Research Paper

International Studies Capstone Research Project
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN – LA CROSSE
The Evolution of Latin
American Poets in Exile in
the 20th Century
Juan Gelman and Pablo Neruda
Nicole Vanden Hoogen
December 2013

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Introduction
Writers’ personal lives and experiences serve as inspiration for their creative works. For
that reason it can be argued that important events or drastic changes have the ability to greatly
alter their style and tone. This research paper aims to investigate the way political exile has
shaped the evolution of the works of two Latin American poets, Juan Gelman and Pablo Neruda.
Since this paper asserts the powerful influence of experience on the creative writing
process, it is only natural that a brief biography of each writer will be given. Intertwined within
the biography of each poet is the historical context in which they lived and were subsequently
exiled. This historical context focuses mainly on the politics and the government of each of their
home nations, Argentina for Gelman, and Chile for Neruda. The combination of their personal
and political lives allows for greater understanding of the conditions in which the author was
writing and living and can also shed light onto how their perspective of the world changed over
time.
Using a variety of poems published throughout the writers’ lives, a panoramic view of
their poetic evolution can be created. To be able to do so, a few parameters were chosen to
sharpen the focus of the analysis of his poetry. This essay will focus mainly on the following in
the poems of Gelman and Neruda, both before exile and afterwards: movement/sedentarism,
imagery and colors, the play between power and politics, relationships, conveyed emotions, and
finally recurring themes. The analyses will follow a chronological time line (juxtaposing the
works prior to exile, and those written afterwards) and finally the paper will conclude by

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examining the parallels and differences in experience and style changes of each author to deepen
the understanding of the impact of exile.
Juan Gelman
Juan Gelman was born in the Villa Crespo neighborhood of Buenos Aires, Argentina in
1930 to a recently emigrated Jewish Ukrainian family ("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). Being the
only one in his family born in Argentina, Gelman considers himself the only true porteño in his
family ("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). However, strong influences of political activism and
oppression were already present before his birth. His father, José Gelman, was a political
revolutionary and participated in the 1905 Russian revolution (("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). In
order to evade military service, the family emigrated from the Ukraine to Argentina in 1912, but
returned to their home country shortly after the Bolshevik revolution ("Autobiografía
gelmaniana"). Finally, in 1928 the Gelman family relocated to Buenos Aires at last
("Autobiografía gelmaniana").
Although Juan had not even lived in the Ukraine, nor had firsthand experience with the
oppression and discrimination his family faced, he was well aware of it. “My childhood, too, is
filled with things that I did not live. Terrible, extraordinary stories that my mother told me, about
the day when the Cossacks burned everything during a pogrom and my grandmother entered the
house screaming to save her children, for example” ("Autobiografía gelmaniana").

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From very young on Gelman was very interested in poetry, and soon began writing
poems of his own ("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). “In high school, I was a good student. Not
extraordinary, but I did my duties, I stained my fingers with more ink than what I put on
notebook pages” ("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). He was heavily influenced by Russian and
Spanish authors alike and incessantly read works by Dostoevsky, Garcilaso, Lope de Vega, and
even claims the first poem he read was one written by the Russian poet Pushkin ("Autobiografía
gelmaniana"). He collaborated with other poets like Héctor Negro, Julio C. Silvain, and Di
Taranto to publish “Él Pan Duro” and began doing public readings of their works around the city
When Gelman was fifteen years old, he became part of the Communist Party ("Autobiografía
gelmaniana"). This was during the presidency of Juan Peron, a time of political controversy, and
the general population seemed to split into two major political parties: the Peronists and the
Democrats ("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). However, in 1964 after expressing his opinion over
the split between the U.S.S.R. and China, he left the party and was formally dismissed by the
secretariat a month later ("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). Gelman then spent a few years without
being formally involved in any major political party, until he joined the Revolutionary Armed
Forces (F.A.R.) which had members, including Rodolfo Walsh who would later publicly
admonish the impending military dictatorship in his “Carta Abierta a la Junta Militar”
("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). The F.A.R. soon fused with guerrilla entities and in some cases
used brute violence to enforce their stance ("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). Juan Gelman did not
condone such radical acts and distanced himself from the party, he still remained a strong
believer in the beliefs of the party ("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). In 1975, for his subversive

