not be a measure of work ethic, but of
something else.

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Construct Validity
 Construct Validity testifies to how well the results
obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories
around which the test is designed. This is assessed
through convergent and discriminant validity.
 Convergent validity is established when the scores
obtained with two different instruments measuring the
same concept are highly correlated.
 Discriminant validity is established when, based on
theory, two variables are predicted to be
uncorrelated, and the scores obtained by measuring
them are indeed empirically found to be so.

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Goodness of Measures
 Goodness of Measures is established
through the different kinds of validity and
reliability.
 The results of any research can only be as
good as the measures that tap the concepts in
the theoretical framework.
 Table 7.2 summarizes the kinds of validity
discussed in the lecture.

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Validity
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