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political ideology, or what the Argentine government of the time considered to be “subversive”,
he was forced into exile and fled to Italy ("Autobiografía gelmaniana").
The years between 1976 and 1983 were noted as being a “Process of National
Reorganization” or more commonly, the Dirty War (Britannica). Strong anti-peronist attitudes
pervaded Argentine society, and in 1975 President Isabel Perón was pressured by the military to
appoint General Rafael Videla as commander in chief ("Jorge Rafael Videla (president of
Argentina)”). He began his attack on peronism by removing officers who were sympathetic to it,
and led a campaign in the province of Tucumán which killed hundreds of Marxist guerrillas
("Jorge Rafael Videla (president of Argentina)”). On March 24, 1976 he led a military junta that
removed Isabel Perón from her presidency, and ruled along with General Orlando Ramón Agosti
and Admiral Eduardo Emilio Massera ("Jorge Rafael Videla (president of Argentina)”). The
junta sought to remove political subversives (or those who supported socialism or communism)
and perfected a delicate balance between public and private horror (Klein 92). One instance of a
violent public demonstration early in the junta is of a man being pushed out of the iconic Ford
Falcon, being tied to the Obelisk in the center of Buenos Aires and being machine-gunned to
death (Klein 90). As many Argentines stated during that time, “we did not know what nobody
could deny” (Klein 91).
Just before his exile, Gelman’s son and his pregnant daughter-in-law were among those
disappeared by the Argentine government for political subversion (Gelman ix). Beginning in the
1990s, Gelman heightened his search for his disappeared family members ("Juan Gelman
(Argentine poet and activist)”). In 2000, the president of Uruguay declared that Gelman’s
daughter-in-law had been relocated to Uruguay where she gave birth to his granddaughter and

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subsequently had been adopted by a pro-government family ("Juan Gelman (Argentine poet and
activist)”).
However, Gelman still maintained a surprisingly positive perspective of his homeland.
“…I never told myself I wouldn’t return to Argentina. I don’t hate Argentina. The military
confuse themselves thinking they’re Argentina. I will never confuse the military with Argentina”
("Autobiografía gelmaniana"). His works, even during exile, have always been impacted by
Argentina, and as he says “it is impossible to take the feet out of the soul of the country”
Pablo Neruda
Ricardo Eliecer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto was born in Parral, Chile in 1904. He came from
a humble family, his father was a railway worker and his mother was a schoolteacher. However,
shortly after his birth his mother passed away ("Pablo Neruda - Biographical"). He began his
writing career from a very young age, his first works were articles published in the Chilean
newspaper “La Mañana” ("Pablo Neruda - Biographical"). At the age of sixteen he regularly
contributed to the journal “Selva Austral” and adopted the pen name of Pablo Neruda in memory
of the Czechoslovakian poet Jan Neruda ("Pablo Neruda - Biographical").
He enrolled in the University of Chile in the nation’s capital of Santiago and studied
French and Pedagogy while still writing on the side ("Pablo Neruda - Biographical"). In 1927, at
the age of 23, the government granted him a great number of consulships which keeps with the

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Latin American tradition of putting poets into certain diplomatic positions ("Pablo Neruda").
During this time, he traveled and lived all over the world including places like Paris, Buenos
Aires, Barcelona, and Singapore ("Pablo Neruda"). Neruda had quite an active political career,
initiated by these honorary consulships. During his time abroad, he began to attract attention over
his controversial support of Fidel Castro, Joseph Stalin and Fulgencio Batista, which will be
evident in quite a few of his poetic works ("Pablo Neruda").
The Spanish Civil War that took place in 1935 and the murder of one of Neruda’s
acquaintances, Federico García Lorca, deeply affected him personally and ideologically, and was
also an inspiration for aligning himself with the Republican Party in Chile ("Pablo Neruda -
Biographical"). After many years abroad, he finally returned to Chile in 1943 (Agosin,
Chronology). Two years later he was elected senator of the Republican Party in the Chilean
presidential election, a major achievement, and joined the Communist Party the same year
(Agosin, Chronology).
At this time, Gabriel González Videla (of the Radical Party) was president of Chile
(“Chile”). He had gained support from the Communist Party, and some of his early cabinet
members had been heavily affiliated with Communism as well (“Chile”). However, in 1948 he
outlawed Communists due to mounting pressures of the international Cold War and a collection
of internal governmental issues (“Chile”). As a result, there was a strong push to the Right end of
the Political spectrum, especially since presidents and members of the Radical party had failed to
improve Chile’s economy and social troubles (“Chile”).
All of these factors were building up against Neruda. Despite this prestigious political
achievement, due to Neruda’s protests against President González Videla’s harsh treatment

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towards miners on strike in 1947 and because of his involvement in the Communist Party, he
was forced into hiding ("Pablo Neruda - Biographical"). Neruda managed to hide in various
places in Chile, until being able to finally escape his homeland in 1949 ("Pablo Neruda -
Biographical"). After a few years spent in exile, Neruda was finally able to return to Chile in
1952 when the government lifted its order to capture and punish leftist political figures and
writers ("Pablo Neruda - Biographical").
Neruda continued being an active member of the Communist Party for quite some time,
and in 1969 was chosen as a Presidential Candidate for the party only to resign the following
year (Agosin, Chronology). After several presidencies (General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, Jorge
Alessandri, and Eduardo Frei Montalva) the Chilean people still sought a more egalitarian, less
stratified society and elected the Socialist and self-proclaimed Marxists, Salvador Allende
Gossens in 1970 (“Chile”). He was a member of the Popular Unity (Unidad Popular) program,
which looked to transition into socialism through a number of governmental actions that would
equal out the distribution of income to favor the lower, working classes (“Chile”). However,
mounting economic problems pitted the middle class against the Popular Unity movement, rather
than with it (“Chile”). Inflation increased, production became more stagnant, and many Chilean
citizens began to question a socialist government, and even supported anti-government attitudes
among the armed forces (“Chile”). In 1973, Pablo Neruda formerly resigned as the ambassador
to Paris, slowly stepping down from his strong political role in the Chilean government ("Pablo
Neruda - Biographical"). On September 11 of the same year, a military coup d’état was held in
which President Allende died, and General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte gained power by default
(“Chile”). At first, his rule was supported by a good portion of the middle class; having believed
it would be short lived and would begin a prosperous step in Chilean history, soon finding out

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their hopes would be far from the truth (“Chile”). Two weeks after the military junta took power,
Pablo Neruda died of cancer in Santiago, his nation’s capital (Agosin, Chronology).
Analysis of Juan Gelman’s Work
To begin analyzing Gelman’s works, it is important to note his sense of obligation to his
writing. His poem “The Art of Poetry” (1961) details this lack of control over this necessity; he
did not choose this trade, it was inherent to his being (Gelman 15). Gelman expresses his need to
show everything no matter how brutal, or how sweet.
the grief of others, tears,
handkerchiefs raised in greeting,
promises in the middle of autumn or fire,
kisses of reunion or goodbye (Gelman 15).
For this very reason, Gelman is an interesting subject to analyze, having lived through the
dictatorship of Rafael Videla and feeling the scorn of the oppressive government of his beloved
homeland.
Movement or perhaps the lack thereof, is the first main factor to be examined. His works
prior to the dictatorship and his subsequent exile, really falter in any type of movement at all.
However, there is one passage that does show a sense of movement and change and can be found

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in the poem “CCLXI: These Poems” (Gelman 38). Gelman writes about “moving between two
waters / between this world and its beauty” (Gelman 38). The majority of his other poems during
this time, focus on other things rather than change in location, and instead are rather sedentary;
consumed in emotion, rather than place.
Because of the politically turbulent time in which Gelman lived, it is vital to analyze how
politics and elements of power struggle find their way into his poetic works. In quite a few of his
poems there is an underlying sense of patriotism and loyalty to his home nation of Argentina
because of the references to certain specific geographical and cultural markers (such as maps,
using lunfardo, using the tango song motif, etc.). Gelman, later to be considered a political
subversive, felt the need for change in the government, and this is reflected through his poetry. A
few of his poems (“The Art of Poetry” and “Friends”, specifically) refer to a need for a political
revolution outright (Gelman15, 31). But there are more subtle instances in which a revolution is
sought after, as in “IV: The Sun on the Day’s Crest” (Gelman 47). This poem tells of a man
sitting on the edge of a road, dwelling on past kings, and while doing so, pulls a splinter from the
bottom of his foot which draws blood because “his body would not accept it” (Gelman 47). The
entanglement of thought (of “kings swallowed up by time”) and action (the removal of the
bothersome splinter) conjure up a delicate insinuation of the revolution; of removing the problem
(Gelman 47). Even though the idea of a revolution appears to be rather cemented in the mind of
Gelman, the manner in which it would be possible still appears to have remained cloudy. This
uncertainty of tactics shines through in his poem “CDLXXXI: In a River Five Leagues Wide at
its Narrowest Point”,
one never knows if the way out should have been

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to push into the forests like hungry wolves
ax rifle or
machine gun in our grip (Gelman 43-44).
The revolution is necessary, it is unquestioned, but the best way of achieving positive results is a
matter of contention.
A major characteristic of Gelman’s poetry, throughout his career is his creation of
dialectical tension between light and dark; between hope and suffering. As with many artists,
Gelman associates light with optimism and life, while allotting darkness with despair and
pessimism. There is also a heavy usage of the seasons, especially winter and autumn, and he
interestingly finds the “light” in these times associated with decay and death. In a poem entitled
“Winter”, he creates a scene of a time lying in bed with a woman and writes “after making love /
your skin still lights the darkness, the weariness, / the night taking shelter in this room” (Gelman
16). Even though the frigid air whips about outside, and even invades the confines of the
bedroom, there is still a beacon of hope and possibility alive.
Throughout Gelman’s earlier works, the dynamic of relationships that appear are mainly
romantic and lustful relations with women. But throughout, there is a perpetual sense of
loneliness that prevails. One line from his poem “Courage”, encapsulates this lonesomeness
despite the presence of other people, “the sadness a man and a woman can build between them is
/ enormous” (Gelman 63). Even though the one can be entirely loved by another person, there is
still a sense of misunderstanding and of “otherness” that can occur. In later works, Gelman often
personifies his home country as a woman, reflecting this trend backward. This feminine figure
and him are separated by distance, but a part of her still remains with him and will continue to be

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inseparable from his being. This physical disconnection with a woman can similarly be a
displacement imposed by the government of Argentina (Gelman 76).
As with all poets, conveying emotion is a driving element of their works since it strikes at
the heart of their message and forces the reader to connect deeply. Gelman uses his perspective
as an observer to document, poetically, the emotions he sees people expressing or consciously
hiding (Gelman 5). His poem “Watching People Walk Along” focuses solely on observing the
general public throughout the city, people who “…work hard, run, suffer, cringe in pain, / all for
just a little peace and happiness” and who “…weep in the most hidden corners / of the soul and
still be able / to laugh and walk with dignity” (Gelman 5). Although this poem was written less
than two decades prior to the dictatorship of Videla, the sense of hiding part of oneself is still
visible and Gelman has the affinity to perceive it.
All of these elements illuminate the style and trends of Juan Gelman’s poetry prior to his
exile in 1975. He plays with the dynamics between lightness and darkness, the incessant demand
for change and revolution, and the everlasting sense of loneliness and otherness. Although his
message was very subtle prior to his exile, to a careful reader, it is entirely clear what the
intended goal of his poems was: to incite positive change and to create light where there was
darkness.
There is a marked shift in Gelman’s style and message during the time surrounding his
political exile. This is most prominent shortly before and just after he was formally exiled by the
Argentine government, but a few elements persist throughout the rest of his poetic career but on
a much more subdued scale.

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Beginning again with movement, the time following Gelman’s exile shows a slightly
more active style, albeit still very subtle. The movement that appears in his works is succinct,
staccato and fleeting. He actively references the fact that he has been displaced, and that he has
not only the desire to return, but the obligation to do so. In his poem “Note V” he is speaking to
an abstract figure of a woman, or presumably, Argentina (Gelman 76). Gelman begs her to come
to him, to stay by his side and says that she will never leave him despite the fact that he has “to
go on moving / on and on” (Gelman 76). In other poems of his, movement is shown through
short abbreviated actions like a shot being fired or a short battle taking place (Gelman 69). These
are all active and powerful images, but are more subtle than one would expect. Almost all senses
of movement are intricately related to exile and revolution, whether it be travelling, returning, or
fighting.
The presence of obvious political references is greater, and the power dynamic is greatly
emphasized shortly after Gelman’s exile. Even a reader paying a minimal amount of attention to
the progression of his works can note an increased presence of words like dictator, bureaucrat,
and regime in his post-exile poems. Gelman’s attitude toward the futility of the new government
is expressed in “Facts” in which he repeats the verse:
the class struggle raged on
brutal capitalism
back-breaking work
stupidity
repression

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death
police sirens splitting the night (Gelman 67-68).
The repetition expresses the overwhelming sense of monotony and stagnation of progress;
nothing has improved in the eyes of the poet. Even though the frequency of such palpable
political commentary wanes as the years go on, Gelman’s message still underlies in the content
of many of his later works.
The imagery that Gelman uses post-exile is also notably different than his earlier poems.
He uses much more lively and vivid words which create stronger, more active (and at times,
violent) images rather than the calmer, sedated wording from before. While in earlier works,
Gelman relied heavily on the dynamic between lightness and darkness, he goes on to build up
this element by adding in heat and cold, burning and freezing. All of these elemental shifts can
be seen clearly in one of his more literal poems, “Deaths”, “
…screaming like one of the damned /of no help to her
the lovely summer the fountains the women she allowed to go on their way
like heat fire or pity / this death
wouldn’t be worth a plugged nickel anywhere (Gelman 71).
For the first time in Gelman’s work, there is a vastly increased focus on sound and its opposite,
silence. Especially that this sound, much like the screaming of the woman in “Deaths” falls on
deaf ears (Gelman 71).

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Interpersonal relationships still pervade through Gelman’s work, but there is a slight
difference from before. Comradeship and familial relationships take the place of the intimate,
romantically tragic relationships that he had used beforehand. Gelman, at times, even refers
openly to real friends of his, including Rodolfo Walsh (“Rodolfo Said It”, “If Gently”), Paco
Ibañez (“If Gently”) his son, and other compañeros of his. He even breaks out of his poetic voice
and gives an aside that tells the reader about the disappearance of his son and daughter-in-law,
and his everlasting hope of their return in “XX: Early on the Soul Begins to Hurt” (Gelman 83-
84). This hope returns throughout his works, with the presence of children and the many
references to childhood; a desire to return to the past in all its innocence and peace (“IV:
Crestfallen my Burning Soul”) (Gelman 81). The energized presence of close, lasting
relationships indicates an attempt to hold onto what was lost, especially as a displaced poet,
Gelman has the need to grasp onto any piece of home and camaraderie.
The emotional tone becomes much more blatant and powerful in Gelman’s post-exile
works. Even by browsing through the titles of his poems, it becomes clear that emotion dictates
and drives the themes of his poetry post-exile (“XX: Early on the Soul Begins to Hurt”, “The
Prisoner”, “Alone”, “Under Foreign Rain”, “IV: Crestfallen my Burning Soul”, “XVI: Punishing
Loves”, “Deaths”). Instead of emphasizing loneliness solely, there is a greater sense of rage,
discontent, sadness, longing, and even insanity. Like before, Gelman still expresses a need and
desire for change;
how to burn with love and fly /
gentled by fire / beyond reach
of these miseries / these sufferings /

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these remnants of pain / these
tiny pieces of you crackling in
the burning night (Gelman 113).
Another recurring emotional undertone is everlasting hope, albeit more realistic and slightly
more cynical since he recognizes that hope does waver despite its persistence.
Little sunlight you went out like that /
but you still light up this night /
while we look at that side
where the sun comes up (Gelman 77).
Light, like hope, varies in its intensity and even fades to blackness, but with the rising of each
sun, hope is renewed and returns without fail.
Gelman’s poems written after his exile start off being abruptly different from his earlier
works, becoming more overt in content and message and more violent in tone with a slight
prevailing war-like quality. This fades somewhat as the years go on, but the message persists
even in its softened and polished state. Gelman also writes directly about his own experience as
an exile, highlighting the inner turmoil and sense of otherness he faced while abroad. His poetry
becomes much more grounded in reality, focusing on real historical events and people in his life
(even referring to them by name) and breaks from a purely poetic voice, and makes greater and
greater political commentary in his works. Perhaps the greater emphasis on what is real and

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actually happening is greater after being exiled purely because of the fact he did not face direct
political persecution anymore, and had the freedom to write and publish as he pleased. This
political and creative freedom, coupled with the direct atrocities to those close to him, definitely
impacted Gelman’s worldview and poetic style. However, this was not the creation of a new poet
altogether, but the development from focusing mainly on artistic elements to focusing mainly on
sending a strong message. Gelman carved out a clearer and more obviously powerful message in
his later works, choosing more vivid imagery, more potent wording, and making his perspective
as true as reality itself.
Analysis of Pablo Neruda’s Work
The book, The Poetry of Pablo Neruda, which is a compilation of Pablo Neruda’s poetry,
was used as the primary source of analysis. It includes poems from a wide variety of Neruda’s
own published collections which span from the year 1920 all the way to the end of his career in
the early 1970’s. For that reason, it offers a brilliant spread of Neruda’s works and allows for a
clear progression of his poetic development. Like Gelman, Neruda’s political attitudes poke
through in his creative writing in varying degrees, with notable shifts at different points because
of a number of historical events and his own exile.
In Neruda’s earlier years, his poetry has a very energetic sense about it, with many
references to wind, birds, and the ocean. There is an attitude that encourages movement both in

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location as well as through time. An excerpt from his poem “Every Day You Play” encapsulates
this sense of liveliness
The birds go by, fleeing.
The wind. The wind.
I can contend only against the power of men.
The storm whirls dark leaves
and turns loose all the boats that were moored last night to the sky (Neruda 14-15).
Birds are not just flying aimlessly, but consciously leaving. The wind, through the repetition of
it, persists and gains strength, coming back as a dark storm wreaking havoc on the harbor. This
scene displays movement, clearly, but more importantly a necessity to leave. However, there are
implications of a possible return, but in an altered state; the wind returning as a violent storm. It
is important to note that throughout some of Neruda’s poems, there is forced movement, rather
than free mobility. Ships are torn from their harbors by the storm, rivers drag stones along with
them, are frequent occurrences early on in Neruda’s career. As such, there is a subtle idea
growing that although there are individual freedoms, still no one is outside the influence of
institutions, whether it be the government, religions, or culture.
As a political consul, Neruda was deeply involved in politics on a worldwide level; he
was witness to the actions of other governments and learned how they functioned. In Neruda’s
book Residencia en la tierra (including poems written between 1925 and 1945) alone, there are a
multitude of poems that are overtly political (“Ode to Federico Garcia Lorca”, “Spain in our
Heart”, “General Franco in Hell”, “Song to Stalingrad”, “Song to the Red Army on its Arrival at

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the Gates of Prussia”, just to name a few) and almost exclusively refer to Spain and the Soviet
Union. It appears that Neruda’s strong political emphasis in his poetry begins years before his
exile from Chile, and is instead initiated by the execution of Federico Garcia Lorca (a Spanish
poet with whom Neruda was acquainted). Neruda’s time living in Spain, his political career, and
the death of his close friend joined together to force him to openly express his opinions through
his work. As a member of the Chilean Communist Party, Neruda openly supported Stalin and
other communist leaders, and begins writing poems in support of their regimes.
Neruda’s earliest works use imagery involving things found in nature, namely flowers,
trees, wind, and the ocean. Sea motifs dominate his poems where he uses the relentless and
unforgiving nature of the perilous waters to illustrate a sense of powerlessness. However, he does
emphasize the strength and determination of ships that cut through the ocean’s waters in the
poem “Your Breast is Enough”:
I have said that you sang in the wind
like the pines and like the masts.
Like them you are tall and taciturn,
and you are sad all at once, like a voyage (Neruda 12-13).
Neruda also frequently uses natural elements to convey his message. Women are generally
described using elements of nature: “white hills, white thighs”, “body of skin, of moss, of avid,
steady milk”, “the roses of the pubis” (Neruda 9). Neruda classifies women as being inherently
part of the earth, and poetically interchanges the two images. This is a powerful tactic that
demonstrates the oneness people have with their homeland; we spring from the Earth as we

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sprung from our mothers’ bodies. Intricately, and subtly, tying in a similarly eternal and
continuous love for our family as well as for our homeland.
For Neruda’s works before his political exile, the themes of relationships and emotion are
so closely linked, that they will be explained together, since they are so deeply intertwined. Love
is a pervading theme of Neruda’s, and he is perhaps most famous for his eloquent poems that
capture the essence of the joys and tribulations of this deep emotion. In them, Neruda portrays
gratifying love that tends to turn cold, and fade away; with the message that love is impermanent.
For that reason, the overall tone of these love poems is beautifully pessimistic, “love is so short,
forgetting is so long” (Neruda 19-20). The fact that Neruda published a collection of poems
entitled Twenty Love Poems and One Song of Despair merely emphasizes the message of each
individual poem found within its pages. Neruda also depicts the loving, protective relationship
between a mother and a child (or more generally, a relationship between a protector and one in
need of protection). In “Love”, the poet writes to a possible mother figure, stating the want “to
feel you in my veins like God in the rivers” and that even after death, the love between them
persists (Neruda 5). Relaying the desire for protection, the ship motif can again be applied; the
ship protects those inside from the detriments of the icy dangers of the surrounding waters. These
poems, although expressing love and passion, are inseparable from the emotions of rage and
hopelessness.
Throughout Neruda’s earliest works, there is a strong poetic style. One that is expressive,
abstract, but still generally gloomy. His use of certain recurring imagery (ships, flowers, hills,
dangerous seas, etc.) also lends an overarching theme to his works: what was once good has
turned evil; the ships that protected can also become wrecked. Not only is this apparent through
his choice of imagery, but also through the overt political references and his attitude toward love

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and relationships. These are all constantly in flux and can begin to change at any given moment.
This sense of instability characterize Neruda’s earlier works, and give way to his more outwardly
politically affiliated poetry surrounding his exile.
Although Neruda lived abroad for many years as a result of his position as a Chilean
counsel, exile had a noted and drastic effect on his style. He rapidly slid down the slope, from a
respected member of the Chilean government to what was considered to be a political parasite,
unwelcome in his own nation. As noted before, Neruda’s stylistic changes began prior to this
exile, with the execution of Federico Garcia Lorca.
The first collection that Neruda published after his exile Canto General harkens back to
the time before conquest and colonization. He begins by describing the landscape of South
America, the people, the flora and fauna, everything fundamental to the continent. Throughout
the book, he introduces poems relaying the events of the Spanish conquest, those who he
considered to be “liberators” or those in opposition, and what began the foundation of Latin
America as it is today. Through this book, Neruda travels through time hundreds of years before
his lifetime and retells a story common to his South American roots. The sense of movement in
Neruda’s works begins to transcend the boundaries of singular poems and instead shows itself in
collections of poetry; poems in the same book that tell of different eras and different countries.
Finally, in response to movement, Neruda introduces the theme of invasion into his works. This
is most obvious in Canto General with the stories of the conquistadores (“They Come through
the Islands”, “Cortés”, “Cholula”) (Neruda 166-168). They all recount the ruthless way in which
the Spaniards “butchers razed the islands” of the Caribbean, binding and torturing the natives
they encountered, leaving destruction in their wake (Neruda 166-167). Over the years the
invasion ceases to be as obvious and begins to appear as a personal invasion. Rather than

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foreigners invading the land and depriving it of its resources and culture, certain ideologies
invade from within a country’s boundaries and warp the government causing destruction in
Neruda’s eyes. In his later poem, “Oh, My Lost City” he laments the loss of his second home,
Madrid.
I liked Madrid and now
I can’t see it again, not anymore, a bitter
but desperate certainty, coming
from having died at the time
when my friends died (Neruda 685-687).
With the execution of his close friends (likely to differing political views and actions), Neruda
sees the remnants of Madrid decaying away, making room for a government that does not
celebrate the past, nor Spain.
As the years go on, there is a greater emphasis on politics as well as world issues. Neruda
continues writing poems about specific events and public figures, such as Stalin, Columbus,
Franco, Lorca, and even President Nixon. He uses his poetry as an active medium through which
he makes social and political commentary. In contrast to the poems he wrote earlier in his career,
he frequently writes about Chile and even has a poem entitled “September 4, 1970” in which he
openly cheers for Allende’s presidential candidacy (Neruda 832). Neruda’s focus was not solely
concentrated on Chile, but on a variety of other nations as well (the Soviet Union, Cuba, Spain,
Argentina, Peru and the Americas as a whole). Perhaps the most common political theme,
despite the vast geographical variation in his works, is the fighting of oppression. Not only does

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he write about oppression instated by political systems and governments, but also by
corporations like the Standard Oil Company and the United Fruit Company (Neruda 221-224). In
these poems, he expresses his disgust for invasion, and tells of “obese emperors” who invade his
land and deprive it of “America’s sweet waist” (oil and fruit) (Neruda 221-224).
With a sense of alienation, Neruda seeks to reclaim his Chilean roots through his poetry.
This is quite visible in the imagery of his poems post-exile with a greater amount of references to
elements like the cordilleras, earthen vases, Carib jugs, Chibcha stone, pottery made of
Arucanian silica, all things that are forged from the South American soil from which Neruda
came (Neruda 139-140). In his poem “Amor America” the story of an indigenous warrior,
defeated in battle
Tender and bloody was he, but on the grip
of his weapon of moist flint,
the initials of the earth were
written (Neruda 139-140)
There is a sense of forgetting and impermanence as time moves forward, because those who end
up victorious have the power to rewrite history and to edit it as they see fit. Tying in imagery
iconic of South America’s origin, Neruda attempts to give the defeated a voice, and to give a
voice to himself in extension. There are similarities between the experiences of the indigenous
peoples of that continent and Neruda (and other political exiles). Both have fallen victim to
invasion, just in differing forms. By aligning himself with the ancient population of native

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people, Neruda builds up his argument for the need to return; to return to the past, to return to his
home, to return to the good in life.
Aside from Neruda’s relationship to the past and to his native land, there are notable
shifts in the relationships that appear in his poetry later in his career. Fewer love poems are
written and romantic relationships occur less frequently. As before, when Neruda would use
geographical features to describe women and their bodies, he employs a similar technique in
which he uses the image of a woman as a metaphor to depict certain political and social
happenings. “XIII: Questions” summarizes very well this type of relationship, as well as
Neruda’s overarching theme of revisiting the past. He is openly crying to this image of a woman
crowned in lemon flowers and honeysuckle, crowned with the flora of Chile, but who is also
bathed in blood and war (Neruda 580). She has transformed from a pure symbol of his homeland,
to something twisted and macabre. Furthermore, many of the other relationships that do occur
tend to be relationships based on power and a clear, concise hierarchy as discussed earlier.
One of the few categories that did not appear to change drastically is the emotions that
Neruda utilizes in his poetry. Even in his earlier works, there was a pervading sense of futility
and if hope existed at all, it was very bleak. Following his exile, Neruda’s poetry resides
basically in the realm of guilt, melancholy, resent, and is overwhelmingly pessimistic. Being
outside his home nation, and unable to incite change is most likely what instills these negative
emotions in him and his works.
I declare myself guilty of not having
made, with these hands they gave me,
a broom.

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Why did I make no broom?
Why did they give me hands? (Neruda 773-774).
In his poem “Guilty”, Neruda expresses his own culpability in not doing something more
productive while there was the possibility of doing so. He should have made a broom to sweep
away the dirt from his life, from Chile, but now he is outside of that responsibility as an exile.
The recurring themes that appear in his poems after being exiled from Chile are more
succinct and concentrated than they were prior to 1948. As stated earlier, there is a greater
emphasis placed on the past, war and devastation appear more frequently, and the appearance of
the focus on the world as a whole, not solely on South America or Chile. By combining these
three heavily recurring themes, it is evident that Neruda sees the world (in its current state) as
troublesome, and there is a great desire to remove oneself from the pressures of the present and
to return to a simpler time (rather than progress deeper into industrialization and
dehumanization). As such, the longing to return to the past is reflected twofold in the longing to
return to his home nation. This is evident through the increased references specifically to Chile
through art and nature. Rather than just simply using the term “bird”, Neruda becomes more
specific writing “hummingbird”, “albatross” or “Chilean pigeon” instead, bringing the reader
straight to Chile (Neruda 142-144). The guilty and pessimistic emotions expressed throughout
his later works seem to only be resolved with a return to his home and with the ability to provoke
some form of revolution.

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Comparisons and Distinctions
Both poets show a great change in their poetic voice after having been exiled. Between
them there are a number of similarities, but also quite a few unique differences.
Although their individual experiences were distinct, happening in different decades and
different nations, their poems written after exile, show a few clear parallels. Gelman and Neruda
both increase their usage of political and historical references and begin using real people to
empower and validate their message. Not only do they mention powerful rulers, like Castro or
the military junta controlling Argentina, but also bring in those they were friends with or even
their own family members. This brings in a deeply personal touch to their poetic works, one that
was absent earlier in their career. The inclusion of these loved ones is a way for the poet to bring
them closer to them, a way to reconnect with what is lost or distant.
Another notable connection between Gelman and Neruda’s poetry later on in their life, is
the types of relationships they show. For both, romantic relationships dominated their earlier
works, and become drastically outnumbered by other relationships after being exiled. Gelman
uses his poetry to show the power of camaraderie and collaboration; a way to connect with those
still fighting for his cause in Argentina despite him being away. Neruda does something similar
as well, by creating a connection with his Chilean brothers. However, Neruda’s relationships are
a bit more abstract since they are not constrained by the boundaries of history, but instead are

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strengthened by it. Gelman seeks to gain support from his contemporary allies, while Neruda
draws inspiration and support from those who had experienced similar oppression in the past.
There are a few key differences that characterize both of these distinguished poets and
their experiences. To begin, both Gelman and Neruda imply greater movement in their later
poems. However, they way they choose to do so is quite distinct. Gelman uses more action verbs
and livelier adjectives and adverbs that give his poetry a subtly stronger sense of mobility. His
works became more dynamic because of his more colorful vocabulary. Because of Neruda’s
already lively word choice in his earlier poems, he had to show movement in a different way,
traveling through time and across the globe. His poems go to nations and cities all over the
world, and even retrace the steps of past comrades at different points in time. Through
movement, a clear distinction is seen in their styles; Gelman’s increased movement is subtle and
delicate, while Neruda’s is vast and powerful.
One final contrast that can be made between these two latino poets is their unique use of
imagery post-exile. The scenes that Gelman paints become more vivid, deepening the recurring
play of light against dark by including temperature and sound. There is an increasing rift that
pops up in his works, between light and dark, hot and cold, noise and silence. His poetry also
becomes much more violent, especially during the time directly surrounding the disappearance
of his son and his exile. Neruda’s usage of imagery is distinctive in that he consciously uses
references to his homeland as a way to bring himself and his work home. The poems that he does
set in Chile or South America are inundated with descriptions of the landscape and the culture.
Gelman’s poetry shows the distance between him and his homeland, while Neruda attempts to
close the gap by filling pages with what he remembers of his own.

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Conclusion
To conclude, the rigor of exile leaves a deep imprint upon any person forced to go
through it. The poetic legacies that Juan Gelman and Pablo Neruda have left behind give clear
and valuable insight into what the experience can be like. There is a sense of betrayal, loss, and
helplessness that prevails in both of their poems. However, these are not the defining parameters
of their works. Rather they sought to use their poetry as a tool, as a platform to voice their
opinions and as a way to reclaim what they had been torn from.
Both of these prolific writers had been shaped by their political ideologies and by the
scorn they received from the governments of their home nations. This is reflected twofold in
their poetry after the fact, and instead of being a detriment to their work, it gave Gelman and
Neruda a newfound motivation. The forceful removal of them from their homes, families, and
friends did not break them down, but instead kindled the fire, their need to write about their
experiences. Through both of their works, the experience of what it is like to be exiled can be
made out; the reader lives exile through them, even if they are unaware of it. Perhaps this is what
they had both hoped to achieve, to gain a sort of empathy as a way to create change. Using one
of Gelman’s iconic metaphors, through their darkness they used their talent as poets to ignite an
idea in their readers that would, hopefully, burst into flame.

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Works Cited
Agosín, Marjorie. Pablo Neruda. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1986. Print.
"Autobiografía gelmaniana." Juan Gelman. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Sept. 2013.
<http://www.juangelman.net/wp-content/uploads/Extractos-de-autobiografia.pdf>.
“Chile”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 24 Nov. 2013
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111326/Chile/25264/Effects-of-the-world-
depression>.
Gelman, Juan, and Hardie St. Martin.Dark Times Filled with Light: The Selected Work of Juan
Gelman. Rochester, NY: Open Letter, 2012. Print.
"Jorge Rafael Videla (president of Argentina)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia
Britannica, n.d. Web. 1 Oct. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/627906/Jorge-Rafael-Videla>.
"Juan Gelman (Argentine poet and activist)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia
Britannica, n.d. Web. 24 Sept. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1108738/Juan-Gelman>.
Klein, Naomi. The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism. New York: Metropolitan
Books/Henry Holt, 2007. Print.
Neruda, Pablo, and Ilan Stavans. The Poetry of Pablo Neruda. New York: Farrar, Straus and
Giroux, 2003. Print.
"Pablo Neruda - Biographical". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2013. Web. 24 Nov 2013.
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1971/neruda-bio.html

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"Pablo Neruda." 2013. The Biography Channel Website. Nov 24 2013,
01:55http://www.biography.com/people/pablo-neruda-9421737.

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